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Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and the other sciences. Log In Welcome to Scientia News DELIVERING INFORMATIVE CONTENT Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and other sciences. We hope this platform helps you discover something that inspires your curiosity, and encourages you to learn more about important topics in STEM. Meet the Official Team NAVIGATE AND CLICK THE PHOTOS BELOW TO LEARN MORE ABOUT US! To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. Latest Articles pharmacology The promising effects of magic mushrooms for depression View More biology Socioeconomic Health Inequalities View More chemistry Molecular blueprints: the art of synthetic planning View More chemistry Not all chemists wear white coats: computational organic chemistry View More CONTACT CONTACT US Scientia News welcomes anyone who wants to share their ideas and write for our platform. If you are interested in realising your writing potential with us AND live in the UK; and/ or would like to give feedback: Email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com or fill in our GET IN TOUCH form below and we'll be in contact... Follow us on our socials for the latest updates. Comment, like and share! Join our mailing list below for latest site content. You can also sign up to become a site member . SUBSCRIPTION Join our mailing list to receive alerts for new articles and other site content. Be sure to check your spam/ junk folders in case emails are sent there. Email Subscribe GET IN TOUCH First Name Last Name Email Message Send Thanks for submitting!

Dive into the latest biological research! Explore the profound impact of negligent exercise on well-being, discover breakthroughs in organoid and iPSC research, and gain insights into how biomarkers are enabling disease diagnosis and prevention. Biology Articles Dive into the latest biological research! Explore the profound impact of negligent exercise on well-being, discover breakthroughs in organoid and iPSC research, and gain insights into how biomarkers are enabling disease diagnosis and prevention. You may also like: Cancer , Ecology , Genetics , Immunology , Neuroscience , Zoology , and Medicine Can a human brain be uploaded to a computer? Uncovering the possibilities of transferring information from your brain to a computer Impacts of negligent exercise on physiology How to avoid negligent personal training as it can harm the individual Key historical events in public health A timeline of discoveries in the history of public health Influence of different environmental factors on exercise How different environmental factors can affect exercise Why bacteria are essential to human survival The benefits of bacteria Will diabetes mellitus become an epidemic? Diabetes mellitus is when the body is unable to produce enough insulin or becomes resistant to it Correlation between a country's HDI and COVID-19 mortality rate HDI stands for Human Development Index, i.e. how much a country is developed considering various factors such as wealth Rising food prices Food deserts and malnutrition Organoids in drug discovery What organoids are, their applications in drug discovery and more The genesis of life What came first: the chicken or the egg? Challenges in endometriosis From underreporting to under-research iPSCs and organoids iPSC stands for induced pluripotent stem cells PCOS and endometriosis These two diseases are very similar, but how are they different? Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) A biomarker for renal damage Childhood stunting Its issue in developing countries Innovations in the biosciences The biggest ones currently Various health models Understanding health through different stances Medicinal Manuka The benefits of using Manuka honey as medicine The dual role of mitochondria A mechanism for survival, or death? Next

