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Unleashing the power of mRNA: revolutionising medicine with personalised vaccines Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The exciting potential of mRNA vaccines 11/07/25, 10:03 Last updated: Published: 03/12/24, 12:19 Unleashing the power of mRNA: revolutionising medicine with personalised vaccines Basic mRNA vaccine pharmacology Basic mRNA vaccine pharmacology involves the study of two types of RNA used as vaccines: non-replicating mRNA and self-amplifying RNA. Non-replicating mRNA-based vaccines encode the antigen of interest and contain untranslated regions (UTRs) at both ends. Self-amplifying RNAs, on the other hand, encode both the antigen and the viral replication machinery, allowing for intracellular RNA amplification and abundant protein expression. For successful protein production in mRNA therapeutics, the optimal translation of in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA is crucial. Factors such as the length of the poly(A) tail, codon usage, and sequence optimisation can influence translation efficiency and accuracy. Adding an optimal length of poly(A) to mRNA is necessary for efficient translation. This can be achieved by directly incorporating it from the encoding DNA template or by using poly(A) polymerase. Codon usage also plays a role in protein translation. Replacing rare codons with frequently used synonymous codons, which have abundant cognate tRNA in the cytosol, can enhance protein production from mRNA. However, the accuracy of this model has been subject to questioning. Optimally translated IVT mRNA encoding mRNA IVT mRNA plays a crucial role in mRNA vaccines as it is designed for optimal translation, ensuring efficient protein production. To achieve this, a 5ʹ cap structure is added, which is essential for efficient protein synthesis. Different versions of 5ʹ caps can be added during or after the transcription process. Furthermore, the poly(A) tail plays a significant regulatory role in mRNA translation and stability. Sequence optimisation is another critical factor that can enhance mRNA levels and protein expression. Increasing the G:C content has been shown to elevate steady-state mRNA levels in vitro and improve protein expression in vivo. Furthermore, modifying the codon composition or introducing modified nucleosides can positively influence protein expression. However, it is important to note that these sequence engineering techniques may impact mRNA secondary structure, translation kinetics, accuracy, protein folding, as well as the expression of alternative reading frames and cryptic T-cell epitopes. Sequence optimisation for protein translation Sequence optimisation plays a crucial role in the development of mRNA vaccines. It involves modifying the mRNA sequence to improve the efficiency of protein translation. By optimising the sequence, researchers can enhance the expression and stability of therapeutic mRNAs. However, the immunogenicity of exogenous mRNA is a concern, as it can trigger a response from various innate immune receptors. In some cases, encoding mRNA in the hypothalamus may even elicit a physiological response. Despite initial promising outcomes, the development of mRNA therapeutics has been hindered by concerns regarding mRNA instability, high innate immunogenicity, and inefficient in vivo delivery. As a result, DNA-based and protein-based therapeutic approaches have been preferred in the past. Modulation of immunogenicity Modulation of immunogenicity is a crucial aspect of mRNA vaccine development. Researchers aim to design mRNA vaccines that elicit a strong immune response while minimising adverse reactions. This involves careful selection of antigens and optimisation of the mRNA sequence to enhance immunogenicity. Self-replicating RNA vaccines and adjuvant strategies, such as TriMix, have shown increased immunogenicity and effectiveness. The immunostimulatory properties of mRNA can be further enhanced by including adjuvants. The size of the mRNA-carrier complex and the level of innate immune sensing in targeted cell types can influence the immunogenicity of mRNA vaccines. Advantages of mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines offer several advantages over conventional vaccine approaches. First, they have high potency, meaning they can induce a strong immune response. Second, they have a capacity for rapid development, allowing for quick vaccine production in response to emerging infectious diseases or new strains. Third, mRNA vaccines have the potential for rapid, inexpensive, and scalable manufacturing, mainly due to the high yields of in vitro transcription reactions. Additionally, mRNA vaccines are minimal genetic vectors, avoiding anti-vector immunity, and can be administered repeatedly. However, recent technological innovations and research investments have made mRNA a promising therapeutic tool in vaccine development and protein replacement therapy. mRNA has several advantages over other vaccine platforms, including safety and efficacy. It is non-infectious and non-integrating, reducing the risk of infection and insertional mutagenesis. mRNA can be regulated in terms of in vivo half-life and immunogenicity through various modifications and delivery methods. Production of mRNA vaccines The production of mRNA vaccines involves in vitro transcription (IVT) of the optimised mRNA sequence. This process allows for the rapid and scalable manufacturing of mRNA vaccines. High yields of IVT mRNA can be obtained, making the production process cost-effective. Making mRNA more stable and highly translatable is achievable through modifications. Efficient in vivo delivery can be achieved by formulating mRNA into carrier molecules. The choice of carrier and the size of the mRNA-carrier complex can also modulate the cytokine profile induced by mRNA delivery. Current mRNA vaccine approaches (Figure 1) There are several current mRNA vaccine approaches being explored. These include the development of mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases and various types of cancer. mRNA vaccines have shown promising results in both animal models and humans. Cancer vaccines Cancer vaccines are a type of immunotherapy that aim to stimulate the body's immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells. These vaccines work by introducing specific antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, into the body. The immune system then recognises these antigens as foreign and mounts an immune response against them, targeting and destroying cancer cells that express these antigens. There