Search Index

The maths behind trading Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A comprehensive guide to the Relative Strength Index (RSI) 08/07/25, 14:37 Last updated: Published: 27/12/23, 11:02 The maths behind trading In this piece, we will delve into the essential concepts surrounding the Relative Strength Index (RSI). The RSI serves as a gauge for assessing the strength of price momentum and offers insights into whether a particular stock is in an overbought or oversold condition. Throughout this exploration, we will demystify the underlying calculations of RSI, explore its significance in evaluating market momentum, and unveil its practical applications for traders. From discerning opportune moments to buy or sell based on RSI values to identifying potential shifts in market trends, we will unravel the mathematical intricacies that underpin this critical trading indicator. Please note that none of the below content should be used as financial advice, but for educational purposes only. This article does not recommend that investors base their decisions on technical analysis alone. As indicated in the name, RSI measures the strength of a stock's momentum and can be used to show when a stock can be considered over- or under-bought, allowing us to make a more informed decision as to whether we should enter a position or hold off until a bit longer. It’s all very well and good to know that ‘you should buy when RSI is under 30 and sell when RSI is over 70' , but in this article, I will attempt to explain why this is the case and what RSI is really measuring. The calculations The relative strength index is an index of the relative strength of momentum in a market. This means that its values range from 0 to 100 and are simply a normalised relative strength. But what is the relative strength of momentum? Initial Average Gain = Sum of gains over the past 14 days / 14 Initial Average Loss = Sum of losses over the past 14 days / 14 Relative strength is the ratio of higher closes to lower closes. Over a fixed period of usually 14 days (but sometimes 21), we measure how much the price of the stock has increased in each trading day and find the mean average between them. We then repeat and do the same to find the average loss. The subsequent average gains and losses can then be calculated: Average Gain = [(Previous Avg. Gain * 13) + Current Day's Gain] / 14 Average Loss = [(Previous Avg. Loss * 13) + Current Day's Loss] / 14 With this, we can now calculate relative strength! Therefore, if our stock gained more than it lost in the past 14 days, then our RS value would be >1. On the other hand, if we lost more than we gained, then our RS value would be <1. Relative strength tells us whether buyers or sellers are in control of the price. If buyers were in control, then the average gain would be greater than the average loss, so the relative strength would be greater than 1. In a bearish market, if this begins to happen, we can say that there is an increase in buyers’ momentum; the momentum is strengthening. We can normalise relative strength into an index using the following equation: Relative Strength= Average Gain / Average Loss Traders then use the RSI in combination with other techniques to assess whether to buy or sell. When a market is ranging, which means that price is bouncing between support and resistance (has the same highs and lows for a period), we can use the RSI to see when we may be entering a trend. When the RSI is reaching 70, it is an indication that the price is being overbought, and in a ranging market, there is likely to be a correction and the price will fall so that the RSI stays at around 50. The opposite is likely to happen when the RSI dips to 30. Price action is deemed to be extreme, and a correction is likely. It should, however, be noted that this type of behaviour is only likely in assets presenting mean-reversion characteristics. In a trending market, RSI can be used to indicate a possible change in momentum. If prices are falling and the RSI reaches a low and then, a few days later, it reaches a higher low (therefore, the low is not as low as the first), it indicates a possible change in momentum; we say there is a bullish divergence. Divergences are rare when a stock is in a long-term trend but is nonetheless a powerful indicator. In conclusion, the relative strength index aims to describe changes in momentum in price action through analysing and comparing previous day's highs and lows. From this, a value is generated, and at the extremes, a change in momentum may take place. RSI is not supposed to be predictive but is very helpful in confirming trends indicated by other techniques. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

