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Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Which fuel will be used for the colonisation of Mars? 01/10/25, 10:48 Last updated: Published: 30/04/23, 11:06 Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars The creation of a “Planet B” is an idea that has been circulating for decades; however we are yet to find a planet that is similar enough to our Earth that would be viable to live on without major modifications. Mars has been the most widely talked about planet in the media, and is commonly thought to be the planet that we know the most about. So, could it be habitable? If we were to move to Mars, how would society thrive? The dangers of living on Mars As a neighbour to Earth, Mars might be classed as habitable without more knowledge. Unfortunately, it is quite the opposite. On Earth, humans have access to air with an oxygen content of 21%, however Mars only has 0.13% oxygen. The difference in the air itself suggests an uninhabitable planet. Another essential factor of human life is food. There have indeed been attempts to grow crops in Martian soil, including tomatoes, with great levels of success. Unfortunately, the soil is toxic therefore ingesting these crops could cause significant side effects in the long term. It could be possible to introduce a laboratory that crops could be grown in, modelling Earth soil and atmospheric conditions however this would be difficult. Air and food are two resources that are essential and could not readily be available in a move to Mars. Food could be grown in laboratory style greenhouses and the air could be processed. It is important to note that these solutions are fairly novel. The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) was a component of the NASA Perseverance rover that was sent to Mars during 2020. Solid oxide electrolysis converts carbon dioxide, readily available in the atmosphere of Mars, into carbon monoxide and oxygen. MOXIE contributes to the idea that, in the move to Mars, oxygen would have to be ‘made’ rather than being readily available. The MOXIE experiment utilised nuclear energy to do this, and it was shown that oxygen could be produced at all times of day in multiple different weather conditions. It is possible to gain oxygen on Mars, but a plethora of energy is required to do so. What kind of energy would be better? With accessing oxygen especially, the energy source on Mars would need to be extremely reliable in order to ensure the population is safe. It is true that fossil fuels are reliable however it is increasingly obvious that the reason a move to Mars would be necessary is due to the lack of care of the Earth therefore polluting resources are to be especially avoided. A combination of resources is likely to be used. Wind power during the massive dust storms that find themselves on Mars regularly and solar power in clear weather, when the dust has not yet settled over the surface. One resource that would be essential is nuclear power. The public perception is mixed yet it is certainly reliable and that is the main requirement. After all, a human can only survive for around five minutes without oxygen. Time lost due to energy failures would be deadly. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Exploring Mercury / Artemis: the lunar south pole base / Total eclipses Project Gallery

AI in developing different space technologies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Artificial intelligence in space 11/04/26, 14:03 Last updated: Published: 19/11/23, 17:31 AI in developing different space technologies Artificial intelligence or AI has become an important force or a tool that drives the evolution of technologies that improve human life and helps unlock the secrets of the universe beyond the influence of our planet. In simple words, AI is something that enables a computer/ robot to mimic human intelligence and it is revolutionizing the way we explore and utilise space, enhancing everything from spacecraft navigation and autonomous decision-making to data analysis and mission planning. This article explores the profound impact of AI in the development of space related technologies. Mission planning and design Space mission planning and payload, instrument designs rely on the gathered previous mission data. However, access to all the historic mission data is only provided to individuals with a higher authority access at the space agency which requires a lot of paper works and approvals. But recently NASA came up with a solution and they named it as the “Data Acquisition Processing and Handling Network Environment” (DAPHNE) system. Daphne-AT is an AI assistant that can access millions of previous mission data including the most restricted ones and provide the scientists an insight about their mission without the need of a higher authority access or security clearance. It can also compute and analyse countless input variables to determine the most efficient routes and schedules for missions, which is crucial for long-duration missions or missions with multiple objectives. Manufacturing Manufacturing processes usually involves complex tasks that requires high precision and attention to detail when it comes to space related applications. The use of AI in spacecraft manufacturing not only accelerates production but also increases precision and reliability. AI assistants like collaborative bots (cobots) interact with the engineers and help them to make the right decisions, reduce the overall assembly process time, and also provide insights about the final product which ensures that the spacecrafts are built to the highest standards. Data processing Space missions generate vast amounts of data, from images and telemetry to instrument readings. AI algorithms are capable in sifting through this data, identifying patterns, and extracting meaningful insights. An example is the estimation of planetary wind speed which requires a combination of the satellite imagery and meteorological data. AI tools can rapidly analyse these large datasets and help scientists in understanding these planetary phenomena and easily uncover its secrets. This capability is also valuable in missions to study distant galaxies, black holes, and exoplanets. Navigation & guidance systems One of the critical applications of AI in space technology is autonomous navigation. Spacecraft traveling vast distances through the cosmos must constantly adjust their trajectories to avoid collisions with celestial bodies and maximise their fuel efficiency. Advanced AI systems can process data in real-time and autonomously adjust a spacecraft's course. This not only reduces the need for constant human intervention from the ground station but also allows for more precise and efficient missions. Astronaut health monitoring Astronauts in space face a range of health issues like bone density loss, cardiovascular issues etc. The AI systems can continuously monitor physiological data and provide an insight into the astronaut’s health condition including sleep patterns. This allows early detection of health issues and timely intervention which reduces the need for immediate communication with ground mission control, ultimately safeguard the safety of the astronauts on long-duration missions. In summary, AI is a tool that represents a transformative shift in how we explore and understand our cosmos and its secrets. One day, AI will play an even more significant role that pushes the boundaries of space and bring us closer to answering some of humanity’s most profound questions. Written by Arun Sreeraj Related articles: Astronauts in space / AI in drug discovery / Evolution of AI / Chemistry in space exploration Project Gallery