are different types of cancer vaccines, including personalised vaccines and predefined shared antigen vaccines. Personalised vaccines are tailored to each patient and are designed to target specific mutations or antigens present in their tumor. These vaccines are created by identifying tumor-specific antigens by sequencing the patient's tumor DNA and predicting which antigens are most likely to elicit an immune response. These antigens are then used to create a vaccine that is specific to that patient's tumor. On the other hand, predefined shared antigen vaccines are designed to target antigens that are commonly expressed in certain types of cancer. These vaccines can be used in multiple patients with the same type of cancer and are not personalised to each individual. The antigens used in these vaccines are selected based on their ability to induce an immune response and their potential to be recognised by T cells. Despite the promising potential of cancer vaccines, their clinical progress is limited, and skepticism surrounds their effectiveness. While there have been some examples of vaccines that have shown systemic regression of tumors and prolonged survival in small clinical trials, many trials have yielded marginal survival benefits. Challenges such as small trial sizes, resource-intensive approaches, and immune escape of heterogeneous tumors have hindered the field's progress. However, it is important to note that other immunotherapies, such as monoclonal antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies, have also faced challenges and setbacks before eventually achieving success. Therefore, cancer vaccines may also have the potential for eventual success, given their clear rationale and compelling preclinical data. To improve the efficacy of cancer vaccines, researchers are exploring various strategies. These include optimising antigen presentation and immune activation by using adjuvants or agonists of pattern-recognition receptors. Additionally, advancements in sequencing technologies and computational algorithms for epitope prediction allow for the identification of more specific tumor mutagens and the production of personalised neo-epitope vaccines. Neo-epitope vaccines are a type of personalised vaccine that target specific mutations or neo-epitopes present in a patient's tumor. These vaccines exploit the most specific tumor mutagens identified through computational methods and prioritise highly expressed neo-epitopes. They can be given with adjuvants to enhance their immunogenicity. Hence, cancer vaccines hold promise as a potential standard anti-cancer therapy. While their progress has been limited, a clear rationale and compelling preclinical data support their further development. Personalised vaccines targeting specific mutations or antigens present in a patient's tumor, as well as predefined shared antigen vaccines targeting commonly expressed antigens, are being explored. Future of mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional vaccine approaches due to their high potency, rapid development capabilities, and potential for low-cost manufacture and safe administration. Recent technological advancements have addressed the challenges of mRNA instability and inefficient in vivo delivery, leading to encouraging results in the development of mRNA vaccine platforms against infectious diseases and various types of cancer. Looking ahead, the future of mRNA vaccines holds great potential for further advancements and widespread therapeutic use. Efficient in vivo delivery of mRNA remains a critical area of focus for future development. Researchers are working on improving delivery systems to ensure targeted delivery to specific cells or tissues, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of mRNA vaccines. This includes the development of lipid nanoparticles, viral vectors, and other delivery mechanisms to optimize mRNA delivery and cellular uptake. The success of mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer has opened doors to exploring their potential in other areas of medicine. Future research may involve the development of mRNA vaccines for autoimmune disorders, allergies, and chronic diseases. The versatility of mRNA technology allows for the rapid adaptation of vaccine candidates to address various medical conditions. One exciting prospect for mRNA vaccines is their potential for personalised medicine. The ability to easily modify the genetic sequence of mRNA allows for the development of personalised vaccines tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup or disease profile. This could revolutionise preventive medicine by enabling targeted immunisation strategies. Combining mRNA vaccines with other treatment modalities, such as immunotherapies or traditional therapies, could lead to synergistic effects and improved clinical outcomes. The unique properties of mRNA vaccines, such as their ability to induce potent immune responses and modulate the expression of specific proteins, make them attractive candidates for combination therapies. Continued advancements in manufacturing processes will be crucial for the widespread adoption of mRNA vaccines. Efforts are underway to optimise and scale up the production of mRNA vaccines, making them more accessible and cost-effective. This includes refining in vitro transcription reactions and implementing efficient quality control measures. The regulatory landscape surrounding mRNA vaccines will evolve as the field progresses. Regulatory agencies will need to establish guidelines and frameworks specific to mRNA vaccine development and approval. Ensuring safety, efficacy, and quality control will be essential to gain widespread acceptance and public trust in mRNA vaccines. Conclusion mRNA vaccines have shown great potential in revolutionising the field of medicine, particularly in the areas of personalised medicine and preventive medicine. The ability to easily modify the genetic sequence of mRNA allows for the development of personalised vaccines tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup or disease profile. Furthermore, the unique properties of mRNA vaccines, such as their ability to induce potent immune responses and modulate the expression of specific proteins, make them attractive candidates for combination therapies. However, there are still challenges to overcome, such as ensuring safety, efficacy, quality control, addressing concerns regarding immunogenicity. Nonetheless, with continued advancements in manufacturing processes and regulatory guidelines, the future of mRNA vaccines holds great promise for further advancements and widespread therapeutic use. Efforts to improve in vivo delivery systems and explore the potential of mRNA vaccines in other areas of medicine, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic diseases, further contribute to the promising outlook for this technology. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Potential malaria vaccine / Bioinformatics in COVID vaccine production / Personalised medicine REFERENCES Lin, M.J., Svensson-Arvelund, J., Lubitz, G.S. et al. Cancer vaccines: the next immunotherapy frontier. Nat Cancer 3, 911–926 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43018-022-00418-6 Pardi, N., Hogan, M., Porter, F. et al. mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology. Nat Rev Drug Discov 17 , 261–279 (2018). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2017.243 Project Gallery