How it's used Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link AI in medicinal chemistry 08/07/25, 16:18 Last updated: Published: 07/07/23, 20:47 How it's used We are always surrounded by medicine, whether this be through, for example, the cabinet in your house containing prescription drugs or walking by a pharmacy during the day. It is no secret that medical drugs are essential - they both mitigate the symptoms of disease and even prevent further future illness. However, whilst ingesting a tablet is easy for most, it seems to be that we can sometimes forget the vigorous amount of scientific research that goes into successfully synthesising a new drug, i.e. the core of medicinal chemistry. This process typically takes up to an astounding 10 years or more, but with new artificial intelligence (AI) emerging it is thought to be that this number will lower. What exactly is artificial intelligence? It can broadly be defined as the ability to produce human intelligence through the use of machinery such as computers or software. Based on this, one may question why AI is needed if we can just simply communicate ideas through writing, speaking and so on. The answer is increased efficiency – one example of man made neurones is discussed on the website Interesting Engineering, which are able to produce impulses up to one billion times per second. Fascinatingly, this is quicker than humans, so it could also be argued that AI is actually better than us! There are many phases of the drug development process, from early pre-clinical research to post-market surveillance. When a drug is administered, the body uses enzymes such as mainly those from the CYP family to break the compound down into smaller structures, through a process known as metabolism. Drug metabolism can create toxic molecules that are able to covalently bind to proteins in the body causing serious illness, but also molecules that can be harmlessly excreted through faeces or urine. Of course, chemists can look for sites of metabolism by studying the angles and positions of atoms, however AI is able to do this much quicker and with higher accuracy. SuperCYPsPred is an example of a free online web application that can predict if a drug may be a CYP enzyme inhibitor in pre-clinical drug discovery, as the software is able to identify five of such inhibitors. Through this, we can understand how a drug’s metabolic pathway may differ and investigate further early on, allowing scientists to make structural changes before proceeding onto the next phase of development. Through this, millions of pounds can be saved from marketing an unsuccessful drug as well as decrease the chances of causing injury to the public. AI is also able to use machine learning (ML) to carry out tasks. ML is when machinery processes a large data set and identifies complex patterns to problem solve. From this then comes deep learning (DL), which allows this ML to be applied in different fields. For example, DeepCE is a “novel deep learning computer model” that helps predict changes in gene expression with certain drugs. It is able to do this by using the following two sources: DrugBank which contains data for 11,000 safely approved drugs and the L1000 dataset that has information on over 1 million perturbed organ tissue gene expressions. From this, researchers were able to obtain 10 drug candidates for the treatment of COVID-19 infection, in which 2 have been successfully marketed. Based on the above, it is clear that AI holds a lot of power in speeding up the drug discovery and development process. With the technology sector advancing in general as well, we are looking at a future where AI will become even more dominant in the pharmaceutical research industry. Whilst AI can predict several drug properties, it is also important to remember that we physically cannot predict every single thing out there – we can only try our best, which AI is aiding. Written by Harsimran Kaur Related articles: AI in drug discovery / A breakthrough procedure in efficient drug discovery / Role of chemistry in medicine Project Gallery

Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia Last updated: 06/11/25, 11:54 Published: 29/05/25, 07:00 Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series on animal conservation. Previous article: Emperor penguins, kings of ice . First article: 55 years of vicuna conservation . Australia is home to many unique mammals because they have evolved in geographic isolation for millennia. Over 200 years ago, European colonists brought their own mammals to Australia, devastating this unique wildlife in ways that can still be seen today. One example is the rock-wallabies ( Petrogale spp. ), a group of 25 animal species and subspecies related to kangaroos. Australian scientists are monitoring rock-wallaby populations to ensure they remain safe from natural and human-caused threats. This article will describe those threats and how rock wallabies are being conserved. Rock-wallaby habitat As their name suggests, rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, including outcrops, cliffs and caves. Since they are primarily nocturnal, these habitats provide shelter in the daytime. Rock-wallabies have modified foot pads to grip tricky surfaces and access places their predators cannot. Recent research found that for two rock-wallaby species, their abundance is associated with more complex and rocky habitats. Because their habitat type is so niche and they rarely migrate, one small disturbance could wipe out an entire rock-wallaby population. This is reflected by their protections under Australian law: five types of rock-wallaby are classified as ‘vulnerable’, six as ‘endangered’, and one as ‘critically endangered’. Thus, the complex habitat of rock-wallabies is both a blessing and a curse. Threats to rock-wallabies