The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Looking at the rare earth elements Last updated: 23/02/26, 21:34 Published: 23/02/26, 21:15 The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Introduction President Trump said in reference to a proposed minerals deal with Ukraine: We're telling Ukraine they have very valuable rare earths. Over the past few decades, the technological revolution has expanded the applications of the rare earth elements (REEs) from modern electronics to renewable energy sources. Despite the name, the REEs are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, but their perceived scarcity is centred around difficulties in extracting and processing. As REE refining is currently monopolised by China, access to these materials is a constant source of geopolitical tension. The REEs comprise the lanthanide series as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), and are characterised by the similarity of their chemical properties. Therefore, this article aims to introduce some of the fundamental chemistry of the rare earth elements to contextualise their role in modern technologies. Chemical properties of the REEs Scandium and yttrium are considered “honorary lanthanides,” as they form highly ionic, charge‑dense +3 cations when ionised. However, as they are transition metals, their properties cannot be explained by considering the f‑orbitals. The f‑orbitals are a set of seven orbitals which can hold a maximum of 14 electrons. For the lanthanides, each element has a set of 4f and 6s valence orbitals, with cerium (Ce),lanthanum (La), gadolinium (Gd), and lutetium (Lu) also having an occupied 5d¹ orbital. The 4f orbitals are generally contracted because of the nuclear charge felt by the electrons in these orbitals. As the atomic radius across the period decreases, this contraction is felt more strongly, meaning the resulting ions become more charge‑dense. This phenomenon is known as the lanthanide contraction. The contracted nature of the 4f orbitals explains why the lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 oxidation state (O.S). The 4f electrons are strongly attracted to the nucleus, making them energetically unfavourable to remove. Therefore, once the two 6s electrons and one 4f (or sometimes 5d) electron are removed, further ionisation becomes much more difficult. This is reflected by the ionisation potentials of the lanthanides ( Figure 1 ). However, some lanthanides can form stable +2 O.S (samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), and ytterbium (Yb)), while Ce can form a +4 O.S ( Figure 2 ). This is because of the electronic configurations of these elements. For example, Eu has an electronic configuration of [Xe] 4f⁷ 6s²; therefore, by removing two electrons, the ion becomes exchange‑energy stabilised (Eu²⁺ [Xe] 4f⁷). Another notable property of the lanthanides is their large magnetic moments. This again is a consequence of the 4f orbitals. Magnetism is determined by the number of unpaired electrons an element has and its orbital angular momentum. Orbital angular momentum is an intrinsic property and becomes more prevalent with larger elements. Therefore, as the 4f orbitals can hold up to seven unpaired electrons, coupled with the intrinsic heaviness of the lanthanides, they often exhibit strong magnetic behaviour. Applications Catalytic Converters As previously mentioned, most lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 O.S, Ce being a key exception due to its ability to cycle between +3 and +4. This property makes Ce particularly valuable in catalytic converters — vehicle exhaust devices which help reduce emissions of toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO). Using CeO₂ as a catalyst, CO₂ and N₂ are generated as less harmful by‑products ( Figure 2 ). Chemical Reagents The redox flexibility of certain lanthanides is also exploited in organic chemistry. Ce(IV) and Sm(II) compounds serve as effective oxidising and reducing agents respectively. Reagents such as ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) and cerium ammonium sulphate (CAS) are frequently used as selective oxidants, while samarium bromide (SmBr₂) is an effective reductant. MRI & Chiral Shift Reagents The magnetic properties of the lanthanides can be exploited in medical imaging, particularly in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Prior to an MRI scan, patients may be injected with a gadolinium (Gd³⁺) complex, such as [Gd(DTPA)]²⁻ ( Figure 4 ), to enhance image contrast. By coordinating water molecules and increasing the proton relaxation rate, these complexes cause certain regions of tissue to appear brighter and more easily distinguishable. Chemically, this principle is utilised when NMR spectroscopy is conducted in the laboratory. Fundamentally, MRI and NMR machines work in the same way, so by adding small quantities of paramagnetic lanthanide reagents to a proton NMR sample, changes in the chemical shift can be induced. These “lanthanide shift reagents” increase the proton relaxation rate, which reduces signal overlap and allows specific proton environments to be more easily identified. Commonly used lanthanide reagents include Eu³⁺ and Pr³⁺ complexes. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs. While chemically similar, each element has a broad range of diverse applications, whether as magnets, reagents, or even phosphors in TV sets. Certain to dominate geopolitics for the foreseeable future, understanding the chemistry and applications of the REEs has never been more important. Written by Antony Lee Project Gallery

Elements, compounds, and mixtures make up the building blocks of materials that shape our world. Read on to uncover the latest contributions in chemistry, such as advances in mass spectrometry and quantum chemistry. Chemistry Articles Elements, compounds, and mixtures make up the building blocks of materials that shape our world. Read on to uncover the latest contributions in chemistry, such as advances in mass spectrometry and quantum chemistry. You may also like: Medicine , Pharmacology Advances in mass spectrometry Analytical chemistry Bioorthogonal chemistry Chemical reactions with high yields Polypharmacy Multiple medications Plastics and their environmental impact The same property that makes plastics so strong endangers the environment Quantum chemistry A relatively new field of chemistry Nanomedicine and targeted drug delivery An overview as to why nanoparticles are suitable for drug delivery Nanogels Smarter drug delivery The importance of symmetry in chemistry Symmetry in spectroscopy, reaction mechanisms and bonding Not all chemists wear white coats Computational organic chemistry Molecular blueprints: the art of synthetic planning Article #1 in a two-part series on retrosynthesis. Previous