It's produced by European honeybees Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Medicinal Manuka 10/07/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 11/05/24, 10:57 It's produced by European honeybees Manuka honey has received considerable attention recently due to its impressive antimicrobial ability and potential for future clinical use. Manuka honey is produced by European honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) that visit the Manuka tree ( Leptospermum scoparium ) in New Zealand. It is most commonly distributed as monofloral honey (produced by bees that have visited predominantly one plant species—in this case, the Manuka bush); however, it can also be sold as multifloral. The Manuka tree, which the European honeybees visit, has a long history of use for its medicinal properties. The Māori (the indigenous Polynesian people of mainland New Zealand) valued it for its wide variety of uses, referring to the plant as ‘taonga’ (‘treasure’). The leaves from the tree were used to make infusions that could reduce fevers, and the gum produced from the tree was used to moisturise burns and soothe coughs. In the 18th century, European settlers contacted the Māori and became aware of this tree and its healing properties; they used the leaves as a medicinal tea to treat scurvy. In 1839, an English beekeeper, Mary Bumby, introduced bees to New Zealand, and by 1860, the bee population had grown extensively, and colonies were present throughout forests. The Māori learnt to harvest the honey produced by these bees and promoted the production of Manuka honey. The honey was used by the Māori for the same benefits they used the Manuka tree. In the 1980s, the biochemist Peter Molan launched the first scientific research on the antimicrobial properties of Manuka honey, evaluating its ability to kill microbes. Research has demonstrated that Manuka honey is an effective bactericidal (killer of microbes). Dr Jonathon Cox and his colleagues at Aston University showed that administering Manuka honey can be effective against Mycobacterium abscessus , which is fatal without treatment. Using a model of an artificial lung, Dr Cox found that the addition of Manuka honey reduced the dosage of the highly potent amikacin by 8-fold, which is an extremely significant difference to the quality of life of patients as a common consequence of the 13-month amikacin treatment is permanent hearing loss. Alternative remedies for bacterial infections are required to combat the growing concern of antibiotic resistance. Many molecules of Manuka honey are responsible for their antimicrobial activity, including methylglyoxal (MGO) content. MGO can interfere with the lipid bilayer structure of the bacterial membrane, leading to leakage of its cellular contents and cell death. MGO can also impair the function of enzymes involved in energy production and macromolecule synthesis within bacteria. Additionally, Manuka honey can also produce hydrogen peroxide, which generates highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) within bacterial cells. These ROS, such as hydroxyl radicals, can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, and DNA, leading to bacterial cellular death. Altogether, these mechanisms enable Manuka honey to disrupt bacterial growth and proliferation. Manuka honey is currently used as a medical product for professional wound care in European hospitals. The main advantage of Manuka honey is that the mechanisms behind its antibacterial activity are diverse, making it effective against resistant strains of bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) . A systematic review written by Jonathon Cox states that certain commercially available varieties of Manuka honey are effective against organisms that have a high degree of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, this leads to the promising preliminary conclusion that Manuka honey could be the answer to the investigation of finding an effective antimicrobial, an alternative to antibiotics. Written by Harvey Wilkes Related article: Natural substances as treatment to infection REFERENCES Nolan, V.C., Harrison, J. and Cox, J.A., 2022. In vitro synergy between manuka honey and amikacin against Mycobacterium abscessus complex shows potential for nebulisation therapy. Microbiology, 168(9), p.001237. Nolan, V.C., Harrison, J., Wright, J.E. and Cox, J.A., 2020. Clinical significance of manuka and medical-grade honey for antibiotic-resistant infections: a systematic review. Antibiotics , 9 (11), p.766. Project Gallery

The same condition after all? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder 26/04/26, 14:06 Last updated: Published: 20/01/24, 11:38 The same condition after all? Practice and progress in rheumatology The relationship between hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (hEDS) and Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder (HSD) has been hotly debated in recent years, with research being published on a near-constant basis attempting to establish a valid symptomatological or causalogical difference between the two disorders. Now, a paper by Ritelli et al. (2022) threatens to end the savage cycle for all. Using RNA sequencing techniques and immunofluorescence, Ritelli et al. found identical gene expression and cellular characteristics in dermal biopsies from those with both conditions. Through immunofluorescence of biopsies from 20 women with hEDS, 16 women and 4 men with HSD and 40 controls, it was found that the shape and components of the extracellular matrix were greatly different in those with HSD/hEDS in comparison to those in the healthy control group. Abnormalities were discovered in the expression of cadherin-11, snail1, and αvβ3, α5β1 and α2β1 integrins. Integrins mediate the connections between the cell cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix to ensure they stay together, cell-to-cell adhesion is initiated by cadherin-11, and snail1 is localised close to the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2B (CDKN2B) gene. Snail1 can activate CDKN2B gene products when Snail1 is overexpressed to the point of reaching the general localisation of the CDKN2B domain. This demonstrates that there may be a similar causative link between the widespread inflammation and chronic pain in HSD/hEDS and rheumatoid arthritis. Li et al. (2021) proved that the polarisation of macrophages (white blood cells which destroy foreign products) was carefully controlled by the CDKN2B-AS1/ MIR497/TXNIP axis- the increased activation of which in rheumatoid arthritis catalyses the excessive polarisation of macrophages, which causes the macrophages to attack healthy cells. In rat studies published by Tan et al. (2022), it was found that rats with diabetes and induced sepsis experienced greater intestinal injury that control rats without any medical pathology who experienced induced sepsis. This was demonstrated to be due to interruptions in the miR-3061/Snail1 communication pathway. Research on this phenomenon in humans may elucidate the relevance of snail1 overproduction in hEDS/HSD sufferers to their complex gastrointestinal symptoms. If this pathway works similarly in human models of sepsis or localised GI infection, it may intimate that snail1 overproduction is responsible for the hyperpolarisation of macrophages in response to foreign product detection, which may cause immunological damage in the intestines. However, the relevance of this study to hEDS/HSD should be considered questionable until further human research into this avenue has been completed. The result of this research is that academia can potentially derive a genetic cause of the complex phenotypes demonstrated by sufferers of hEDS/HSD. This can be achieved by visualising the human genome, and testing genes like those above, or those implicated in modulating the activity of the genes above. Given this, the 2025 symposium discussed whether HSD and hEDS should be considered separate at all, with discussions around potentially reclassifying or merging them in the future, to improve access to care to patients. Written by Aimee Wilson Related articles: Ehlers-Danlos syndrome / Types of movement Project Gallery