Rock-wallabies are vulnerable or endangered mainly because of invasive predators such as foxes, cats, and goats. After being introduced from Europe during colonisation, these predators have eaten many wallabies and scared the rest into foraging elsewhere. If predators live between two rock-wallaby populations, there will be less migration and interbreeding, reducing overall genetic health ( Figure 1 ). In addition, rock-wallabies will not forage if predators are in an area, so they have limited food sources under high pressure ( Figure 1 ). Combined with these indirect reasons, direct predation by invasive mammals is the biggest threat to rock-wallaby survival. Invasive predators are not the only threats to rock-wallaby populations. Wildfires kill the plants that wallabies rely on for food and shelter, such as rock figs. For example, one wildfire in the 2019/2020 season destroyed about 38% of brush-tailed rock-wallaby habitat. The already dwindling rock-wallaby populations may disappear if the climate crisis makes wildfires less predictable and more severe. Native herbivores like the euro and invasive herbivores like goats may also compete with rock-wallabies for food. There is evidence that euros out-compete rock-wallabies when food supplies are limited, but no evidence for goats yet. Thus, fires and competition combine with invasive predators to endanger rock-wallabies. Translocation and monitoring Monitoring existing rock-wallaby populations and creating new ones by translocation are reducing the threats of predation, fire, and competition. Brush-tailed rock-wallabies were translocated to Grampians National Park in 2008, but most animals died by 2013. Scientists thought manually handling wallabies might make them stressed and more vulnerable to predators. From 2014 onwards, non-invasive monitoring procedures like cameras and faecal DNA monitoring reduced predation and increased the survival rate of young rock-wallabies. Meanwhile, black-flanked rock-wallabies were being translocated from four different source populations to Kalbarri National Park, hoping they would interbreed and create a new genetically diverse population. The project was successful, as microsatellite genotyping found that the translocated population had more heterozygotes and more alleles per locus than the source populations ( Figure 2 ). This population is predicted to grow until at least 2028 because it is diverse enough to avoid the inbreeding mentioned earlier. The Grampians and Kalbarri translocations show the importance of careful monitoring and genetic considerations for conserving rock-wallabies. Conclusion After invasive mammalian predators have decimated rock-wallaby populations throughout Australia for over 200 years, wildfires and herbivore competition make survival even more difficult. Conservation efforts are made harder by the specific and limited habitats that rock-wallabies need. However, translocation efforts which consider genetic diversity and the stress of manual handling keep rock-wallaby populations afloat. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Wildlife corridors REFERENCES Campbell, I. & Woods, S. (2013) Wildlife of Australia . Princeton, UNITED STATES: Princeton University Press. Kleemann, S., Sandow, D., Stevens, M., Schultz, D.J., Taggart, D.A. & Croxford, A. (2022) Non-invasive monitoring and reintroduction biology of the brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) in the Grampians National Park, Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology . 69 (2): 41–54. Available from: https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/ZO21009 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Lavery, T.H., Eldridge, M., Legge, S., Pearson, D., Southwell, D., Woinarski, J.C.Z., Woolley, L.-A. & Lindenmayer, D. (2021) Threats to Australia’s rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.) with key directions for effective monitoring. Biodiversity and Conservation . 30 (14): 4137–4161. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02315-3 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Morris, S.D., Johnson, C.N. & Brook, B.W. (2020) Roughing it: terrain is crucial in identifying novel translocation sites for the vulnerable brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale pencillata). Royal Society Open Science . 7 (12): 201603. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.201603 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Nilsson, K., Pearson, D., Paxman, M., Desmond, A., Kennington, J., Byrne, M. & Ottewell, K. (2023) Translocations restore a population of a threatened rock-wallaby and bolster its genetic diversity. Conservation Genetics . 24 (5): 547–561. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-023-01520-7 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Silcock, J.L., Gynther, I.C., Horsup, A., Molyneux, J., Wattz, T.L., Fairfax, R.J., Healy, A.J., Murphy, D. & McRae, P.D. (2024) Half a century of survey data reveal population recovery but persistent threats for the Vulnerable yellow-footed rock-wallaby in Queensland, Australia. Oryx . 1–13. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/half-a-century-of-survey-data-reveal-population-recovery-but-persistent-threats-for-the-vulnerable-yellowfooted-rockwallaby-in-queensland-australia/D976E61ABE458B9FADA059372117382E (Accessed 10th December 2024). Project Gallery

Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and the other sciences. Log In Welcome to Scientia News DELIVERING INFORMATIVE CONTENT Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and other sciences. We hope this platform helps you discover something that inspires your curiosity, and encourages you to learn more about important topics in STEM. Meet the Official Team NAVIGATE AND CLICK THE PHOTOS BELOW TO LEARN MORE ABOUT US! To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. Latest Articles ecology How human activity impacts the phosphorus cycle View More biology What are health inequalities? View More chemistry The importance of symmetry in chemistry View More pharmacology ‘The Molecule’ by Dr Rick Sax and Dr Marta New View More CONTACT CONTACT US Scientia News welcomes anyone who wants to share their ideas and write for our platform. If you are interested in realising your writing potential with us AND live in the UK; and/ or would like to give feedback: Email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com or fill in our GET IN TOUCH form below and we'll be in contact... Follow us on our socials for the latest updates. Comment, like and share! Join our mailing list below for latest site content. You can also sign up to become a site member . SUBSCRIPTION Join our mailing list to receive alerts for new articles and other site content. Be sure to check your spam/ junk folders in case emails are sent there. Email Subscribe GET IN TOUCH First Name Last Name Email Message Send Thanks for submitting!

Its toxicodynamics, and balancing benefits and risks Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring Ibuprofen 18/09/25, 08:47 Last updated: Published: 17/01/24, 01:28 Its toxicodynamics, and balancing benefits and risks What is Ibuprofen? Ibuprofen is a standard over-the-counter medicine which can be bought from supermarkets and pharmacies. It is primarily used for pain relief, such as back pain, period pain, toothaches, etc. It can also be used for arthritis pain and inflammation. It is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, gels, and sprays for the skin. The Toxicodynamics of Ibuprofen Toxicodynamics refers to the biological effects of a substance after exposure to it. Scientists look at the mechanisms by which the substance produces toxic effects and the target organs or tissues it affects. Ibuprofen works by stopping the enzymes that synthesise prostaglandins, which are a group of lipid molecules that cause inflammation, including symptoms like redness, heat, swelling and pain. Therefore, after the action of Ibuprofen, inflammatory responses and pain are reduced. Ibuprofen targets organs and tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, the kidneys, the central nervous system, blood and more. Balancing the Benefits and Risks Ibuprofen’s method of action means it is a safe and effective pain relief medication for most people. It is also easily accessible and easy to use. However, it is able to affect the target organs and tissues negatively and, therefore, can have serious side effects, especially if taken for an extended period of time and/or in high doses. They include heartburn, abdominal pain, kidney damage (especially for people who already have kidney problems), low blood count and more. Therefore, it is important to use Ibuprofen responsibly. This can be done by understanding and being well-informed about its effects on the body, particularly its impact on organs and tissues. With caution and proper use, the side effects can be minimised. One of the easiest ways to lessen side effects is by taking the medication with food. Additionally, patients should take the lowest effective dose for the shortest possible time. If patients have a history of stomach problems, avoiding Ibuprofen and using alternatives is the best solution. Patients can also talk to their GP if they are concerned about the side effects and report any suspected side effects using the Yellow Card safety scheme on the NHS website. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Anthrax toxin / The Pain Gate Theory Project Gallery

The tireless challenge Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Childhood stunting in developing countries 10/07/25, 10:16 Last updated: Published: 09/03/24, 17:53 The tireless challenge Introduction Certain countries worldwide face numerous challenges that decrease their populations' quality of life; some include hunger, poverty and rising harmful emissions, which are complicated to resolve. This is because international cooperation is needed to tackle them effectively. Furthermore, they are associated with stunting, defined as diminished growth and development that children experience because of undernutrition or lack of sufficient nutrients, frequent infections and deficient psychosocial interventions, according to the World Health Organisation. With this definition in mind, this article will delve into stunting and malnutrition before discussing how stunting is linked to infectious diseases and harmful emissions and steps forward to reduce this condition in developing countries, as shown in Figure 2 . Undernutrition and