Study the plethora of interactions between drug and target with these articles focusing on antibiotic resistance, analgesics, and drug treatments for diseases with presently no cure. Pharmacology Articles Study the plethora of interactions between drug and target with these articles focusing on antibiotic resistance, analgesics, and drug treatments for diseases with presently no cure. You may also like: Chemistry , Medicine Effect of heat on medicine When medication is exposed to extreme heat, what happens? Antibiotic resistance Its rising threat Exploring ibuprofen Ibuprofen is a painkiller A treatment for Parkinson's disease By using a common diabetes drug mRNA vaccines What they are, and how they are different to traditional (live, attenuated, or viral-vectored) vaccines Anthrax toxin Using bacterial toxins to treat pain 'The Molecule': an upcoming biotech thriller A book review Psilocybin mushrooms and effect on depression Can this type of mushroom be used to treat the world's most common mental health disorder?

An extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you.  Discover Your Next Great Read Deep Dive into STEM Books Here you can explore an extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid or complement your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you. Our Curated Selections: Intern Blues by Robert Marion, M.D. The Emperor of All Maladies by Siddhartha Mukherjee The Molecule by Dr Rick Sax and Marta New

Also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What does depression do to your brain? 19/02/26, 19:42 Last updated: Published: 10/10/24, 11:19 Also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) This is Article 1 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Next article: Inside out: the chemistry of depression. -- I affect 3.8% of the population wide, With 280 million voices struggling inside. In women, my reach is 6%, And 5.7% of those over 60 feel me. Among new mothers, I reach 10%, With over 700,000 lost to my torment each year. What am I? Depression. The most prevalent psychiatric disorder that costs both money and lives. -- Also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), depression is a heterogenous disease, which means the manifestation of the disorder is influenced by multiple genes. It is commonly known that consistent low mood, loss of interest in hobbies you used to enjoy, lethargy, feeling of hopelessness etc. are physical symptoms of depression. However, have you ever wondered what happens in the brain in a depression sufferer, from the neuroscience aspect? Structurally, research into the neuroscience of depression reveals significant structural abnormalities in the brains of affected individuals. Studies using structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have shown that those with MDD show reductions in gray matter volume in regions responsible for emotion regulation. The limbic system of the brain is responsible for producing and regulating emotions. In depressed individuals, the hippocampus—a key component of the limbic system—shows reduced gray matter volume, which is linked to abnormalities in the associated white matter tracts. White matter consists of myelinated axons that facilitate communication between different brain regions, while grey matter contains the neuronal cell bodies responsible for processing information. The presence of abnormalities in white matter suggests a disconnection between regions within the limbic system, potentially impairing their ability to communicate effectively. This disconnection may contribute to the emotional dysregulation observed in depression, highlighting the intricate relationship between grey and white matter in the pathology of this disorder. Depression is a complex disorder that not only affects mood but changes the structure and function of the brain. By understanding the neurobiological changes—including reductions in grey matter and white matter disconnections—we can better grasp the pathogenesis of this condition. Continued research in the neuroscience behind depression is essential for developing more effective treatments. There is still much more to explore and understand in depression research; with each new discovery, we realise how much more there is to learn. Written by Chloe Kam Related articles: Depression in children / Psilocybin mushrooms as treatment for depression Project Gallery