An exposé to the undisclosed condition Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast cancer in males 03/07/25, 10:26 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 16:51 An exposé to the undisclosed condition This is article no. 2 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Herpes vs devastating skin disease . Previous article: Rare zoonotic diseases . Following the breakthroughs and increasingly successful screening programmes in most recent years, breast cancer in women has become increasingly talked about. Throughout October, social media is filled with information on breast cancer in women, what to do if diagnosed, memorable fundraising events that will generate thousands of pounds, and the heartwarming stories of survivors and patients fighting against this horrible disease. In the UK, 1 in 7 females will be diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in their lifetime. If we look at other areas in the world, this statistic shifts significantly: in the USA 1 in 8 females will develop the condition, whilst in Japan, it is 1 in 38 females. Although the percentages of breast cancer incidence differ around the globe, they all underline one common characteristic: many women and their families throughout the globe will suffer because of breast cancer ( Figure 1 ). Interestingly, though, with how prevalent breast cancer is in women, breast cancer in men is hardly ever mentioned. Whilst breast cancer is much more common in women, with around 55 thousand diagnoses every year, only 400 males a are diagnosed annually, which is equivalent to 1% of breast cancer diagnoses in the UK. However, the unlikelihood of a disease does not mean that it is any less significant. Conditions like epilepsy, strangulated inguinal hernias, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and Paget’s disease are all conditions with an incidence of around 1% or less. Nevertheless, they all may severely change the lifestyle of patients and even cause death - the fact that they have a low presence makes them no less important. This makes one wonder, what causes breast cancer in men and women to differ so extensively in numbers, and why is breast cancer in men so undisclosed? To answer this question, we must first understand what breast cancer is. Cancers are cells that grow uncontrollably, often forming tumours in the tissue or organs of the body and usually caused by a mutation or environmental factors, such as carcinogens. Cancers can be classified as benign and malignant, the difference being that benign cancers will stay in the original location, whilst malignant cancers are invasive. In other words, the tumour may spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes or metastasise, spreading to other locations in the body. Breast cancer can be divided further into several types – this is one of the reasons finding a “cure” for breast cancer is so complicated. In men, the two most common types of breast cancer are invasive ductal carcinoma, which can spread through the ducts to the body, and ductal carcinoma in situ, which arises in the ductal lining of the breast tissue. But what causes these cancers to develop in men? There are multiple risk factors to consider when it comes to breast cancer in men, one of the most common being genetic mutations. Genetic mutations are when a copy of the DNA sequence in a gene has a change, and it can cause a different function or phenotype of the gene. In breast cancer, two critical and potentially inheritable mutations are in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, which increase the risk of breast cancer in both men and women. Furthermore, this is why taking the family history of breast cancer is essential: an individual with a positive family history for breast cancer may wish to take a genetic test to confirm whether they have the mutated genes. After all, genes are inherited. Hence, if one parent has the mutated gene, they could pass it on to their children. In addition, it is important to understand how breast cancer can only occur in breast tissue. Therefore, even if a male has the mutated gene, they could only have said cancer if there is breast tissue where the hormones oestrogen and progesterone can bind to and lead to mutation, causing the cancer to further multiply and spread – this is not always the case. Another genetic risk for breast cancer is a diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome. This syndrome, which affects less than 1% of newborn males, involves having an extra X chromosome, leading to the body producing higher levels of oestrogen and lower levels of androgen. Androgens are a group of sex hormones, usually found at higher levels in men, one example being testosterone. Meanwhile, oestrogen appears to be another risk factor. This natural hormone has been shown to correlate with breast cancer. A study in the Nature Journal found that the inhibition of oestrogen has decreased the incidence of cancer in patients considered high-risk. But how are men exposed to the hormone? Aside from being diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome, men can be exposed to hormone therapy treatments, which include drugs that could contain oestrogen. Likewise, another treatment that’s considered a risk factor is chest radiation therapy. Radiation is one of the known carcinogens of cancer, causing cells to mutate. Therefore, elevated levels of radiation could increase the risk for a patient. Other factors such as obesity, age and liver disease should also be carefully considered. As you can see, the list of risk factors for men is abundant, so why is it that breast cancer is still more present in women? And why is the general male public less aware of these risks, as they are for women? The answer to the first question is easy enough. Although the list of risk factors for breast cancer in men seems extensive, it is even longer for women. Furthermore, women are considered at higher risk as certain risk factors that both men and women share are more prevalent in women. For instance, oestrogen is produced in larger quantities by women. Additionally, a higher proportion of women are taking hormone replacement therapy drugs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) drugs are usually given to post-menopausal women to supplement more hormones, such as oestrogen. In the 90s alone, one study found that 22% of post-menopausal women took HRT whilst another study found that 51% of women have discussed taking the drug with their doctors. Meanwhile, the number of men taking HRT is much smaller, and usually these have a lower quantity of oestrogen, focusing more on testosterone. Although it is important to consider that within this time, incidences of individuals taking the hormones could change as the culture, awareness and research into hormone therapy changes. The second question, on the other hand, is slightly more complicated to answer. Of course, regardless of the rarity and prevalence of a condition in the population, the aim would be to treat and cure all. However, despite the significant impact and importance the NHS has on British healthcare, its limited resources meant