stunting Stunting is one of the consequences of undernutrition, possibly due to reduced synthesis of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the body, leading to amplified growth hormone (6). As for the determinants of undernutrition, a paper from Brazil found socioeconomic characteristics like family income and biological ones such as age notably linked to undernutrition. Another result of undernutrition is being underweight. A systematic review from Ethiopia focusing on nutrition in 5-year-old children amalgamated 18 studies. It estimated that stunting and being underweight had 42% and 33% prevalence, respectively; it could be inferred that undernutrition is linked to stunting. Additionally, a paper that used data from 32 Sub-Saharan African countries discovered that providing maternal health insurance (MHI) reduces stunting and being underweight, which is more apparent in girls than boys. In turn, MHI is necessary for supporting children’s health. Non-nutritional factors and stunting As for infections and stunting, an article highlighted that children with stunted growth are vulnerable to diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases besides malaria. Moreover, conditions worsen undernutrition, causing a vicious cycle between them, manifesting into growth defects. Furthermore, a systematic review of 80 studies found a connection between helminth infections and stunting, but insufficient evidence supported this hypothesis. With this said, there may need to be additional studies to investigate this further. With undernutrition’s impact on the immune system, newborns and small children with extreme protein deficiency have smaller thymuses and underdeveloped peripheral lymphoid organs, leading to immunological cell defects such as reduced T-cell count. Before concluding this article, exposure to harmful emissions is a recurring problem that affects everyone, including children. Different observational studies proposed that inhaling nitrogen oxide and particulate matter in utero could modify DNA methylation, possibly influencing foetal growth. Conclusion Reflecting on all the evidence in this article, stunting in developing countries is heading in a direction where it could become problematic. However, according to findings from UNICEF, stunting has gradually reduced between 2000 and 2020 in children under 5 years old. Nevertheless, awareness of stunting in developing countries is critical because it is the first step to tackling this health issue. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Childhood obesity / Depression in children / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES Jamali D, Leigh J, Samara G, Barkemeyer R. Grand challenges in developing countries: Context, relationships, and logics. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility. 2021 Sep;30(S1):1–4. Maleta K. Undernutrition. Malawi medical journal: the journal of Medical Association of Malawi. 2006 Dec;18(4):189–205. World Health Organization. Stunting in a nutshell. www.who.int . 2015 Nov;19. Beal T, Tumilowicz A, Sutrisna A, Izwardy D, Neufeld LM. A review of child stunting determinants in Indonesia. Maternal & Child Nutrition. 2018 May 17;14(4):e12617. Vaivada T, Akseer N, Akseer S, Somaskandan A, Stefopulos M, Bhutta ZA. Stunting in childhood: an overview of global burden, trends, determinants, and drivers of decline. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2020 Aug 29;112. Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Alaaraj N, Ahmed S, Alyafei F, Hamed N, et al. Early and Long-term Consequences of Nutritional Stunting: From Childhood to Adulthood. Acta Bio Medica : Atenei Parmensis. 2021;92(1) Correia LL, Silva AC e, Campos JS, Andrade FM de O, Machado MMT, Lindsay AC, et al. Prevalence and determinants of child undernutrition and stunting in semiarid region of Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública. 2014 Feb 1;48:19–28. Abdulahi A, Shab-Bidar S, Rezaei S, Djafarian K. Nutritional status of under five children in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 2017 Mar 15;27(2):175. Kofinti RE, Koomson I, Paintsil JA, Ameyaw EK. Reducing children’s malnutrition by increasing mothers’ health insurance coverage: A focus on stunting and underweight across 32 sub-Saharan African countries. Economic Modelling. 2022 Dec 1;117:106049. Vonaesch P, Tondeur L, Breurec S, Bata P, Nguyen LBL, Frank T, et al. Factors associated with stunting in healthy children aged 5 years and less living in Bangui (RCA). Wieringa F, editor. PLOS ONE. 2017 Aug 10;12(8):e0182363. Raj E, Calvo-Urbano B, Heffernan C, Halder J, Webster JP. Systematic review to evaluate a potential association between helminth infection and physical stunting in children. Parasites & Vectors. 2022 Apr 20;15(1). Schaible UE, Kaufmann SHE. Malnutrition and Infection: Complex Mechanisms and Global Impacts. PLoS Medicine. 2007 May 1;4(5):e115. Sinharoy SS, Clasen T, Martorell R. Air pollution and stunting: a missing link? The Lancet Global Health. 2020 Apr;8(4):e472–5. UNICEF. Malnutrition in Children. UNICEF DATA. 2023. Project Gallery

Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How fake science websites hijack our trust in experts to misinform and confuse Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 29/12/22 In science, all research is peer-reviewed by experts. Now, fake science websites are mimicking these disciplines. These websites capitalise on our trust in experts. In some cases, these websites are paid to publish fake science. This is becoming more common. In a recent global survey, almost 50% of respondents said they see false or misleading information online daily. By understanding the methods these sites use we can prevent their influence. Hyperlinking is a technique used to convince website users. They reassure the user that the content is credible, but most people don’t have experience in analytical techniques and so these links aren’t questioned. Repetition is used to increase the visibility of fake science content but also saturate search engines. This content can be repeated and spread across different sites. Users of “lateral reading” get multiple websites that corroborate the fake science from the initial source. Many of these sites only choose articles that agree with their perspective and depend on the audience not taking time to follow up. Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. On fake science websites first, check the hyperlinked articles. These websites will use sites with repeated content from disreputable sites. Next, look at the number of reposts a website has. Legitimate science posts are on credible websites. Some websites investigate websites that feature fake science. Ultimately, these websites thrive on users not having the time or skills to look deeper into the evidence, so doing so will help expose the fake websites. Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Digital disinformation / COVID-19 misconceptions

Understanding the problem and solutions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The rising threat of antibiotic resistance 14/07/25, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 13:47 Understanding the problem and solutions An overview and history of antibiotics Antibiotics are medicines that treat and prevent bacterial infections (such as skin infections, respiratory infections and more). Antibiotic resistance is the process of infection-causing bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. As the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated, antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich discovered the first antibiotic, Salvarsan, used to treat syphilis at the time. His idea was to create anti-infective medication, and Salvarsan was successful. The golden age of antibiotic discovery began with the accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He noticed that mould had contaminated one of the petri dishes of Staphylococcus bacteria. He observed that bacteria around the mould were dying and realised that the mould, Penicillium notatum , was causing the bacteria to die. In 1940, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated penicillin and began clinical trials, showing that it effectively treated infectious animals. Penicillin was then used to treat patients by 1943 in the United States. Overall, the discovery and use of antibiotics in the 21st century was a significant scientific discovery, extending people’s lives by around 20 years. Factors contributing to antibiotic resistance Increasing levels of antibiotic resistance could mean routine surgeries and cancer treatments (which can weaken the body’s ability to respond to infections) might become too risky, and minor illnesses and injuries could become more challenging to treat. There are various factors contributing to this, including overusing and misusing antibiotics and low investment in new antibiotic research. Antibiotics are overused and misused due to misunderstanding when and how to use them. As a result, antibiotics may be used for viral infections, and an entire course may not be completed if patients start to feel better. Some patients may also use antibiotics not prescribed to them, such as those of family and friends. Moreover, there has not been enough investment to fund the research of novel antibiotics. This has resulted in a shortage of antibiotics available to treat infections that have become resistant. Therefore, more investment and research are needed to prevent antibiotic resistance from becoming a public health crisis. Combatting antibiotic resistance One of the most effective ways to combat antibiotic resistance is through raising public awareness. Children and adults can learn about when and how to use antibiotics safely. Several resources are available to help individuals and members of the public to do this. Some resources are linked below: 1. The WHO has provided a factsheet with essential information on antibiotic resistance. 2. The Antibiotic Guardian website is a platform with information and resources to help combat antibiotic resistance. It is a UK-wide campaign to improve and reduce antibiotic prescribing and use. Visit the website to learn more, and commit to a pledge to play your part in helping to solve this problem. 3. Public Health England has created resources to support Antibiotic Guardian. 4. The E-bug peer-education package is a platform that aims to educate individuals and provide them with tools to educate others. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Anti-fungal resistance / Why bacteria are essential to human survival Project Gallery