Role of neurotransmitters in depression Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Inside out: the chemistry of depression Last updated: 19/02/26, 19:35 Published: 05/06/25, 07:00 Role of neurotransmitters in depression This is Article 2 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Next article: The promising effects of magic mushrooms for depression . Previous article: What does depression do to your brain? Ever wondered what’s going on inside your brain when you’re feeling down? Imagine the scene from Inside Out , where Sadness takes over the control room, overshadowing the other emotions. That’s actually not too far from what happens during depression, but the changes in your brain are much more than just a battle of emotions. Depression is the most common mental illness globally. It is typically marked by a persistently low mood and energy, and a loss of interest or pleasure in everyday activities. Risk factors include chronic stress, traumatic life events, genetic vulnerability, ageing, and female sex. While these influences are widely recognised, have you ever thought about what is actually happening inside your brain when you're depressed? You've probably heard phrases like “I need a serotonin boost,” but what does that really mean? What is serotonin, and how does it influence our emotions and mental health? What are neurotransmitters? Think of neurotransmitters as messenger pigeons between neurons. They are involved in communication between different neurons. Communication between neurons is called synaptic transmission. In synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles in one neuron into the synaptic cleft (the gap between two neurons) and then bind to receptors on the receiving neuron. This is how information travels through the brain, allowing us to think, feel, and act. Serotonin is an example of a neurotransmitter. Others include dopamine, noradrenaline, acetylcholine. The monoamine theory of depression One of the most widely supported explanations for the neurobiology of depression is the monoamine theory. This theory suggests that depression results from an imbalance or deficiency of monoamines in the brain. Monoamines are a group of neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, that are synthesised from the amino acids L-tryptophan and L-tyrosine. Fun fact: Did you know around 95% of the body's serotonin is produced in the gut? This is why there is growing interest in the gut-brain axis in mental health! Different neurotransmitter systems are involved in depression and even everyday emotion processing and regulation. The dopamine (DA) system plays a key role in experiencing reward and pleasure, often linked to feelings of joy. In contrast, the serotonin (5-HT) system is more associated with responses to punishment and aversive experiences, such as sadness or disgust. Noradrenaline (NE), on the other hand, is closely tied to fear, anger, and the activation of the "fight or flight" response during stressful situations. These neurotransmitters are thought to underlie three fundamental emotional states, which can combine in different ways to form a wide range of complex emotions. In the brain, these monoamines regulate mood, motivation, pleasure, and emotional stability. When levels are low, people may experience sadness, fatigue, apathy, and changes in appetite or sleep. This is why many antidepressant medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), aim to increase the availability of these monoamines in the synapse, improving communication between neurons and, over time, alleviating symptoms. SSRI treatment, in particular, is based on the serotonin hypothesis, a subset of the broader monoamine theory of depression, which suggests that reduced serotonin levels contribute to depressive symptoms. Conclusion: why depression is more than a mood Depression isn’t just “feeling sad”; it is a real condition that involves real chemical changes in the brain. The monoamine theory helps explain this by focusing on key neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, which help control mood, motivation, and emotional balance. When these chemicals are out of sync, too low or not working properly, it can lead to the emotional numbness, low energy, and hopelessness that many people with depression experience. These neurotransmitters do not work in isolation; they influence how we respond to rewards, stress, and even daily activities. By understanding the biological changes behind depression, we take an important step toward not only understanding the condition but also reducing the stigma around it. Written by Chloe Kam Related articles: Emotional chemistry / Embarrassment / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES Barchas, J.D. and Altemus, M. (1999) ‘Monoamine Hypotheses of Mood Disorders’, in Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition . Lippincott-Raven. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28257/ (Accessed: 3 May 2025). Jiang, Y. et al. (2022) ‘Monoamine Neurotransmitters Control Basic Emotions and Affect Major Depressive Disorders’, Pharmaceuticals , 15(10), p. 1203. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15101203 . Project Gallery

In particular the novel zeolitic 2-methylimidazole framework (ZIF-8) MOF has received attention for drug delivery. ZIF-8 is composed of Zn2+ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, making a highly crystalline structure. ZIF-8 MOFs are able to deliver  cancer drugs like doxorubicin to tumorous environments as it possesses a pH-sensitive degradation property. ZIF-8’s framework will only degrade in pH 5.0-5.5 which is a cancerous pH environment, and will not degrade in normal human body pH 7.4 Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How metal organic frameworks are used to deliver cancer drugs in the body Last updated: 18/02/26 Published: 20/04/23 In late 2025, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson and Omar M. Yaghi for their pioneering work in developing metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Metal ions and organic ligands are able to connect to form metallic organic frameworks on a nanoscale (Nano-MOFs) for cancer drug delivery. Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are promising nanocarriers for the encapsulation of cancer drugs for drug delivery in the body. Cancer affects people globally with chemotherapy remaining the most frequent treatment approach. However, chemotherapy is non-specific, being cytotoxic to patients’ normal DNA cells causing severe side effects. Nanoscale Metal Organic Frameworks (Nano-MOFs) are highly effective for encapsulating cancer drugs for controlled drug delivery, acting as capsules that deliver cancer drugs to only tumorous environments. MOFs are composed of metal ions linked by organic ligands creating a permanent porous network. MOFs are able to form one-, two-, or three-dimensional structures building a coordination network with cross-links. When synthesized MOFs are crystalline compound and can sometimes be observed as a cubic structure when observed on a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image. In particular the novel zeolitic 2-methylimidazole framework (ZIF-8) MOF has received attention for drug delivery. ZIF-8 is composed of Zn2+ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, making a highly crystalline structure. ZIF-8 MOFs are able to deliver cancer drugs like doxorubicin to tumorous environments as it possesses a pH-sensitive degradation property. ZIF-8’s framework will only degrade in pH 5.0-5.5 which is a cancerous pH environment, and will not degrade in normal human body pH 7.4 conditions. This increases therapeutic efficacy for the patients having less systemic side effects, an aspect that nanomedicine has been extensively researching. As chemotherapy will damage health DNA cells as well as cancer cells, MOFs will only target cancer cells. Additionally the ZIF-8 MOF has a high porosity property due to the MOFs structures that is able to uptake doxorubicin successfully. Zn2+ is used in the medical field having a low toxicity and good biocompatibility. Overall MOFs and metal-organic molecules are important for the advancement of nanotechnology and nanomedicine. MOFs are highly beneficial for cancer research being a less toxic treatment method for patients. ZIF-8 MOFs are a way forward for biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies that research treatments that are more tolerable for patients. Such research shows the diversity of chemistry as the uses of metals and organic molecules are able to expand to medicine. Written by Alice Davey Related article: Anti-cancer metal compounds