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 11/07/25, 09:55 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs We are in the era of innovation and cutting-edge technology in biosciences and health. This article goes through some of the most remarkable technologies slowly conquering the world of biosciences. Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Gene editing is based on the idea that correcting the genetic mistake that causes a disease offers a permanent result than curing the symptoms. This technique allows scientists to alter the DNA of cells by deleting, adding or modifying genes. There are numerous ways to edit a gene. The most widely used and revolutionary method for gene editing is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR- associated protein 9. The process begins with the design of a synthetic RNA molecule, known as guide RNA (gRNA) that matches the target gene sequence. The gRNA, combined with the Cas9 protein, forms a complex that is then introduced into the target cells. Cas9 acts like scissors, guided by the gRNA, to locate the precise location on the DNA where the genetic modification is intended. Once the target site is identified, Cas9 induces a break in the DNA strand. The cell's natural DNA repair mechanisms then come into play. The non- homologous end joining pathway introduces insertions and deletions at the site, resulting in gene knockout or inactivation. On the other hand, once a DNA template with homology to the sequences is present, the homology-directed repair pathway allows the incorporation of a desired genetic sequence, facilitating gene insertion or replacement. Several other gene-editing techniques have been developed, each with unique approaches. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) are two examples. These methods also use proteins that act as molecular scissors to cut the DNA at specific locations. ZFNs use zinc finger proteins to bind to target DNA sequences, while TALENs use transcription activator-like effector proteins. As the field of gene editing rapidly advances, these diverse methods contribute to the expanding toolkit available for researchers and hold promise for addressing a wide array of applications, from medical treatments to agricultural improvements. CAR T-cells Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a new type of immunotherapy, considered to be the new fighters in the war on cancer. In general, immunotherapies use the patient’s immune system to fight the cancer. This therapy promises more specificity than traditional therapies and more permanent results. T-cells naturally exist in the human organism, supporting the adaptive immune system. They are a group of lymphocytes in the blood or lymph tissue that target or kill specific pathogens. Each type of T-cell recognises specific pathogens. T-cells have proteins on their outer surface, called receptors and these receptors recognize specific proteins on the outer surface of the pathogen. Depending on the type of T-cell, after recognizing the specific pathogen, they are either killing the pathogen (killer T-cells) or signaling to other elements of immune system to attack the pathogen (helper T-cells). CAR T-cell therapy involves modifying a patient’s own T-cells to express a specific CAR on their surface. The receptor is designed to recognise antigens commonly found on the surface of cancer cells. To introduce CARs on the outer surface of T-cells, the patient’s T-cells are genetically modified in the lab. A viral vector is often used to knock out the original T-cell receptors and express the CAR construct. The newly created CAR-T-cells are introduced into the patients, where they target and destroy cancer cells expressing the specific antigen for which the CAR is designed. Incretins The scientific journal “Science” proclaimed glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists The Breakthrough of 2023. These medications, originally approved for type 2 diabetes, demonstrated remarkable weight-loss benefits. GLP-1 is a natural hormone produced in the intestines that plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we eat a meal, incretins, GLP-1 and Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), are released into the bloodstream. They bind to specific receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas, triggering insulin release. Incretins also suppress the release of glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of stored glucose. GLP-1 receptor agonists are medications that mimic the effects of GLP-1. They bind to the GLP-1 receptors on pancreatic beta cells, promoting insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon release. By mimicking the actions of GLP-1, these medications help to lower sugar levels, improve glucose control, and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia. At the same time, they seem to regulate the appetite and delay gastric emptying. iPSCs Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are becoming a new powerful weapon in lab research. They are a type of stem cell that can be generated from adult cells, such as skin or blood cells, through reprogramming. The process of creating iPSCs involves introducing a set of specific genes into the adult cells. These reprogramming factors reset the adult cells' developmental clock, turning them back into a pluripotent state, similar to embryonic stem cells. Once iPSCs are generated, they can be expanded indefinitely in the laboratory and induced to differentiate into various cell types. iPSCs are a valuable tool for studying human development and disease, as well as for drug discovery and regenerative medicine. iPSCs can be derived from patients with genetic diseases or other