that the most pressing and widespread issues were given priority. For instance, concentrating resources towards the C-19 virus during the last few years. Similarly, all healthcare systems globally are under constant pressure of this public health issue, managing its resources. Nevertheless, this does not mean that treating and raising awareness towards male breast cancer is less urgent and necessary. Another issue is the misinformation towards male breast cancer. In March 2023, a study in the American Journal of Men’s Health found that 61.1% of the participants (a total of 270 women and 141 men) were unaware that men could, in theory, have breast cancer. If we think about breast cancer, it is in many incorrect ways associated with femininity, perhaps from the organ it is found it arises on and to the colour (pink) used to represent breast cancer. Therefore, it all boils down to a convenient misconception, often following illogical stereotypes, that “large, strong, macho men” would never have this “women-only condition”. But how do we diagnose men with a condition they may not even know they could have? Following the process for diagnoses, specialists may recommend men with a strong family history to do regular screenings from the age of 35. Whilst screening is found to be an effective method when diagnosing women, its success in men is limited. For a majority of men, their process for diagnosis will start by noticing symptoms. Symptoms can be as obscure as a “different feel” to the breast tissue, or something more visible like a lump or hard mass. In theory, this would encourage men to approach their GPs which can then lead to the next steps of screening. However, many go seek experts late, often when seriously ill. This can both be explained culturally (such as Hispanics) and generationally, where older generations avoid medical consultations. This is very dangerous, as men often only received an official diagnosis of breast cancer six months after noticing symptoms, allowing the cancer to significantly grow within this time. On the other hand, an early diagnosis can allow for a swifter start to treatment, greater possibilities in treatment options, and could be less brutal for the patient. Hence, a better chance of treatment success and recovery. In summary, the procedures for the treatment of breast cancer in men do exist. However, for this treatment to be effective, healthcare professionals could consider increasing the awareness of the importance of regular screenings and appointments for early treatment. Overall, breast cancer in men is indeed rare. However, one must not overlook its consequences or its significance solely due to statistics. Breast cancer in men impacts many lives of both the patient and their families. Understanding the risks and the process for diagnosis could be essential in the early treatment of male patients. However, a further understanding of the astigmatisms and culture around breast cancer could be useful when educating the public on this condition. This article used “men” and “women” when describing breast cancer in patients. However, note that many individuals may not identify within these categories but could still be diagnosed and affected by breast cancer. Written by Inês Isabel Couto André ------------------ Learn more about this disease with Against Breast Cancer Take action and donate to Breast Cancer UK , and Cancer Research UK ------------------ Related articles: New radiation therapy to treat cancer / Apocrine carcinoma (a rare form of breast cancer) / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Project Gallery

Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The secret to disarming plant pathogens revealed Last updated: 22/09/25, 10:14 Published: 27/03/25, 08:00 Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Unravelling the role of bacterial proteins in plant diseases! Disarming plant diseases one protein at a time! Scientists may have found a means to neutralise them, saving farmers $220 billion in yearly crop losses. The impact of plant diseases on global food production Bacteria have long been known to wreak havoc on crops, threatening our food supply and causing substantial economic losses. For over two decades, biologist Sheng-Yang He and his dedicated team have been delving into the mysterious world of bacterial proteins, seeking to unravel their role in plant diseases that plague countless crops worldwide. Finally, a breakthrough has been achieved after years of tireless research and collaboration. In a groundbreaking study published in the esteemed journal Nature, he and his colleagues have uncovered the mechanisms by which these proteins induce disease in plants and devised a method to neutralise their harmful effects. Understanding the mechanism of harmful proteins Their investigation focused on a group of injected proteins called AvrE/DspE, responsible for causing diseases ranging from brown spots in beans to fire blight in fruit trees. Despite their significance, the exact workings of these proteins have long remained elusive. The researchers discovered that these proteins adopt a unique 3D structure resembling a tiny mushroom with a cylindrical stem through cutting-edge advancements in artificial intelligence and innovative experimental techniques. Intriguingly, this structure resembled a straw, leading the team to hypothesise that the proteins create channels in plant cells, enabling the bacteria to extract water from the host during infection. Further investigation into the 3D model of the fire blight protein revealed that its hollow inner core contains many proteins from the AvrE/DspE family. These proteins were found to suppress the plant's immune system and induce dark water-soaked spots on leaves, the telltale signs of infection. However, armed with this newfound knowledge, the researchers sought to develop a strategy to disarm these proteins and halt their destructive effects. They turned to poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM), tiny spherical nanoparticles with precise diameters that can be tailored in the lab. By experimenting with different sizes, they identified a nanoparticle that effectively blocked the water channels formed by the bacterial proteins. Application of nanoparticles in blocking water channels In a remarkable series of experiments, the researchers treated frog eggs engineered to produce the water channel protein with these channel-blocking nanoparticles. The results were astounding—the eggs no longer swelled with water and remained unaffected. Similarly, infected Arabidopsis plants treated with the nanoparticles significantly reduced pathogen concentrations, effectively preventing disease development. This breakthrough discovery offers a glimmer of hope in the battle against plant diseases, which cause immense losses in global food production. Plants are responsible for 80% of the world's food supply, and protecting them from pathogens and pests is crucial for ensuring food security. The team's groundbreaking research on plant pathogens and their harmful proteins opens up new possibilities for combating various plant diseases. The implications of their findings extend far beyond a single crop or disease, offering novel approaches to address a wide range of plant diseases. By understanding the mechanism by which bacterial proteins, such as AvrE and DspE, cause diseases in plants, researchers can now explore strategies to disarm these proteins and prevent their harmful effects. The team discovered that these proteins act as water channels, allowing bacteria to invade plant cells and create a saturated environment that promotes their growth. This insight led to the development of