Examining disconnection strategies and Functional Group Interconversion (FGI) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Molecular blueprints: the art of synthetic planning Last updated: 14/02/26, 21:58 Published: 19/02/26, 08:00 Examining disconnection strategies and Functional Group Interconversion (FGI) This is article no. 1 in a two-part series on retrosynthesis. Next article: Synthesis of ibuprofen (coming soon). Introduction Science is often seen as rigid, driven solely by facts and logic. Yet, in the world of chemical synthesis, molecular design and retrosynthetic analysis can be considered an art form. Synthetic creativity can be measured by the number of steps, environmental considerations, or the clever assembly of chemical building blocks. Widely used in the pharmaceutical industry and responsible for many Nobel Prize‑winning discoveries, retrosynthetic planning is central to modern synthetic chemistry. 1. Disconnection Strategy Retrosynthesis begins with deconstructing a target molecule into simpler starting materials known as synthons. A synthon is hypothetical but represents a fragment that could react to form a target molecule. Chemists then match synthons to real‑life equivalents (R.L.E.) which can be used in the lab. For example, if a target molecule contains an ester group, cleaving the oxygen–carbonyl bond produces four possible synthons ( Figure 1 ). Of these synthons, the positively charged oxygen has no R.L.E., so pairing the negatively charged oxygen with a carbonyl‑containing R.L.E., such as a carboxylic acid or acid chloride, and an alcohol will effectively synthesise the desired ester. 2. Functional Group Interconversion (FGI) FGIs are exploited by chemists when a functional group is difficult to manipulate directly. In these cases, the target functional group is converted to another functional group which is easier to work with. For instance, this strategy is commonly used to synthesise alkene and carboxylic acid fragments. As alkenes mainly participate in addition reactions, forming C–C bonds can prove difficult; therefore, converting the alkene to an alkyne can make this simpler. As an alkyne‑to‑alkene transformation is relatively simple, using either Lindlar’s catalyst (Z‑alkene) or Na/NH₃ (E‑alkene), alkynes can be used to build up the carbon chain before a final reduction. This is done by simple nucleophilic substitutions promoted by base deprotonation (NaNH₂) of the alkyne. The same idea is used for installing carboxylic acids, as a common FGI is to use a nitrile group (CN). These can be easily transformed back to the target carboxylic acid using acid in aqueous conditions. 3. Synthesis of Aspirin Retrosynthetic analysis can be used to design synthetic routes to common pharmaceuticals. For aspirin, a good disconnection strategy would be to break the ester bond and derive R.L.E. as shown above. To install the carboxylic acid, an FGI can be used. In Figure 3, two possible syntheses are highlighted utilising these strategies. While the synthetic methods presented previously will produce aspirin in high yields, they often create large amounts of waste and use harsh acidic conditions. Bhuyan et al. have proposed a more sustainable synthesis using blue LED light to catalyse the reaction under an O₂ atmosphere ( Figure 4) . Conclusion In conclusion, retrosynthesis and synthetic planning are essential tools for designing complex molecules. While the disconnection strategy and FGIs are relatively simple concepts, their application is used routinely in both industry and academia, regardless of the complexity of the target molecule. While one strategy may be used routinely, there are often many more ways to synthesise a particular compound more efficiently or with more flair. Stay tuned for Part 2, where the techniques discussed here are applied to the synthesis of ibuprofen. Written by Antony Lee Project Gallery