conditions, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms in a dish. By differentiating iPSCs into the relevant cell types affected by the disease, researchers can observe how the disease develops and test potential treatments. Moreover, iPSC-derived cells can screen potential drugs for safety and efficacy. Because iPSCs can differentiate into many different cell types, they provide a more accurate model of human biology than traditional cell culture methods. Finally, because iPSCs can be derived from individual patients, they offer the potential for personalised therapies. iPSCs could be used to generate patient-specific cells for transplantation or to test drugs for individual patients. Conclusion These cutting-edge technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for targeted interventions in the treatment of genetic disorders, cancer, diabetes, and a myriad of other diseases. However alongside their immense promise, these biotechnological techniques and therapies also raise important ethical, social and regulatory considerations. The implications of gene editing on human germline cells, the accessibility of advanced therapies, and the long-term safety of these interventions are critical areas that warrant careful attention and thoughtful deliberation. Embracing these innovative techniques with diligence holds the key to unlocking a future where previously incurable conditions become manageable, and where the boundaries of medical possibility are continually expanded. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Medical biotechnology / Mesenchymal stem cells Project Gallery

Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The game of life 11/07/25, 10:03 Last updated: Published: 20/11/23, 11:22 Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! I am a Maths graduate, a Maths teacher, and an all-rounder academic, yet in my twenties, when I began the process of buying a home, I had no idea where to start. I did not know how to get a mortgage, what shared ownership was, or when to get a solicitor involved. This is a problem, and this, I believe, is what needs to be taught from 16-18 years of age. The skills, opportunities, and options for young adults to simply move forward in this world. My suggestion: (for those who do not take A-Levels) To create a well-structured, virtual reality, cross-curricular running project about life, a little bit like an AI version of the ‘game of life.’ Students can begin the project in a virtual reality world of choice, and then slowly branch out depending on their interests. They can learn CV building skills , go to an AI job centre, choose the job they want to do and learn the skills for it by conducting research and completing online courses . At the same time within the project, students can be given a budget according to the job they are training for, in which they can forecast their savings and plan for the route that they would take in purchasing a property. Students would need to learn about shared ownership, the pros and cons of renting, the deposits needed for mortgage, all within a game format, like a PS5 game. This aspect of the project would be heavy with Maths. Students would be expected to write a final assessment piece summarising each of their decisions and why, which would include high levels of the English curriculum. To differentiate the project, we could ask students to use Geography, to find a country in the world where their skills may be more in demand and ask them to consider the possibility of relocating to another country for work, which would broaden the horizon of the project massively. They could look at tax laws in different countries, such as Dubai, and how that would benefit them in terms of salary, but what the importance of tax is in a country too. Students would get to explore countries which have free healthcare and schooling vs which countries do not. This would work on their analysis and deeper thinking skills. The game-like format of this project would be ideal for disengaged students who did not thrive with the traditional style of teaching in schools. We could include potential for earning points in the ‘game’ for each additional piece of research they conduct, and a real-life benefit to earning those points too, such as Amazon vouchers, as rewards. A project like this would enable all curriculums to get involved in, for students to understand the world better and a massive scope for AI, potentially asking Meta to design it, who are at the forefront of virtual reality. To make it work, the project would require teachers from all fields to come together to form a curriculum that is inclusive, considers British Values and mirrors the real-life that we live in today. There is potential for psychologist to be involved to ensure we are considering mental health implications as well as parents/guardians, who would need to be onboard with this too. In conclusion, I believe that 16-18 years do need guided learning that is standardised, but I do not think it is as simple as pushing Maths on to them. The future generation and their society will benefit from a holistic guided route to life, which will make them informed and educated individuals in topics that matter to THEM, based on THEIR lives, not chosen by us. Give students control over their education, over their lives... Written by Sara Altaf Project Gallery

In some cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Vertigo Last updated: 27/06/25, 14:06 Published: 03/07/25, 07:00 In some cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis Vertigo is a symptom characterised by the sensation of spinning or movement, affecting either the individual or their surroundings. Unlike dizziness, which involves a floating sensation, or imbalance, which reflects unsteadiness, vertigo conveys a distinct sense of motion. While it is not a condition in itself, vertigo often indicates an underlying issue and can range from mild to debilitating, significantly impairing balance and daily activities. Physiology of vertigo Physiologically, vertigo is primarily linked to the inner ear and the vestibular system, which is responsible for maintaining balance and spatial orientation. The vestibular apparatus consists of semicircular canals and otolith organs, which detect angular and linear movements, respectively. Dysfunction in these structures, or their neural pathways to the brainstem and cerebellum, can disrupt normal sensory input, causing vertigo. Symptoms ( Figure 1 ) may include a spinning sensation, nausea, vomiting, nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), sweating, and difficulty with balance. Triggers vary widely and may include head movements, changes in position, or even psychological stress. The underlying causes can be peripheral, such as inner ear disorders, or central, involving the brain or central nervous system. Causes and prevalence Vertigo is particularly common among middle-aged and older adults, where it presents a considerable risk of falls and associated injuries. This demographic is especially vulnerable due to age-related changes in the vestibular system, such as a decline in vestibular hair cells and neurons, as well as alterations in central pathways. Vestibular disorders are among the most frequent causes of vertigo episodes in the elderly, often contributing to a cycle of psychological distress and physical limitation. Anxiety and depressive syndromes further exacerbate this cycle by increasing fear of attacks and falls, ultimately limiting daily activities and lowering perceived quality of life. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of vertigo and is featured in multiple studies within the literature ( Figure 2 ). BPPV is typically triggered by changes in head position, leading to brief episodes of intense vertigo. Despite its prevalence, management can be challenging due to the nonspecific nature of symptoms and the diverse underlying causes. Polypharmacy, or the use of multiple medications, has also emerged as a significant factor in vertigo among older adults. Prescriptions involving several drugs, particularly antihypertensives and sedative hypnotics, have been linked to an increased likelihood of vertigo. Careful assessment of medication interactions and side effects during medical consultations is therefore essential. Metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and hypoglycaemia, also contribute to vertigo in some individuals. However, in a portion of cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis. Conclusion As one of the most common and disabling symptoms in the elderly, vertigo requires comprehensive and individualised care. Understanding its underlying physiological mechanisms, as well as recognising the multifactorial influences such as medication use, psychological health, and metabolic disorders, is essential for effective management. By adopting an integrated approach that prioritises accurate diagnosis and targeted interventions, clinicians can improve both symptom control and overall quality of life for individuals affected by vertigo. Further research is needed to enhance treatment strategies and address the remaining gaps in knowledge. Written by Maria Z Kahloon Project Gallery

Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Foremothers of Gynaecology 10/07/25, 10:18 Last updated: Published: 05/03/24, 12:15 Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha In collaboration with Dr Aakila Sammy from Publett for International Women's Month We have honoured remarkable women in science across the centuries. From Marie Curie's pioneering research on radioactivity in the 1800s to Henrietta Lacks's unintentional contribution to immortalised human cell lines in the 1900s and Rosalind Franklin's crucial work on the structure of DNA. Yet, even as their achievements shine, the names of their male counterparts, like Watson and Crick, often dominate the narrative. Let's journey back a century or two. Were the experiences of Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha, the foremothers of gynaecology, similar? In the 19th century, Dr. James Marion Sims was celebrated as a surgical hero and the father of gynaecology. His fame stemmed from pioneering the first reliable surgery to treat vesicovaginal fistula, a severe childbirth complication causing a hole between a woman's bladder and vagina, leading to continuous urinary leakage and sometimes palliative care. Sims conducted his initial attempts at a small hospital behind his home in Montgomery, Alabama, focusing on enslaved African American women whom he housed. Over several years, he performed numerous operations on these women. Historical records indicate that 12 enslaved women underwent experimentation, with only three identified by name: Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha. While Sims did treat white women, indicating a universal need for treatment, he probably began experimenting with black women first. Unfortunately, many records were destroyed after slavery ended, obscuring our understanding of these events. Consequently, many who suffered or displayed bravery may not receive proper historical recognition. But we're about to change that here! Slave owners often viewed enslaved women as valuable assets due to their potential to increase the slave population and, thus, the owner's wealth through labour. However, when complications arose during childbirth, rendering these women unable to work, slave owners sought alternative means to cover medical expenses and maintain profitability. This often involved leasing them to physicians like Sims for medical experimentation and treatment. Additionally, enslaved women who experienced complications during childbirth were often ostracised by their communities and left with no choice but to comply with the demands of their owners. While on lease, these teenage girls aged 17 to 19 worked for the Sims family and were subjected to experimentation, naked and restrained in front of an audience of male doctors. Lucy was the first of the three women to undergo Sims's experimental operation and remained conscious throughout the entire hour-long surgery. Post-surgery, Lucy developed an infection, and even though Sims was able to cure her infection, her injuries did not heal, which rendered the operation a failure. Betsy was operated on next with the same outcome minus the infection. Anarcha, operated on last, had the same results, but this did not stop Sims. Sims persisted in his experiments, even when his male assistants quit. He eventually trained the women to assist each other during surgeries, and over time, they became proficient enough to be considered medical practitioners in their own right. The turning point came after Anarcha's 30th surgery, where success was finally achieved. However, shortly afterwards, Sims closed his hospital and relocated north. The fate of the women after this point is noted as being returned to their masters, indicating the continued exploitation and oppression they faced despite their contributions to medical science. While Sims's legacy indeed sparks ethical concerns about consent, anaesthesia, and racism, it's vital to recognise the dire circumstances faced by the women he treated