Have you perform the wrong exercises – You must keep revising your exercises and keep upgrading your knowledge about the proper use of equipment, and everything else related to fitness so that you don’t make any mistake in giving your clients the wrong exercises Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Examples of negligence in personal training on the impact of physiology Last updated: 25/02/26 Published: 26/01/23 Negligence in personal training is a failure to look after clients to avoid them getting injured while training. There are many ways this can happen, below are some examples of negligence in personal training. Making use of equipment that is defective – Using a defective equipment can easily lead to injury or at least poor exercising form. Trainers should be able to differentiate between effective and defective equipment if they want to avoid negligence in training their clients. In that scenario, the best thing a personal trainer can do is to repair the equipment or replace it with new ones instead of putting a ‘defect’ or ‘out of order’ sign on it. An example is the case Stewart v. Fitness First (2024). Telling you to lift too much weight – You can’t just tell your clients to lift too much weight without even knowing their capacity, their way of eating and experience from past training. This is irrational and unprofessional, thus neglecting your clients directly which can lead to causing them injuries like muscle tears, muscle strains and even worse, a wrong death. Have you perform the wrong exercises – You must keep revising your exercises and keep upgrading your knowledge about the proper use of equipment, and everything else related to fitness so that you don’t make any mistake in giving your clients the wrong exercises to do that can lead to stopping them from achieving their desired physiques, and fitness goals. Muscle imbalances will occur as well if not done properly. Make you exercise for too long – Exercising for too long can cause excess fatigue and can lead to muscle strains and sprains. Coaches must not let their clients push themselves too far. It may sound cool but it is not really healthy. Everything we do must be done in an appropriate manner to avoid consequences that will harm us. Written by Kushwant Nathoo Related articles: A perspective on well-being / Gentrification in the context of health

An explanation of how cumulus clouds form and grow in the atmosphere Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The physics behind cumulus clouds 14/07/25, 15:58 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 13:51 An explanation of how cumulus clouds form and grow in the atmosphere When you think of a cloud, it is most likely a cumulus cloud that pops into your head, with its distinct fluffy, cauliflower-like shape. The word ‘cumulus’ means ‘heaped’ in Latin, and aptly describes the clumpy shape of these detached clouds. They are one of the lowest clouds in the sky at altitudes of approximately 600 to 1000 metres, while the highest clouds form nearly 14 km up in the atmosphere. Depending on the position of the clouds in relation to the sun, they can appear in a brilliant white colour, or in a more foreboding grey colour. Cumulus clouds are classified into four different species: cumulus humilis clouds which are wider than they are tall, cumulus mediocris which have similar widths and heights, cumulus congestus which are taller than they are wide, and finally, cumulus fractus which have blurred edges as this is the cloud in its decaying form. Cumulus clouds are often associated with fair weather, with cumulus congestus being the only species that produces rain. So, how do cumulus clouds form, and why are they associated with fair weather? To understand the formation of these clouds, think of a sunny day. The sun shines on the land and causes surface heating. The warm surface heats the air above it which causes this air to rise in thermals, or convection currents. The air in the thermal expands and becomes less dense as it rises through surrounding cool air. The water vapour that is carried upwards in the convection current condenses when it gets cool enough and forms a cumulus cloud. Due to the varying properties of different surface types, some types are better at causing thermals than others. For example, the sun’s radiation will warm the surface of land more efficiently than the sea, leading to the formation of cumulus clouds over land rather than the sea. This is because water has a higher heat capacity than land, meaning it will take more heat to warm the water than the land. As cumulus clouds form on the top of independent thermals, they appear as individual floating puffs. But, what happens when cumulus clouds are knocked off the perch of their thermal by a breeze? How do they keep growing from an innocent, lazy cumulus humilis to a dark cumulus congestus, threatening rain showers? Latent heat gives us the answer. This is the energy that is absorbed, or released, by a body when it changes state. A cumulus cloud forms at the top of a thermal as the water molecules condense (changing state from a gas to a liquid) to form water droplets. When this happens, the warmth given off by the latent heat of condensation heats up the surrounding air causing it to expand and rise further, repeating the cycle and forming the characteristic cauliflower mounds of the cloud. The development of a cumulus humilis to cumulus congestus depends on the available moisture in the atmosphere, the strength of the sun’s radiation to form significant thermals, and whether there is a layer of warmer air higher up in the atmosphere that can halt the rising thermals. If the conditions are right, a cumulus congestus can keep growing and form a cumulonimbus cloud, which is an entirely different beast, more than deserving of its own article. So, the next time you see a cumulus cloud wandering through the sky, you will know how it came to be there. Written by Ailis Hankinson Related article: The physics of LIGO Project Gallery