channel-blocking nanoparticles, effectively preventing bacteria from infecting plants and causing disease symptoms. Using precise nanoparticles, such as PAMAM dendrimers, to block plant pathogens' water channels represents a promising avenue for crop protection. Figure 1: this figure shows that PAMAM are very branched polymers that are very small, have a low polydispersity index, and have a lot of active amine functional groups. They have multiple modifiable surface functionalities, facilitating the conjugation of ligands for cancer targeting, imaging, and therapy. PAMAM dendrimers also have solubilisation, high drug encapsulation, and passive targeting ability, contributing to their therapeutic success. Cancer researchers are excited about their potential as drug carriers and non-viral gene vectors, with a focus on diagnostic imaging applications. These nanoparticles can be tailored to specific diameters, allowing for targeted disruption of the bacterial proteins' channels. The nanoparticles effectively render the bacteria harmless by interfering with the proteins' ability to create a moist environment within plant cells. This innovative approach has shown success in combating diseases caused by pathogens like Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia amylovora . Implications for global food production and food security The potential impact of this research on global food production is immense. Plant diseases result in significant crop losses, amounting to over 10% of global food production annually. This translates to a staggering $220 billion economic loss worldwide. Developing strategies to disarm harmful proteins and protect crops from diseases can mitigate these losses and enhance food security. Furthermore, the team's findings highlight the critical role of plant biology research in addressing global challenges. Plants provide 80% of our food, making their health and protection crucial for sustaining our growing population. By understanding how pathogens infect plants and developing innovative solutions, we can safeguard our food supply and reduce the economic impact of crop diseases. Experimental results and a promising outlook The researchers aim to further investigate the interaction between channel-blocking nanoparticles and bacterial proteins. By visualising the structures and mechanisms involved, they hope to refine their designs and develop even more effective strategies for crop protection. Additionally, artificial intelligence, such as the AlphaFold2 programme, has proven instrumental in predicting the 3D structures of complex proteins. Continued advancements in AI technology will undoubtedly contribute to further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases. By unravelling the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, we can protect global food production and enhance food security. The implications of this research extend beyond a single crop or disease, paving the way for novel approaches to combat a wide range of plant diseases and safeguard our agricultural systems. Conclusion The groundbreaking research conducted by biologist Sheng-Yang He and his team offer hope in the fight against plant diseases. By revealing the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, they have paved the way for novel approaches to combat various plant diseases. This enhances food security and protects global food production, reducing economic losses and ensuring a sustainable future. With continued advancements in artificial intelligence and the development of precise nanoparticles, the possibilities for further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases are endless. By safeguarding our agricultural systems, we can secure the health of our crops and, ultimately, the well-being of our growing population. The implications of this research extend far beyond agriculture, offering new avenues for addressing global challenges and paving the way for a brighter and more resilient future. Figure 2: this figure shows a working model for the molecular actions of AvrE-family effectors in plants. AvrE-family effectors are water- and solute-permeable channels that change the osmotic and water potential and make an apoplast that is rich in water and nutrients for bacteria to grow in plant tissues that are infected. They can also engage host proteins to modulate AvrE-family channel properties or optimise pathogenic outcomes. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Nanomedicine / Mechanisms of pathogen evasion / Nanocarriers REFERENCE Kinya Nomura, Felipe Andreazza, Jie Cheng, Ke Dong, Pei Zhou, Sheng Yang He. Bacterial pathogens deliver water- and solute-permeable channels to plant cells. Nature , 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06531-5 Project Gallery

Testing cancerous tumours Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A new tool to diagnose: liquid biopsies 26/04/26, 13:55 Last updated: Published: 15/01/24, 23:48 Testing cancerous tumours Liquid biopsies are an example of integrating next-generation sequencing to diagnose and study tumours using only blood or other fluid samples rather than solid tissue. These biopsies are significant in modern medicine, particularly in treating cancer, as they enable the earlier detection of cancers in a less invasive manner. As of 2025-26, England's NHS is implementing liquid biopsy tests for thousands of lung and breast cancer patients, enabling faster access to targeted therapies. In this article, I aim to explore liquid biopsies, their role in disease detection and issues which arise from their usage. A liquid biopsy is a test which detects cancerous tumours from the pieces of tumour that break off and circulate in the bloodstream. A liquid biopsy involves a simple blood test and analysis in the lab with a machine that separates blood cells from the plasma, allowing a pathologist to examine the fluid and look for biomarkers. These include circulating tumour cells (CTC) or circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA). CTCs are cancer cells that disseminate from a tumour and travelling in the bloodstream, whereas ctDNA is a DNA fragment from the tumour circulating in the blood. See Figure 1 for a diagram summarising this process in more detail. Finding these biomarkers shows evidence of a malignant tumour, possibly revealing its stage of development and potential metastases. Oncologists use this information to form the basis of cancer prognosis. Furthermore, genetic data from these tests provides information on suitable and effective treatments specific to the patient. In particular, the suitability for targeted therapies, which target specific genes or proteins within the cancer. Furthermore, it can monitor how well a treatment is working by seeing if the tumour has stopped growing after treatment. Finally, it can be used to predict and help prevent recurrence of cancer or progression of cancer by detecting minimal residual disease (where a small number of cancer cells remain in the body after treatment). Liquid biopsies are perhaps better and more advantageous than normal biopsies, as the method is quicker without requiring surgical intervention. In addition, liquid biopsies provide a more comprehensive tissue profile by taking tumour heterogeneity into account. This includes revealing more information about genetic variations, monitoring clonal evolution, assessing treatment resistance, and aiding in the customisation of targeted therapies. This means a more comprehensive view is provided compared to tissue biopsies, which do not represent the entire genetic diversity of a tumour. Liquid biopsies excel in overcoming these limitations by providing a systematic and