and their significant contributions to his work. Despite the troubling context of slavery, characterised by ambiguous consent, potential underuse of anaesthesia, and the enduring belief that black women could endure more pain (a misconception that persists in healthcare today), these women sought relief from their suffering. Or was it their slave owners who sought to protect their investment? In addition to recognising the systemic exploitation and dehumanisation suffered by enslaved individuals, it is important to celebrate the resilience and bravery of these women, who played a crucial role in advancing gynaecological understanding and techniques. Now, just a mile from the remaining Sims statue stands another monument honouring the true mothers of gynaecology: Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha (by the artist and activist Michelle Browder). These teenagers played a profound role in shaping the field. It's imperative that we shift the narrative to acknowledge them as our foremothers in gynaecology when recounting this history. Their names deserve a place in the textbooks as well. -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Aakila Sammy , co-founder and CEO of Publett , for this interesting article on the pioneering individuals in the field of gynaecology. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Follow them @Dr.Publett on Instagram and @Publett Limited on Linkedin for more information. -- Our last collaboration: Micro-chimerism and George Floyd's death Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics and in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research / Women leading the charge in biomedical engineering / Endometriosis and PCOS / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES National Library of Medicine. "Vesicovaginal fistula was a catastrophic complication of childbirth for many enslaved women between 1845 and 1849." Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563360/#:~:text=Vesicovaginal%20fistula%20was%20a%20catastrophic,women%20between%201845%20and%201849 . ProQuest. "Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy: The Mothers of Modern Gynecology."Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.proquest.com/openview/a02db7be4c84ed0066ed13e79513b6ad/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=41361 . Smithsonian Magazine. "A monument honouring enslaved women, known as the 'Mothers of Gynecology' has been erected."Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/mothers-of-gynecology-monument-honors-enslaved-women-180980064/ New York Historical Society. "To learn more about Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy, visit the New York Historical Society's online exhibit, 'A Nation Divided: The Civil War Era"'.Accessed 28th February 2024. https://wams.nyhistory.org/a-nation-divided/antebellum/anarcha-betsy-lucy/ . Project Gallery

PTSD and Tetris Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can Tetris help treat Post Traumatic Stress Disorder? 02/11/24, 11:47 Last updated: Published: 06/03/24, 11:47 PTSD and Tetris This is the last part (Part II) in the two-part series on PTSD and intrusive memories, discussing how a common and well-loved visuospatial game, Tetris, can reduce the presence of the core clinical symptom. Previous article: Boom, and you're back! As discussed in an earlier article , psychological trauma resulting from threat to life or serious injury from events such as vehicle accidents or assault, among others, can result in development of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The core clinical feature is intrusive memories, where memories of the event involuntarily intrude into a person’s consciousness after being triggered by environmental cues, resulting in extreme emotional distress. Two of the most common and effective treatments for PTSD include trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy. These approaches address an individual’s memory of the event alongside their emotional understanding of the experience. Unfortunately, there is a lack of qualified therapists and patients are often wary of delving into the event details. This results in many patients not receiving sufficient treatment. Following an event, the memory must be consolidated into long-term memory for it to be remembered at a later date. Memory consolidation theory states that the memory is flexible several hours following the event, meaning it can be interfered with. Engaging in a visuospatial task during this period may weaken the consolidation of the traumatic memory because the tasks compete with limited cognitive resources. Therefore, completing tasks with high visuospatial demands in the consolidation period may reduce the occurrence of intrusive memories. Many studies have looked into this, using Tetris to disrupt the memory up to six hours post exposure, and have found positive results. One study took this outside of the laboratory, recruiting patients in an emergency department following serious vehicle accidents. The intervention involved two steps, first patients were asked to remember the accident and state the most traumatising experience they observed. Following this they played Tetris for a minimum of 10 minutes, which competed with the visual memories they had just produced. It was found that 62% of those in the Tetris intervention group had a reduction in intrusive memories in the subsequent week, compared to those in the control group. However, it is not always practical to play a video game in the direct aftermath of the event. The memory consolidation theory also states that memories become flexible to change when they are remembered and subsequently must be reconsolidated into long-term memory. Therefore, other studies have investigated using Tetris as an intervention for those already experiencing PTSD. In this case, combining Testis game play with EMDR therapy has been found useful. After completion of therapy, both control and Tetris groups were found to have a reduction in symptoms at 6-months. However, only the Tetris group had reductions in anxiety and depression. Remember in the previous article we spoke about the neuroanatomy of PTSD and how that related to intrusive memories. Research has shown those with PTSD have reductions in hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex volume, with the reduced hippocampal volume correlating to symptom severity. In fact, studies investigating the use of Tetris have shown that playing this during psychological therapy increases the hippocampal volume, and this increase correlates to the reduced symptoms 6-months