The true cost Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Turkey Teeth 04/04/26, 16:32 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:57 The true cost Coined as 'Turkey teeth,' the rising trend of dental tourism has gained increasing popularity among the British population, largely influenced by social media. Many people are now traveling abroad for veneers, crowns, and implants, in the hope of achieving the perfect smile at a fraction of the cost in the UK. However, patients may be paying with their future oral health in the long run, as evidence emerges of botched procedures, with crucial steps missed and patients having long-lasting pain following their treatment. Many young people opt to visit cosmetic dentistry clinics in European countries to obtain veneers due to their cheaper costs compared to the UK dental fees, given that cosmetic dentistry is not covered under the subsidised NHS prices. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that many consumers are in fact receiving full dental crowns without their knowledge, as opposed to veneers, thus sacrificing more of their natural tooth structure in the trade for a seemingly perfect smile. A critical difference between crowns and veneers is the amount of natural tooth structure removed to fit the prosthesis. Veneers are a much more minimally invasive fix, whereby 0.5mm of enamel is shaved away to allow a porcelain cover to fit to the surface of the tooth. Veneers are primarily used to conceal enamel discoloration, variations in shades, and natural tooth shapes. The minimally invasive procedure preserves tooth tissue and can even be potentially reversible in cases where there has been no preparation to the tooth. Crowns in the UK are vastly indicated for badly broken-down teeth and teeth deemed unrestorable. The preparation for a crown is far more invasive, with a significant amount of tooth structure irreversibly removed. This process sees teeth shaved down, with almost 2mm of the structure being irreversibly removed. Filing down teeth when they are otherwise perfectly clinically healthy can have dire consequences, and many patients returning to England have found themselves needing corrective work to rectify the procedures they underwent abroad. A study conducted by the Irish Dental Association revealed that 75% of those who travelled abroad for dental procedures required corrective work back home. The harsh reality of this treatment is that it can result in severe infections, long-lasting tooth pain, inflamed gums, exposed nerves, and heightened sensitivity. The destructive process of crown preparations in clinically healthy teeth increases the likelihood of exposing the tooth's pulp as more tooth tissue is removed, making the tooth more susceptible to infection. If the tooth's pulp becomes exposed, a costly and uncomfortable root canal procedure may be necessary. In the long term, these patients are more likely to lose the affected teeth altogether, as irreversible damage has occurred to the teeth. Another disadvantage of quick-fix dentistry abroad is the lack of follow-up appointments. In the UK, services such as occlusion checks are offered to ensure the bite is correct and that the veneers provide the desired result while lasting for an extended period. In contrast, dental procedures abroad are often expedited, sometimes limited to a single appointment as tourists return home swiftly to resume their daily lives. This can raise the risk of rushed procedures and a lack of follow-up to ensure the prosthetics' longevity. This has seen patients crowns falling off, and leaving their teeth exposed. In a typical UK dental clinic, the process involves an initial assessment, a dental health check, trial designs, and finally, the fitting of new veneers. Teeth are meticulously assessed for potential issues, including periodontal disease, and bite evaluations are performed to ensure that the prosthetics do not interfere with the occlusion. This comprehensive approach differs significantly from the one-appointment dentistry often observed abroad. Love Island's Jack Finham underwent the procedure and documented his experience across social media to thousands of followers. He later went on to reveal that in hindsight, he would not have chosen the procedure has he known its intricacies. Influencers are slowly turning to reveal the true costs of fast dentistry abroad, and it can only be hoped that consumers become better informed on the processes performed abroad, and are more well informed before making an irreversible decision for their teeth. In conclusion, it is imperative for consumers to be well-informed when considering dental procedures, especially when faced with the allure of cheaper veneers, or rather crowns abroad. While the cost savings may initially seem enticing, the potential risks associated with overseas treatments, including inadequate follow-ups, irreversible damage to natural tooth structure, and a lack of comprehensive assessments, should not be overlooked. Opting for dentistry in the UK provides a safer and more comprehensive approach, with qualified professionals who prioritise patients' oral health and long-term well-being. While affordability is a significant consideration, the adage "you get what you pay for" holds true in the realm of dental care. Informed decision-making and prioritising one's health should always take precedence when seeking dental treatments, ensuring not only a beautiful smile but also lasting oral health. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery

Nuclear medicine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Physics in healthcare 10/07/25, 11:28 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:47 Nuclear medicine When thinking about a career or what to study in university, many students interested in science think that they have to decide between a more academic route or something more vocational, such as medicine. Whilst both paths are highly rewarding, it is possible to mix the two. An example of this is nuclear medicine, allowing physics students to become healthcare professionals. Nuclear medicine is an area of healthcare that involves introducing a radioactive isotope into the system of a patient in order to image their body. A radioactive isotope is an unstable nucleus that decays and emits radiation. This radiation can then be detected, usually by a tool known as a gamma camera. It sounds dangerous, however it is a fantastic tool that allows us to identify abnormalities, view organs in motion and even prevent further spreading of tumours. So, how does the patient receive the isotope? It depends on the scan they are having! The most common route is injection but it is also possible for the patient to inhale or swallow the isotope. Some hospitals give radioactive scrambled eggs or porridge to the patient in gastric emptying imaging. The radioisotope needs to obey some conditions: ● It must have a reasonable half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for the isotope to decay to half of the original activity. If the half-life is too short, the scan will be useless as nothing will be seen. If it is too long, the patient will be radioactive and spread radiation into their immediate surroundings for a long period of time. ● The isotope must be non-toxic. It cannot harm the patient! ● It must be able to biologically attach to the area of the body that is being investigated. If we want to look at bones, there is no point in giving the patient an isotope that goes straight to the stomach. ● It must have radiation of suitable energy. The radiation must be picked up by the cameras and they will be designed to be most efficient over a specific energy range. For gamma cameras, this is around 100-200 keV. Physicists are absolutely essential in nuclear medicine. They have to understand the properties of radiation, run daily quality checks to ensure the scanners are working, they must calibrate devices so that the correct activity of radiation is being given to patients and so much more. It is essential that the safety of patients and healthcare professionals is the first priority when it comes to radiation. With the right people on the job, safety and understanding is the priority of daily tasks. Nuclear medicine is indeed effective and is implemented into standard medicine thanks to the work of physicists. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Nuclear fusion / The silent protectors / Radiotherapy Project Gallery

The lunar terrain Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A love letter from outer space: Lonar Lake, India Last updated: 09/10/25, 11:05 Published: 10/04/25, 08:00 The lunar terrain Around 50,000 years ago, outer space gifted the earth with a crater that formed the foundations of the world’s third largest natural saltwater lake, situated within a flat volcanic area known as the Deccan Plateau. This resulted from a 2 million tonne meteorite tunnelling through the earth’s atmosphere at the velocity of 90,000km/hour and colliding into the Deccan Plateau. As time slipped away, pressure and heat melted the basalt rock tucked underneath the impact, and the accumulation of rainwater filled the crater with water. These foundations curated what is famously known today as the ‘Lonar Lake’. What is unique about the Lonar Lake is that it is the only meteorite-crater formed in basaltic terrain - synonymous to a lunar terrain. Additionally, the remnants bear similarities to the terrestrial composition of Mercury, which contains craters, basaltic rock and smooth plains resulting from volcanic activity. Many speculations have arisen to prove the theory of the crater forming from the impact of a meteorite. One such collaborative study conducted by The Smithsonian Institute of Washington D.C. USA, the Geological Survey of India and the US Geological Survey involved drilling holes at the bottom of the crater and scrutinising the compositions of rock samples sourced from the mining. When tested in the laboratory, it was found that the rock samples contained leftovers of the basaltic rock that were modified from the crater collision under high heat and pressure. In addition, shattered cone-shaped fractures, due to high velocity shock waves being transmitted into the rocks, were identified. These two observations align with the meteorite impact phenomenon. Additionally, along with its fascinating astronomical properties, scientists have been intrigued by the chemical composition of the lake within the crater. Its dark green colour results from the presence of the blue-green algae Spirulina. The water also has a pH of 10, making the water alkaline in nature, supporting the development of marine systems. One explanation for the alkalinity of the water is that it is a result of immediate sulphide formation, where the groundwater of meteorite origin contains CO2 undergoes a precipitation reaction with alkaline ions, leaving a carbonate precipitate with an alkaline nature. What is also striking about the composition of the water as well is its saline nature, which coexists with the alkaline environment - a rare phenomenon to occur in ecological sciences. The conception of the lake, from the matrimony of Earth with the debris within outer space, has left its imprints within the physical world. It's a love letter, written in basaltic stone and saline water, fostering innovation in ecology. The inscription of the meteorite’s journey within the crater has branched two opposing worlds, one originating millions of miles away from humans with one that resides in the natural grounds of our souls. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related articles: Are aliens on Earth? / JWST / The celestial blueprint of time: Stonehenge REFERENCES Taiwade, V. S. (1995). A study of Lonar lake—a meteorite-impact crater in basalt rock. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India, 23, 105–111. Tambekar, D. H., Pawar, A. L., & Dudhane, M. N. (2010). Lonar Lake water: Past and present. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 9(2), 217–221. Project Gallery

Resources specific to A-levels to help students with revision. A-levels Are you a student currently studying A-levels, or looking to choose them in the near future? Read below for tips and guidance! You may also like: Personal statements , IB resources , University prep and Extra resources What are A-levels? Jump to resources A-levels, short for Advanced Level qualifications, are a widely recognised and highly regarded educational program typically taken by students in the United Kingdom (UK) and some other countries. They are usually studied in the final two years of secondary education, typically between the ages of 16 and 18. A-levels offer students the opportunity to specialise in specific subjects of their choice. Students typically choose three or four subjects to study, although this may vary depending on the educational institution. The subjects available can be diverse, covering areas such as sciences, humanities, social sciences, languages, and arts. How are A-levels graded? The A-level grading system is based on a letter grade scale in the UK. Here's an overview of the A-level grading system: Grades: A* (pronounced "A-star"): The highest grade achievable, demonstrating exceptional performance. A: Excellent performance, indicating a strong understanding of the subject. B: Very good performance, showing a solid grasp of the subject. C: Good performance, representing a satisfactory level of understanding. D: Fair performance, indicating a basic understanding of the subject. E: Marginal performance, showing a limited understanding of the subject. U: Ungraded, indicating that the student did not meet the minimum requirements to receive a grade. What are the benefits of studying A-level? A-levels provide students with a variety of advantages, such as a solid academic foundation for further education, the chance to focus on interest-specific areas, and flexibility in planning their course of study. Transferable abilities like critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research are developed in A-levels, improving both prospects for entrance to universities and future employment opportunities. These widely respected credentials encourage intellectual vigour, intellectual curiosity, and a love of lifelong study. A-levels provide students with a strong foundation for success in higher education and a variety of career pathways, thanks to their academic rigour and global renown. Resources for revision Web sites to hel p Maths / Maths and Further Maths Chemistry / Chemrevise / Chemguide Biology / Quizzes Physics: A-level Physics / Isaac Physics Computer Science topic-by-topic Teach Computer Science Psychology All subjects / Seneca Learning / Save My Exams Physics and Maths Tutor YouTube channels to hel p Chemistry- Allery Chemistry and Eliot Rintoul Past p apers Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Maths Textbooks (depend on exam board) CGP range for Bio, Chem, Phys, and Maths- exam practice workbooks

Revolutionising drug discovery Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A breakthrough procedure for efficient and effective development 08/07/25, 15:35 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 14:05 Revolutionising drug discovery Discover how researchers have transformed the early stages of drug development with a ground-breaking test that identifies the most promising compounds. "Saving time and resources by focusing on the most potential compounds". Researchers at the Centre for Cancer Drug Discovery at The Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London have made a significant breakthrough in the field of drug discovery. Their new investigative procedure promises to revolutionize the early stages of drug development by making it more efficient and effective. This ground-breaking test allows scientists to identify new biologically active compounds with the highest potential, saving valuable time and resources. Thanks to this procedure, researchers worldwide can now select only the most promising compounds to develop into effective medications. The study, funded by Cancer Research UK, has been published in the prestigious Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, highlighting its importance and impact on the field. A new approach to fragment-based drug discovery Fragment-based drug discovery has become the standard method for identifying the starting point of a drug discovery program. Scientists screen libraries of compounds, known as fragments, to determine their interaction with a potential anti-cancer target. Previously, scientists could only qualify the interactions between fragments and target proteins as a simple "yes" or "no". However, weak, or nonspecific interactions were challenging to evaluate accurately. Now, thanks to this latest research, researchers have developed a