dynamic assessment of the entire tumour’s genetic diversity. Unlike tissue biopsies, which may miss subclones, liquid biopsies offer a more comprehensive understanding of the overall tumour, making them a valuable tool for precision oncology. The process is also minimally invasive and only causes minimal pain. While liquid biopsies offer a less invasive means of monitoring diseases, their sensitivity and specificity in detecting biomarkers, such as circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) or circulating tumour cells (CTCs), might vary, leading to potential false positives or negatives. Additionally, the quantity and quality of biomarkers present in bodily fluids can fluctuate, impacting the reliability of liquid biopsy results for consistent monitoring. Furthermore, the associated cost of analysing liquid biopsy samples and the technology required for accurate detection can pose financial constraints for widespread implementation in healthcare systems. See Figure 2 which summarises the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Currently, there are a few liquid biopsy tests approved by the FDA to detect cancer within a patient. One example is the “Guardant 360 CDx”, approved for use in people with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Another example is the “Foundation One liquid CDx”, which is approved for use in people with a range of cancers such as NSCLC, prostate, ovarian and breast cancer. However, more research is needed to clinically evaluate the efficacy of liquid biopsies when compared to tissue biopsies. Nevertheless, liquid biopsies show a positive prospect for cancer diagnosis. Furthermore, liquid biopsies have also been used outside of cancer, such as in cardiovascular conditions such as myocardial infarction. In myocardial infarction, specific miRNA signatures released during myocardial necrosis provide accurate early detection of myocardial infarction. Further highlighting the multilevel potential of liquid biopsies. One of the main ethical concerns surrounding liquid biopsies involves the revealing of sensitive genetic information about a patient, encompassing medical history, and genetic identity, and potentially impacting familial relationships and legal affairs. This raises critical issues regarding privacy, consent, and the secure storage of such sensitive data. Additionally, challenges surrounding standardisation, cost-effectiveness, and the establishment of robust regulatory frameworks for the handling and storage of this genetic information further underscore the ethical complexities and necessity for stringent protocols in the implementation and management of liquid biopsy technologies. To conclude, it is clear that liquid biopsies have a lot of potential in diagnosing patients and, therefore, treating patients by aiding clinical decisions made by healthcare professionals. It has proven to be useful not just in diagnosing cancer but also in cardiovascular conditions such as myocardial infarction. The process has the potential to improve future patient outcomes. However, for this to happen, issues such as costs and ethics must be addressed so that liquid biopsies can be utilised more effectively in clinical practice. Written by Harene Elayathamby References: professional, C.C. medical Liquid biopsy: What it is & procedure details , Cleveland Clinic . Available at: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/23992-liquid-biopsy (Accessed: 19 December 2023). A tale of two biopsies: Liquid biopsy vs tissue biopsy (no date) Biochain Institute Inc. Available at: https://www.biochain.com/blog/a-tale-of-two-biopsies-liquid-biopsy-vs-tissue-biopsy/ (Accessed: 19 December 2023). Adhit, K.K. et al. (2023) ‘Liquid biopsy: An evolving paradigm for non-invasive disease diagnosis and monitoring in medicine’, Cureus [Preprint]. doi:10.7759/cureus.50176. Mannelli, C. (2019) ‘Tissue vs liquid biopsies for cancer detection: Ethical issues’, Journal of Bioethical Inquiry , 16(4), pp. 551–557. doi:10.1007/s11673-019-09944-y. Figures: Journey of a liquid biopsy (no date) Diagnostics . Available at: https://diagnostics.roche.com/global/en/article-listing/infographic-journey-of-a-liquid-biopsy.html (Accessed: 19 December 2023). A tale of two biopsies: Liquid biopsy vs tissue biopsy (no date) Biochain Institute Inc. Available at: https://www.biochain.com/blog/a-tale-of-two-biopsies-liquid-biopsy-vs-tissue-biopsy/ (Accessed: 19 December 2023) Project Gallery

Strategies for success and mathematical mastery Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How to excel in maths 09/07/25, 14:19 Last updated: Published: 01/10/23, 20:00 Strategies for success and mathematical mastery Mathematics is a subject that can be both daunting and rewarding. While some individuals seem to effortlessly grasp mathematical concepts, most of us need to put in extra effort to excel. This article is dedicated to the majority—the ones willing to work hard to achieve success in their A-level maths exams and beyond. By following a structured approach and embracing a growth mindset, you can unlock your mathematical potential and reach heights you may have never thought possible. Understanding the concepts Fundamentally, to be able to get anywhere in mathematics, you need to understand what you are doing with numbers and why. There is no point in knowing how to differentiate if you don’t know why you want to differentiate and why it works. Now, I am a strong believer that anyone can learn anything if they approach it with an open mind and determination to succeed. This is called having a growth mindset. However, there is a caveat with how maths is taught at school. When maths is taught, it is taught by someone who understands a concept in a particular way. We are all inherently different, and similarly, our minds all work slightly differently. So when your teacher explains how they understand something, it does not mean that you should also understand it as you both think differently. Now for some, they manage to grasp what their teacher is saying easily as they think similarly, but for others this may need an alternative approach. Some examples could be supplementary lessons with a tutor, buying a subscription to online lessons or asking for some 1-on-1 time with your teacher. But sometimes this may still not even work. If my teacher can’t help me, how can I learn? Well, for A-Levels and GCSEs, we are extremely blessed that there is a plethora of different resources that we can use, both written and in video format! Some of my favourites include, but are not limited to, TLMaths (Youtube), BBC Bitesize (GCSE only), and Khan Academy. (Also see: Extra Resources for more maths resources). YouTube really can be your best friend. There are thousands of videos explaining mathematical concepts, and they are not all as trivial as those shared by Numberphile. By simply searching for a topic that you are stuck on, you can get many different professionals to explain the same problem; with enough grit and determination, you’ll be able to find a video that you can easily understand! If, however, that does not seem to work, it may be an indicator that you need to step back and learn the fundamentals a bit better. There is little point in using the integral to calculate the area under a line graph if you don’t know what a line graph actually shows. Practice the concepts Once you’ve got the concepts down to the tee, there is only one option to go with. Practice. Practice. Practice. I foolishly made the mistake during my year 10 final exams, where instead of doing practice questions, I made notes from watching videos and thought that was enough. Not only is this not engaging, but when it comes to