following treatment. Currently, the interventions for PTSD have limitations surrounding the longevity of symptom improvements. Therefore, combining Tetris playing with psychotherapies may maintain the symptom improvements long term by increasing the hippocampal volume. Not only this, but videogames with high visuospatial demands like Tetris, may provide some utility as preventative interventions, which are currently lacking. Considering patients involved in vehicle accidents wait upto four hours in emergency departments in the UK, there is an opportunity to reach patients within the memory consolidation window. This approach is not only cost-effective and requires straightforward training for implementation but has been found acceptable in clinical populations. Notably, the earlier study found 48% of patients engaged in this approach, surpassing participation rates of 10% in a psychotherapy trial and 8% in a pharmacological trial within the same emergency department. Overall, interfering with memory consolidation using Tetris could provide a good treatment option for intrusive memories in PTSD. So, where are we currently? Research is still being undertaken, with some even investigating the effects of other visuospatial games such as Candy Crush. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Project Gallery

Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are hydrogen cars the future of the UK? 09/07/25, 10:53 Last updated: Published: 01/01/25, 13:50 Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen Introduction With the London debut of the first ever hydrogen powered racing car in June 2024, the new off-road racing series, Extreme H, is set to make waves in the motorsport and sustainability industries with its first season in 2025. The first ever hydrogen powered motorsport series was announced in 2022 to replace the carbon-neutral electric racing series Extreme E, with the intention of pioneering the potential of hydrogen fuel cells and diversifying the paths of sustainable mobility. Like its predecessor, Extreme H will continue to race off-road in a spec SUV car, where engineers and machinists from competing teams optimise the SUV for the different range of terrains and topographies. The hydrogen spec SUV, fittingly called the Pioneer 25 ( Figure 1 ), is promising for the rapid advancement of hydrogen fuel research, leading to the integration of hydrogen fuel cells vehicles on local roads. In line with the upcoming ban on the sale of new petrol, diesel, and hybrid cars across the UK in 2035, as well as the UK target of reaching carbon neutral by 2050, the need for sustainable and practical transport options is growing. So far however, electric cars have proved to not be a one-size-fits-all solution. Hydrogen fuel could potentially be the key to filling this gap. EVs vs. HFCVs Working mechanisms Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (HFCVs): Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The electricity produced is used to power an electric motor, which drives the car. The only byproduct of this process is water vapour. Electric Vehicles (EVs): A motor is powered directly from a charged battery, and equally produces no harmful emissions. As a result of large investments, electric vehicles have already established a strong footing in the UK market, prompting the declining cost of batteries as well as increasing availability of EV charging points in the UK. However, for many households and commercial uses, electric vehicles are not accessible forms of transport due to key barriers including the extensive charging time (around 8 hours), the weight of batteries for large vehicles, and performance decline in cold weather due to lithium-ion batteries being highly sensitive to temperature. HFCVs directly address these problems and present a sustainable and competitive alternative. As the refuelling process is the same as petrol and diesel cars, fuel tanks can be filled in the space of a few minutes and are notably weight efficient. A heavy-duty electric vehicle on the other hand can require a battery of around 7000 kg. Advantages of HFCVs: Significantly shorter refuelling times Can achieve 300-400 miles on a full tank Maintain performance in cold weather and under heavy loads Lighter and more energy-dense than electric vehicles Disadvantages: Expensive as they’re not yet widely available Lack of refuelling infrastructure The current primary method of hydrogen production produces CO2 as a byproduct Despite the key advantages hydrogen cars offer, there are currently only 2 available models of HFC cars in the UK, including the Toyota Mirai ( Figure 2 ) and the Hyundai Nexo SUV. As a result, there are currently fewer than 20 refuelling stations available nationwide, compared to the many thousands of charging points available across the country for electric vehicles. One of the main reasons why progress in hydrogen fuel production has been so delayed is because hydrogen, despite being the most abundant element in the universe, is only available on earth in compound form and needs to be extracted using chemical processes. The true sustainability of hydrogen production There are currently two main methods to extract hydrogen from nature, including steam-methane reforming and electrolysis. Hydrogen is colour-graded by production method to indicate whether it is renewable. Green/ yellow hydrogen The cleanest process for hydrogen production is electrolysis, where a current separates hydrogen from pure water. If the current is sourced from renewable energy, it’s known as green hydrogen. If it’s connected via the grid, then it’s called yellow hydrogen. The source of electricity is particularly important because the electrolysis process is about 75% efficient, which translates to higher costs yet cleaner air. Grey/ blue hydrogen Hydrogen can also be produced by treating natural gas or methane with hot steam. During this process, the methane splits into its four hydrogen atoms while one carbon atom bonds to oxygen and enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This is known as grey hydrogen. If the carbon dioxide can be captured and stored via direct air capture, it’s called blue hydrogen. About 95% of all hydrogen in Europe is produced by methane steam reforming (grey and blue hydrogen), as it is very energy efficient and uses up lots of natural gas in the process, a resource that is quickly diminishing in importance and value as more and more households switch from gas boilers to heat pumps. Two percent of the world’s carbon emissions comes from the grey hydrogen process to produce ammonia for fertiliser