quantitative approach to measure the strength of these interactions. By ranking the fragments based on their interaction strength, research teams can confidently identify the most active compounds to move forward in the drug development process. This additional information allows scientists to refine the selected fragments by optimizing their shape, combining them with other fragments, or both. The result is a more streamlined and efficient drug discovery workflow. Realising the potential of the new procedure Dr. Maggie Liu, the first author of the study and a Senior Scientific Officer at the ICR, expressed confidence that this new procedure will become an integral part of the standard drug discovery workflow. The method is accessible to any team with the right equipment, providing a valuable tool for the wider drug discovery community. The ICR has already started follow-up work on one of the identified fragments using this new test. They plan to utilize this procedure for all future projects, recognizing its potential to accelerate the development of life-saving drugs. Compounds discovered from fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) and their potential effects FBDD has emerged as an effective strategy in drug discovery, leading to the identification of several compounds with promising potential, including: 1. Vemurafenib: FDA approved in 2011, Vemurafenib has shown efficacy against specific targets, potentially offering treatment options for certain conditions. 2. Venetoclax: Another FBDD-derived drug, Venetoclax, received FDA approval in 2016. It has demonstrated positive outcomes in clinical trials, indicating its potential as a therapeutic agent. 3. Pexidartinib: Approved in 2019, Pexidartinib is a fragment-derived drug that has exhibited promising effects against its intended targets. 4. Erdafitinib: Similarly, Erdafitinib, developed through FBDD, obtained FDA approval in 2019. It has shown potential in clinical trials, highlighting its significance as a therapeutic option. 5. Sotorasib: This compound, approved in 2021, is another example of a fragment-derived drug with potential therapeutic benefits against specific targets. 6. Asciminib: Lastly, Asciminib, also approved in 2021, is a fragment-based drug that has demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials, showcasing its potential as a therapeutic intervention. These compounds represent a fraction of the molecules discovered through FBDD, and their effects vary depending on the specific targets they interact with. Further research and clinical trials are necessary to fully understand the therapeutic potential of these compounds and their broader impact on various diseases and conditions. Testing the R2KD tool Dr. Liu and her team successfully used the R2KD tool to identify new biologically active compounds. This tool utilizes a ligand-observed nuclear magnetic resonance (LONMR) approach, similar to an MRI scanner, to observe fragment interactions. By measuring the transverse relaxation rate (R2) of the fragments, which indicates their speed in the solution, the researchers could determine the fragments' interaction with the target protein. They then applied a new mathematical formulation to calculate a binding affinity value (Kd) for each fragment and compare their Kd values. This allowed them to identify the fragments with the strongest interactions. The researchers named their test 'R2KD'; based on these steps. By using this method, scientists can now quantitatively determine the binding affinity of fragments, which helps in selecting compounds with the most potential for further development. This new procedure makes the early stages of drug discovery more efficient, saving time and resources by focusing on the most promising compounds. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: AI in drug discovery / AI in medicinal chemistry / A breakthrough in prostate cancer treatment / Arginine and tumour growth Project Gallery

The different models of health and disease Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beyond medicine: understanding health through various stances 16/10/25, 11:21 Last updated: Published: 22/04/24, 11:24 The different models of health and disease Introduction Various models can show what factors produce health outcomes between individuals and populations. This article looks at the biomedical, social, humanistic and biopsychosocial models, reviewing each through examples and its applications to the real world. With this said, every model has advantages and disadvantages because they are imperfect. Each one is essential as it provides a way to treat patients, so they need to be used alongside one another to address the different aspects involved in a person’s health. Biomedical model- figure 1 To start with the most familiar, the biomedical model looks at finding the cause of illness through a physiological perspective, i.e. finding malfunctions in organs and cells. For example, infections are caused by microorganisms, or metabolic disorders usually occur due to at least one critical genetic mutation. This model has some advantages, such as using evidence-based strategies to treat patients, and it has contributed to medical breakthroughs that have improved overall health. Also, it can lead to effective treatment plans through medical interventions to handle specific diseases. However, the biomedical model does not consider external factors involved in illness. Moreover, it focuses on curing diseases instead of preventative plans that may be more successful, and its recommendation of pharmaceutical drugs for certain conditions may cause addiction, which is another health problem. Social-ecological model- figure 2 Now, the social-ecological