maths, practice is the only way to revise. Truthfully, I would never recommend taking notes in maths as it is not only quicker to look something up, but I believe the time spent making notes could be spent better elsewhere. The best way to practice for an exam is through practice papers. You may now be dashing off to find practice papers for your exam board; however, I would recommend not touching these until you are around 1 month away from your exam. If you are as crazy as I am, you could even leave it until the last week and complete 2 or 3 per day, but maybe for your sanity, I’d advise against this. Instead, use all of the resources that you are fortunate enough to have available to you thanks to the internet. Complete every question in your textbook and revision guide; complete predicted papers; do it all! This is the surefire way to get top marks and become a competent mathematician. But maybe you’re not studying for a big A-level exam just yet. By completing the questions that you may not have done in class and researching topic-specific questions (Math’s Genie and Physics and Maths Tutor are both excellent resources for this), you will, with time, start to develop your skills and put the theory into practice. By better applying these concepts, you begin to understand them and maybe even start to enjoy them. (Bonus tip: do your homework. It’s given out for a reason.) Apply the concepts to unfamiliar situations Now that you have mastered the concepts and put them to the test by answering every question you can get your hands on, comes the trickiest part of mathematical mastery: These are the questions that separate the A’s and the A*’s. The geniuses and the sedulous, but more importantly, those who can do maths, and those who understand maths. By applying the mathematical concepts that you’ve learned to unfamiliar situations, you start to develop an extremely sought-after skill. Problem solving. By using maths in an unfamiliar context, most students are hasty to give up, and this is why the last question on the test is so ‘difficult’, but in fact it's the same as the prior questions but in disguise. To conquer these questions, you have to be able to decipher what the question is asking and then apply the appropriate techniques to solve it. The only way that you will know which techniques to use is by attempting similar questions that push you, and in time, your brain's pattern recognition will kick in and you’ll start to find that you just know what to do. You can't explain it; you just want to differentiate here, factor out here, and expand these brackets here, and bam! You’ve got the answer. But the only way you can get there is by putting in the hours and attempting questions that are outside your comfort zone. At the beginning of the article, I said it would be tough, but maths does not require you to spend 4 hours every night (until you are smack in the middle of your A-level exams), but instead a mere 20 minutes, maybe only 5 days a week, but I promise you that this small amount of time after school, before bed, or during break, if uninterrupted and follows the rules that I have just suggested, will work absolute wonders on your mathematical ability. Imagine the impact of dedicating just 20 minutes a day to math starting right now. If you're in year 13, with your first math paper 38 weeks away on June 4th, time will fly. By committing to 20 minutes daily, five days a week, you'll accumulate over 63 hours of revision. Bump it up to half an hour, and you'll hit almost 100 hours. This early start saves you precious time closer to exams, allowing you to focus on other subjects. Unlike some subjects, math doesn't require rote memorisation. Building these skills gradually pays off. Yes, 20 minutes daily may seem modest, but consistency can be challenging. Skipping just one day can turn into a week, then a month. Dedication, determination, and discipline are essential for success. If you maintain this routine, you can achieve remarkable results, even surpassing natural mathematical geniuses. Now with the three steps to mathematical freedom: Understand the concepts. Practice the concepts. Apply the concepts to unfamiliar situations. Go out there and give it your best shot! I wish you all the best of luck in your journey to mathematical mastery! Written by George Chant Related articles: The game of life / Teaching maths / Topology Project Gallery

The mechanisms of the disease Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Alzheimer's disease 25/03/26, 16:50 Last updated: Published: 21/07/23, 09:36 The mechanisms of the disease Introduction to Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that results in cognitive decline and dementia with increasing age, environmental and genetic factors contributing to its onset. Scientists believe this is the result of protein biomarkers that build-up in the brain and accumulate within neurones. As of 2020, 55 million people suffer with dementia, with Alzheimer’s being a leading cause. Thus, it is crucial we develop efficacious treatments, with final adverse effects. Some disease-modifying therapies, such as lecanemab and donanemab, were approved for early-stage use but are not currently funded by the NHS due to cost-effectiveness, making them accessible only via private healthcare. The disease is most common in people over 65, with 1/14 affected in the UK, thus, there is a huge emphasis on defining the disorder and developing drug treatments. The condition results in difficulty with memory, planning, decision making and can result in co-morbidities such as depression or personality change. This short article will explain the pathology of the disorder and the genetic predispositions for its onset. It will also explore future avenues for treatment, such as the drug I ecanemab that may provide, “a new era for Alzheimer’s disease”. Pathology and molecular aspects The neurodegeneration seen in Alzheimer’s has, as far, been associated protein dispositions in the brain, such as the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Tau tangles. This has been deduced by PET scans and post-mortem study. APP, located on chromosome 21, is responsible for synapse formation and signalling. It is cleaved to b-amyloid peptides by enzymes called secretases, but overexpression of both these factors can be neurotoxic (figure 1). The result is accumulation of protein aggregates called beta-amyloid plaques in neurons, impairing their survival. This deposition starts in the temporo-basal and front-medial areas of the brain and spreads to the neocortex and sensory-motor cortex. Thus, many pathways are affected, resulting in the characteristic cognitive decline. Tau proteins support nerve cells structurally and can be phosphorylated at various regions, changing the interactions they have with surrounding cellular components. Hyperphosphorylation of these proteins result in the Tau pathology in the form of tau oligomer (short peptides) that is toxic to neurons. These enter the limbic regions and neocortex. It is not clearly defined which protein aggregate proceeds the other, however, the amyloid cascade hypothesis suggests that b-amyloid plaque pathology comes first. It is speculated that b-amyloid accumulation leads to activation of the brain’s immune response, the microglial cells, which then promotes the hyperphosphorylation of Tau. Sometimes, there is a large release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, known as a cytokine storm, that promotes neuroinflammation. This is common amongst older individuals, due to a “worn-out” immune system, which may in part explain Alzheimer’s disease. Genetic component to Alzheimer’s disease There is strong evidence