Have you perform the wrong exercises – You must keep revising your exercises and keep upgrading your knowledge about the proper use of equipment, and everything else related to fitness so that you don’t make any mistake in giving your clients the wrong exercises Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Examples of negligence in personal training on the impact of physiology Last updated: 14/11/24 Published: 26/01/23 Negligence in personal training is a failure to look after clients to avoid them getting injured while training. There are many ways this can happen, below are some examples of negligence in personal training. Making use of equipment that is defective – Using a defective equipment can easily lead to injury or at least poor exercising form. Trainers should be able to differentiate between effective and defective equipment if they want to avoid negligence in training their clients. In that scenario, the best thing a personal trainer can do is to repair the equipment or replace it with new ones instead of putting a ‘defect’ or ‘out of order’ sign on it. Telling you to lift too much weight – You can’t just tell your clients to lift too much weight without even knowing their capacity, their way of eating and experience from past training. This is irrational and unprofessional, thus neglecting your clients directly which can lead to causing them injuries like muscle tears, muscle strains and even worse, a wrong death. Have you perform the wrong exercises – You must keep revising your exercises and keep upgrading your knowledge about the proper use of equipment, and everything else related to fitness so that you don’t make any mistake in giving your clients the wrong exercises to do that can lead to stopping them from achieving their desired physiques, and fitness goals. Muscle imbalances will occur as well if not done properly. Make you exercise for too long – Exercising for too long can cause excess fatigue and can lead to muscle strains and sprains. Coaches must not let their clients push themselves too far. It may sound cool but it is not really healthy. Everything we do must be done in an appropriate manner to avoid consequences that will harm us. Written by Kushwant Nathoo Related articles: A perspective on well-being / Gentrification in the context of health

The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Understanding diverticular disease 14/07/25, 15:08 Last updated: Published: 27/11/24, 11:31 The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries Diverticulosis, diverticula, diverticulum, and diverticulitis - they may sound similar, but each term describes a specific aspect of diverticular disease. Before diving into diverticular disease, let’s clarify these key terms: Diverticulum: a small, bulging pouch that forms in a weak spot in the lining of the large intestine. Diverticula: the plural form of a diverticulum, indicating multiple bulging pouches in the large intestine's lining. Diverticulosis: a condition where multiple diverticula are present in the large intestine. Diverticulitis: this occurs when one or more diverticula become inflamed or infected. What is diverticular disease? Diverticular disease can be broadly categorised into two main conditions: diverticulosis and diverticulitis. Both involve the presence of diverticula in the colon, but the key difference lies in inflammation. In diverticulitis, the diverticula become inflamed or infected, leading to symptoms. On the other hand, diverticulosis is typically asymptomatic. However, there is a third condition, referred to as symptomatic uncomplicated diverticular disease (SUDD), where diverticula are present without inflammation, but the patient still experiences symptoms. The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries, largely due to the typical 'Western diet', which is high in red meat and low in fibre. Additionally, lifestyle factors such as obesity, smoking, and physical inactivity contribute to this rise. Age is also a significant factor, with 85% of diverticulosis cases occurring in individuals over the age of 50. Pathophysiology The formation of diverticula in the colon is primarily due to three factors: structural abnormalities in the colonic wall, disordered intestinal motility, and a deficiency of dietary fibre. The large intestine has two layers of muscle that work together to move its contents: an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The outer layer consists of three bands called the taeniae coli, which run longitudinally along the colon. The gaps between these muscle bands are areas of weakness, making them vulnerable to the development of diverticula. Age-related weakening of the connective tissue further increases the risk of developing diverticula in these vulnerable areas. In some patients, abnormal gut motility can lead to areas of high pressure in the bowel, causing the mucosa to bulge outward, forming diverticula. Similarly, a lack of fibre in the diet can increase bowel pressure and lead to irregular movement, which also promotes outpouching. As we've discussed, some patients with diverticula may remain asymptomatic, while others experience varying levels of