model considers societal factors, ranging from economic to political, that are influential in population health. It helps investigate non-communicable and infectious diseases. An advantage of this model is it emphasises preventative strategies, which can lead to long-term advancements in health. Moreover, it encourages cooperation within communities in shaping initiatives that benefit everyone and regards collaboration between multiple work sectors like education and law enforcement as vital to progressing society. A significant downside of the social model is that it is complicated, suggesting it is difficult to tackle all of these determinants of health effectively. In turn, allocating resources to resolve specific issues would take much work. Lastly, some detractors of this model believe it absolves people’s responsibility for their health. Humanistic model- figure 3 Subsequently, the humanistic model is about an individual’s wellbeing, experiences, and self-exploration. Its applications are mainly in psychology, though it can manifest in other areas of life through a person making decisions they are satisfied with. A few advantages of this model include prioritising a person’s autonomy, encouraging their psychological well-being, and facilitating collaboration between clinicians and patients in treatment. On the other hand, only some can think for themselves or their experiences; the model relies on subjectivity, so it can be challenging to measure parts of well-being, and it is more beneficial for chronic conditions than acute ailments. Biopyschosocial model- figure 4 The biopsychosocial (BPS) model includes biological, psychological and social factors related to a patient’s health. Therefore, it can be used for any individual with chronic or acute disease(s) and is used broadly in psychology between the psychiatrist/ counsellor and the patient. One advantage is that it aids primary care doctors in comprehending the interrelations between an illness's biological and psychosocial parts. In turn, this strengthens the patient-clinician relationship. Similar to the social model, this can promote preventative measures against diseases. However, the addition of biological and psychosocial factors makes the model complicated to implement in clinical contexts. Moreover, there needs to be more distinct guidelines for its use in treating patients compared to the biomedical model. Lastly, applying the biopsychosocial can change between healthcare practices, possibly leading to different standards of care. Conclusion Reflecting on the models outlined, the biopsychosocial model seems to be the perfect one compared to the others because it includes all of the models above or others not mentioned in this article. In turn, it succeeds in providing a balanced view of health. On the other hand, as iterated before, the BPS model has its disadvantages. Thus, it may require more refinements to be widely implemented across healthcare settings. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Key discoveries in public health / Healthcare challenges in Sudan / Conflicted Kashmir / Colonialism, geopolitics and health REFERENCES Leeper HE. Survivorship and Caregiver Issues in Neuro-oncology. Current Treatment Options in Oncology. 2019 Nov;20(11). Rocca E, Anjum RL. Complexity, Reductionism and the Biomedical Model. Rethinking Causality, Complexity and Evidence for the Unique Patient. 2020 Jun 3;1(1):75–94. Williams H. What Is the Biomedical Model? The Health Board. 2011. Golden TL, Wendel ML. Public Health’s Next Step in Advancing Equity: Re-evaluating Epistemological Assumptions to Move Social Determinants From Theory to Practice. Frontiers in Public Health. 2020 May 7;8. Isaacs P. A Humanistic Psychological Approach To Autism. Paul Isaacs’ Blog. 2017. Flow Psychology. 10 Humanistic Approach Strengths and Weaknesses | Flow Psychology. Flowpsychology.com . 2016. Hardie M. Three Aspects of Health and Healing: The Biopsychosocial Model in Medicine. Department of Surgery. 2021. Kusnanto H, Agustian D, Hilmanto D. Biopsychosocial model of illnesses in primary care: A hermeneutic literature review. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care. 2018 May;7(3):497–500. Project Gallery

Arginine, the key to metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Linking arginine and tumour growth: a breakthrough in cancer research Last updated: 20/02/25, 15:29 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Arginine, the key to metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer Unpicking the secrets of tumour growth: arginine, the key to metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer. We will look at how unleashing the power of arginine and elevating levels of this amino acid drive metabolic reprogramming and fuel tumour growth. Introduction In recent years, the field of cancer research has made significant progress in unravelling the complexities of this devastating disease. Scientists at the University of Basel have made a groundbreaking discovery regarding the role of the amino acid arginine in promoting tumour growth. Their findings shed light on the mechanisms underlying metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells and present new avenues for improving liver cancer treatment. Elevated levels of arginine: a surprising revelation An intriguing aspect of the study conducted by the researchers is the observation that tumour cells accumulate high levels of arginine despite producing less or none of this amino acid. Through careful analysis of liver tumour samples from both mice and patients, the team discovered that the tumour cells achieve this accumulation by increasing the uptake of arginine and suppressing its consumption. The role