obtained through whole genome-sequencing studies (WGS), that suggests there is a genetic element to the disease. One gene is the Apoliprotein E (APOE) gene, responsible for b-amyloid clearance/metabolism. Some alleles of this gene show association with faulty clearance, leading to the characteristic b-amyloid build-up. In the body, proteins are made consistently depending on need, a dysregulation of the recycling process can be catastrophic for the cells involved. PSEN1 gene that codes for the presenilin 1 protein, part of a secretase enzyme complex. As mentioned, the secretase enzyme is responsible for the cleavage of APP, the precursor for b-amyloid. Variants of this gene have been associated with early onset Alzheimer’s disease, due to APP processing being altered to produce a longer form of the b-amyloid plaque. The genetic aspects to Alzheimer’s disease are not limited to these genes, and in actuality, one gene can have an assortment of mutation that results in a faulty protein. Understanding the genetic aspects, may provide avenue for gene therapy in the future. Treatment Understanding the point in which the “system goes wrong” is crucial for directing treatment. For example, we may use secretase inhibitors to reduce the rate of plaque formation. An example of this is the g- secretase BACE1 inhibitor. There is a need for this drug-type to be more selective to its target, as has been found to produce unwanted adverse effects. A more selective approach may be to target the patient’s immune system with the use of monoclonal antibodies (mAb). This means designing an antibody that recognises a specific component, such as the b-amyloid plaque, so it may bind and then encourage immune cells to target the plaque (figure 3). An example is Aducanumab mAb, which targets b-amyloid as fibrils and oligomers. The Emerge study demonstrated a decrease in amyloid by the end of the 78-week study. As of June 2021, Aducanumab received approval from the FDA for prescription of this drug, but this is controversial as there are claims it brings no clinical benefit to the patient. The future of Alzheimer’s disease Of note, drug development and approval is a slow process, and there must be a funding source in order to carry out plans. Thus, particularly in Alzheimer’s, it is relevant to educate the public and funding bodies to supply the financial support to the process. However, with many hits (potential drug candidates), these often fail at phase III clinical trials. Despite this, another mAb, lecanemab, has recently been approved by the FDA (2023), due to its ability to slow cognitive decline by 27% in early Alzheimer’s disease. The Clarity AD study on Iecanemab, found the drug benefited memory and thinking, but also allowed for better performance of daily tasks. This drug is currently being prescribed on a double-blind basis, meaning a patient may either receive the drug or the placebo. This study shows a hope for those suffering from the disease. Drugs that have targeted the Tau tangles, have as far, not been successful in clinical trials. However, the future of Alzheimer’s treatment may be in the combination therapy directed to both Tau protein and b-amyloid. Washington universities neurology department have launched a trial known as Tau NextGen, in which participants will receive both Iecanemab and tau-reducing antibody. Conclusion This article provides a summary to what we know about Alzheimer’s disease and the potential treatments of the future. Overall, the future of Alzheimer’s treatment lies in the combination therapy to target known biomarkers of the disease. Written by Holly Kitley Related articles: CRISPR-Cas9 as Alzheimer's treatment / Hallmarks of Alzheimer's / Sleep and memory loss Project Gallery

The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The celestial blueprint of time: Stonehenge, United Kingdom Last updated: 08/10/25, 16:22 Published: 09/10/25, 07:00 The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator This is Article 3 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article coming soon. Previous article: The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids . Stonehenge, located within the south-west of England, is one of the UK’s most notable man-made structures, built during the neolithic period around 3100BC. Not only is this famous UNESCO heritage site a breakthrough in engineering, but the sandstone architecture also holds an enigmatic connection between the land and the sky. Its location and stone arrangement mirrors a blueprint that can be analysed to predict the timings of astronomical phenomena. The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator was established by astronomer Gerald Hawkins in 1965. Using computer software, Hawkins discovered that the location of Stonehenge aligned with several solar and lunar positions. He theorised that Stonehenge was built to predict astronomical events, such as eclipses, and to determine the position of summer and winter solstices. From the shape and positions of the 19 stones that comprise Stonehenge, its ‘horseshoe’ shape could predict the lunar eclipses. A booklet titled Stonehenge: Sun, Moon, Wandering Stars , written by M.W. Postins further detailed the significance of Stonehenge in archaeoastronomy. Postins suggested two scale models, the ‘Temple model’ and the ‘Enclosure model’, which detailed the significance of each stone and its relation to different events. For example, the booklet notes that the Altar Stone, a large sandstone located in the centre of Stonehenge, was placed across the solstice axis and represents the ‘Summer solstice sunrise’. Additionally, Postins hypothesised that the five trilithons, which are the vertical stones that form the structure of Stonehenge, represented planets that can be viewed with the naked eye. These include the two lowest trilithons on the East and Northern sides of the structure, representing Mercury and Venus. There has been new research, currently underway by the universities of Oxford, Leicester and Bournemouth in collaboration with the Royal Astronomical Society, linking the Stonehenge monument to a unique lunar phenomenon, called the ‘Major Lunar Standstill’. Right from the early construction of Stonehenge, researchers note that the major lunar standstill may have influenced the design of the monument. Four of the stones at Stonehenge align with two of the Moon’s positions, which aid to indicate moonrise and moonset. This would have allowed individuals to use the moonlight for longer periods of activity, such as night time hunting, as well as visualise the cycle of the lunar phases as a method of time watching for farming and celebratory purposes. Potentially, there is speculation that this made the positioning and construction of Stonehenge intentional. The timeless effect of the Stonehenge landmark, which shaped life in the past and continues to be of astronomical interest to determine the future, is a remarkable example of the functions of built structures for the analysis of astronomical events. It truly is a celestial blueprint for the relationship between the earth and cosmology. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Astro-geography of Lonar Lake REFERENCES English Heritage. (2024). Stonehenge: Major Lunar Standstill . https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/things-to-do/major-lunar-standstill/ OSR. (2009). Stonehenge: An Astronomical Calculator . https://osr.org/blog/astronomy/stonehenge-an-astronomical-calculator/?srsltid=AfmBOopNQnJ-XUZSyLY_Aqu3L2nOJgSoAceRzQJIVZbsIsFhW6s3U_NT Tiverton & Mid Devon Astronomy Society. (n.d.). Astro-Archaeology at Stonehenge . http://www.tivas.org.uk/stonehenge/stone_ast.html Project Gallery