discomfort. The transition from diverticulosis to diverticulitis occurs when undigested food or a fecalith becomes trapped in these pouches, causing a blockage. This leads to bacterial growth and multiplication, resulting in infection and inflammation of the pouch. Symptoms Diverticular disease comes with a range of symptoms, some of which are quite common and could be easily mistaken for other conditions. General symptoms like nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever often overlap with other digestive problems, making diagnosis tricky. However, certain symptoms can hint more strongly at diverticular disease. For instance, experiencing pain in the lower left side of the abdomen (known as the left iliac fossa) or noticing rectal bleeding are more specific indicators that may point towards this condition. Recognising these symptoms can help in getting a more accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Management Managing diverticular disease depends on the individual patient and the severity of their symptoms. For some, simple, conservative treatments are enough—this might include staying hydrated, eating a high-fibre diet, and giving the bowel a short rest by temporarily avoiding food. However, if a patient is experiencing significant pain or signs of infection, medical treatment is necessary. This may involve pain relief based on the WHO pain ladder or antibiotics to tackle the infection. In more serious cases, where other treatments haven’t worked or the patient is in a life-threatening situation, surgery might be required. A common procedure for these severe cases is the Hartmann’s procedure. This surgery removes the damaged section of the large intestine, usually due to infection or blockage. The healthy end of the intestine is brought out through an opening in the abdomen, creating a temporary colostomy that allows waste to leave the body through a bag. This setup gives the intestine time to heal, and in some cases, a follow-up surgery can reconnect it for normal function. Complications There are both short-term and long-term complications associated with diverticulitis, particularly in more severe cases that require more aggressive treatment such as surgery (see Figure 4 ). Future directions Recent changes in the management of diverticulitis have shifted how clinicians approach treatment. One significant update involves the use of antibiotics. Traditionally, diverticulitis was treated with routine antibiotic prescriptions. However, newer guidelines suggest that antibiotics may not be necessary for uncomplicated cases, helping to reduce both antibiotic resistance and the potential medication side effects for patients. Another emerging trend is treating uncomplicated diverticulitis on an outpatient basis. This allows patients to be managed at home with pain relief and dietary adjustments, which in turn frees up hospital resources for those with more severe conditions. Additionally, the management of complicated diverticulitis has evolved. For instance, abscesses may now be treated with percutaneous drainage rather than resorting to emergency surgery. Conclusion In summary, diverticular disease can vary widely in its symptoms and required treatments, ranging from dietary changes to surgical interventions for severe cases. Identifying specific signs and understanding the treatment options can empower patients and help them make informed choices. Advances in treatment approaches are also helping to improve outcomes and quality of life for those affected. Written by Abbasali Gulamhussein Related articles: Crohn's disease / The gut microbiome / Interplay of hormones and microbiome REFERENCES Cater, M. (2023). Foods for Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis . [online] www.hopkinsmedicine.org . Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/foods-for-diverticulosis-and-diverticulitis . Matrana, M.R. and Margolin, D.A. (2009a) Epidemiology and pathophysiology of diverticular disease , Clinics in colon and rectal surgery . Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2780269/ (Accessed: 12 October 2024). Miller, A.S. et al. (2021) The Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland consensus guidelines in emergency colorectal surgery , Colorectal disease : the official journal of the Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland . Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9291558/ (Accessed: 12 October 2024). NHS (2019). Diverticular disease and diverticulitis . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diverticular-disease-and-diverticulitis/ . Sciencedirect.com . (2019). Hartmann Procedure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics . [online] Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/hartmann-procedure . Singh, B., May, K., Coltart, I., Moore, N. and Cunningham, C. (2008). The Long-Term Results of Percutaneous Drainage of Diverticular Abscess. The Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England , [online] 90(4), pp.297–301. doi: https://doi.org/10.1308/003588408x285928 . Ubhi, L. (2023). Prescribing Analgesia and the WHO Analgesic Ladder | Geeky Medics . [online] geekymedics.com . Available at: https://geekymedics.com/prescribing-analgesia-and-the-who-analgesic-ladder/ . Project Gallery