of arginine in tumorigenicity Upon further investigation, the scientists at the University of Basel found that high concentrations of arginine bind to a specific factor, triggering metabolic reprogramming in the tumour cells. This reprogramming, in turn, promotes tumour growth by regulating the expression of metabolic genes. The tumour cells revert to an undifferentiated embryonic cell state, enabling them to divide indefinitely. Immune system escape: a beneficial effect for tumour cells Another fascinating discovery made by the researchers is the role of arginine in aiding tumour cells in evading the immune system. Immune cells rely on arginine to function properly. By depleting arginine in the tumour environment, the tumour cells can escape immune surveillance. This finding opens up new possibilities for targeted therapies. Targeting the arginine-binding factor: a novel approach Instead of depleting arginine levels overall, which can have unwanted side effects, the scientists propose targeting the specific arginine-binding factor responsible for promoting metabolic reprogramming. By inducing the degradation of this factor, the researchers were able to prevent metabolic reprogramming in liver tumours. This approach offers a promising alternative to liver cancer treatment. Metabolic changes as biomarkers for early cancer detection Furthermore, the study suggests that metabolic changes, such as increased arginine levels, may serve as biomarkers for the early detection of cancer. Early detection is crucial for successful cancer treatment and patient survival. This finding provides hope for the development of non-invasive diagnostic methods that can detect elevated arginine levels. By measuring arginine levels in patients, these diagnostic methods can potentially identify liver cancer at an early stage. By identifying the elevated levels of arginine in liver tumour cells, these diagnostic methods could potentially use metabolic changes, such as increased arginine levels, as biomarkers for detecting cancer. Therefore, this would be crucial for successful cancer treatment and patient survival, as early detection allows for prompt intervention and improved outcomes. Conclusion The discovery of the role of arginine in driving metabolic reprogramming and promoting tumour growth opens up new avenues for liver cancer treatment. Additionally, the elevated levels of arginine observed in liver cancer patients suggest the potential for using arginine as a biomarker for non-invasive cancer detection. Further research is needed to explore the full potential of arginine as a diagnostic marker and to develop targeted therapies that exploit the metabolic vulnerabilities of cancer cells. With continued advancements in our understanding of cancer metabolism and the role of arginine in tumour growth, further research is needed to explore the full potential of arginine as a diagnostic marker and to develop targeted therapies that exploit the metabolic vulnerabilities of cancer cells. By studying the specific arginine-binding factor and its role in promoting metabolic reprogramming, scientists may be able to develop new treatments that selectively target tumour cells while minimising harm to immune cells that rely on arginine. Additionally, investigating the metabolic changes associated with increased arginine levels may lead to new biomarker designs for early cancer detection, which is crucial for successful treatment and patient survival. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Immune signals and metastasis / Cancer research treatment / Prostatate cancer treatment REFERENCE MOSSMANN, D., MÜLLER, C., PARK, S., RYBACK, B., COLOMBI, M., RITTER, N., WEISSENBERGE, D., DAZERT, E., COTO-LLERENA, M., NUCIFORO, S., BLUKACZ, L., ERCAN, C., JIMENEZ, V., PISCUOGLIO, S., BOSCH, F., TERRACCIANO, L. M., SAUER, U., HEIM, M. H. & HALL, M. N. Arginine reprograms metabolism in liver cancer via RBM39. Cell . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.09.011 Project Gallery

The neural pathways behind movement Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Mastering motion- reflex, rhythmic and complex movements Last updated: 12/03/25, 11:49 Published: 03/04/25, 08:00 The neural pathways behind movement Introduction Movement is arguably the most fundamental aspect of human behaviour and is one of the most obvious features distinguishing plants and animals. The ability to physically respond to stimuli has enhanced our chances of survival an immeasurable amount. As such, our body’s ability to move has evolved and refined itself over many millennia, even developing new ways to move that protect us in many ways. For example, involuntary reflexes have reduced the computational demand on our brain to move parts of our body away from hot or painful objects, making the process almost instantaneous. Meanwhile, central pattern generators (CPGs) in our spinal cord have also reduced cognitive load by carrying out subconscious movement. This has allowed the motor cortex and cerebellum to focus on planning, coordinating, and refining purposeful movements in response to sensory feedback. While movement can be separated into even more categories, understanding the neural pathways of these three types can be beneficial to uncover core concepts of human neurophysiology, and even pave the way for treating movement disabilities. With that said, let’s take a deep dive into the circuitry and principles of reflex, rhythmic, and voluntary movement. Reflex movements Reflex movements are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli that are commonly used to help us avoid danger or harm. An example includes touching a hot object and immediately jerking our hand away from it. The goal of this form of movement is to be as quick as possible in order to avoid injury. As such the neural pathway, known as a reflex arc, is simple and can take as few as three neurons. Firstly, sensory receptors detect a stimulus, such as heat, and send a signal up towards the central nervous system (CNS) through sensory neurons. Instead of going up to the brain for processing and movement planning, the sensory neuron connects with a relay neuron in the spinal cord, and then to motor neurons. This reduces the time taken to respond as it bypasses the brain’s processing circuitry. Motor neurons then carry a signal to relevant muscles to contract and move the body away from danger. Because the signal from the sensory receptors bypasses the brain, this movement is subconscious, meaning it happens without consciously deciding to move. This makes the movement rapid and stereotyped – the motion is predictable as there is minimal planning; just a need to move anywhere away from the stimulus. Central Pattern Generators (CPGs) CPGs are networks of neurons in the spinal cord that, when activated, produce rhythmic pattern-like movement such as walking or running. This type of movement is also subconscious as it does not require active focus to perform. However, unlike reflex movements, CPG output does not require sensory activation or feedback. Instead CPGs are activated by descending pathways from the medulla – a region of the brainstem that is responsible for performing involuntary movement. CPGs typically control movements that are necessary for survival such as breathing and heartbeats. The lack of need to consciously focus on these movements allows us to instead direct our attention to more complex situations, such as responding to stimuli or achieving a specific goal. This is where voluntary movements are required. Voluntary movements Any movement performed via conscious decision-making requires activity from a range of areas in the brain. To respond to our environment, we firstly need information on what is around us. This is largely handled by the frontal lobe which perceives our external environment through sensory input and attention. Human fMRI studies have highlighted increased activity in the frontal lobe as we switch our attention, thus perceiving different parts of our external environment. This information of our environment is sent to the motor cortex which plans our next movement. Complex multi-limb movements may require additional processing from premotor and association areas. Once the movement has been planned, it then has to pass through the cerebellum, which refines specific parts of the movement, such as precise finger motion. After refinement, the movement signal is then sent to relevant muscles via motor neurons to carry out the intended movement. An example of a complex movement is reaching out and grabbing an object. This seemingly simple task requires coordinated movement of the hand, arm, shoulder, and torso to ensure we move our arm the right amount – not too far so that we go past the object, and not too near so that we do not reach it. This also requires great precision to grab the object with appropriate force, to gain a firm grip while ensuring we do not break the object. A lot of planning goes into rudimentary movements, and yet sometimes we can still get things wrong. For instance, suppose we couldn’t see the object too well so we end up going too far and missing it. This will be picked up by our sensory organs, giving our brain feedback on what we ended up doing. By comparing the actual movement with our intended movement, we can create an error signal of how far we missed and in what direction. This drives learning – by using our previous errors, we can refine our future movements to eventually achieve our intended goal. In this example, we may learn that we keep extending our arm too far, and so with repetitive trials we eventually move the right amount in order to grab the object, as we intended. The cerebellum is largely seen as responsible for motor learning, however the deep underlying mechanism is still being researched. When the same complex movement is performed again and again, it can be trained to become subconscious movements activated by spinal CPGs, gradually requiring less coordination from the motor cortex to perform. This is how common movements such as walking, go from being a strenuous task as a toddler to a simple ability requiring minimal focus as an adult. Conclusion Overall, we can see a general trend of movements requiring more parts of the CNS as they become more complex. Precise, unfamiliar movements requiring multiple limbs are the most complex, thus recruiting decision-making and motor coordination areas in order to perform. By repeating an action again and again, we can train ourselves to perform it with less and less input from higher brain regions, until it eventually becomes a subconscious coordinated act that can be performed on demand. Written by Ramim Rahman Related articles: Dopamine in the movement pathway / Mobility disorders REFERENCES Dickinson, P.S. (2006) ‘Neuromodulation of central pattern generators in invertebrates and vertebrates’, Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 16(6), pp. 604–614. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.10.007. Latash, M.L. (2020) Physics of biological action and perception . London, United Kingdom: Academic Press. Brent Cornell (no date) BioNinja . Available at: https://old ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-a-neurobiology-and/a4-innate-and-learned-behav/reflex-arcs.html (Accessed: 11 February 2025). Berni, D.J. (2023) The motor system , Introduction to Biological Psychology . 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