and for steel production. For context, this is almost the same as the entire aviation industry. For HFCVs to be a truly sustainable alternative to combustion engines, green hydrogen via electrolysis (or another clean process) needs to be more widely available and economically viable. The UK’s plans for hydrogen As part of the UK hydrogen strategy ( Figure 3 ), the UK aims to reach up to 10GW or low carbon hydrogen production by 2030 (or equivalent to the amount of gas consumed by 3 million households in the UK annually). The government has allocated £240 million to develop hydrogen production and infrastructure. This is particularly for industry uses in the production of steel and cement, and for heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). Plans were also made to extend the use of hydrogen to heat homes, starting with ‘hydrogen village trials’ in 2025, to inform how 100% hydrogen communities would work, although this has understandably been met with local opposition. With greater research, information, and development into hydrogen for domestic uses, the applications of hydrogen energy may extend from industry and transport to households. As car companies (particularly Toyota, Hyundai, and BMW) continue to develop hydrogen car makes, and further investment is made into increased refuelling infrastructure and hydrogen fuel cell research, as well as with the ban on the sale of new combustion engine cars by 2035, commercial hydrogen cars have the potential to be commonly found on UK roads by 2040. Conclusion For now, HFCVs remain in the early stages of development, however they present a promising opportunity for the UK to diversify its clean transport options, particularly in areas where EV technology faces limitations such as for heavy goods vehicles. Rather than being competitors, it is likely that EVs and HFCVs will soon coexist, with each technology serving different needs. The biggest barrier to the progress of HFCVs currently is developing a full hydrogen refuelling infrastructure, where the gas is produced and then transported to stations across the nation, will take billions of pounds and a number of years to develop. If these initial hurdles could be overcome, HFCV technology can quickly become more practically and financially accessible. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Electric vehicles / Nuclear fusion Project Gallery

Tesla’s vision was to develop wireless power across the globe Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nikola Tesla, wireless electricity, and the failure of Wardenclyffe Tower 10/07/25, 10:25 Last updated: Published: 04/09/24, 10:37 Tesla’s vision was to develop wireless power across the globe Nikola Tesla Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was a Serbian-American engineer and one of the most brilliant inventors of his time. His discoveries on how to utilise alternating current laid the foundation for the industrial revolution and today makes up the majority of power distribution systems globally. Finding inspiration from his mother Duka Mandic, whom he called a first-class inventor and credited for passing on her gift of discovery*, he went on to make significant contributions to the development of X-ray technology, radio, and robotics, as well as inventing the brushless AC motor, the rotating magnetic field, neon lights, and remote control. However, despite his many revolutionary inventions and around 300 patents to his name, Tesla died poor and ultimately failed in his greatest pursuit: to develop a free system of clean, wireless, electric power. Wardenclyffe Tower, also known as the Tesla Tower, was the first step in Tesla’s ‘World Wireless System’, a system designed to wirelessly broadcast electrical power across the globe, based on 20th century knowledge of resonance, the earth’s conductivity, and the Tesla coil. The Tesla coil: working principle The Tesla coil, invented by Nikola Tesla in 1894, is an alternating current resonant transformer that produces a high voltage from a low current. The high voltage produces sparks of ‘lightning’ or electrical discharge which can power lightbulbs. This experiment was a key motivator for Tesla’s later works with Wardenclyffe, although today the main use of the Tesla coil is for filming, entertainment, and educational displays. In a typical transformer, the ratio of turns determines the output voltage. The resonant properties of the secondary coil in a Tesla coil allows the transformer to achieve much higher voltages. A high voltage power supply from the first transformer is applied to a small primary coil, creating a large magnetic field. Current flow through the primary coil charges up a capacitor until the voltage across it exceeds the breakdown voltage of the spark gap (air). The capacitor discharges through the secondary coil in the opposite direction. This reverse current flow induces a magnetic field around the primary coil in the opposite direction. The constant changing of field direction induces a current in the secondary coil and produces a voltage proportional to the winding ratio of the coils. The resulting high voltage produces arcs of electricity similar to lightning from the terminal (typically torus shaped to direct sparks outward and prevent interference). Despite the high voltage, these electric discharges only produce a very small current in people who interact with it because of the high impedance of the coil and are not dangerous unless a person has a pacemaker or other medical device that could be affected by the high voltages. The frequency of the current has little interaction with nerve cells. Wardenclyffe Tower Following the same principles as the small-scale Tesla coil, Tesla’s vision was to replicate this on a large scale to develop wireless power across the globe, so that information could be transmitted from one tower to another by resonance. His early design featured two towers placed next to each other, so that the gap between the two domes could act as a spark gap. After cost revisions, the tower was redesigned to feature the entire transmitter circuit in one tower (see Figure 2 ). Figure 3 shows Tesla’s plan for the World Wireless System. An oscillator tower stands at 187 feet with a large dome of conductive metals on top, and an iron root system 300 feet into the earth. When the tower and Tesla receivers are tuned to the same resonant frequency, Tesla theorised that energy could be efficiently transferred between them. After obtaining funding from financier J.P. Morgan, Wardenclyffe tower began construction in 1901 in Shoreham, New York. The 187-foot tower featured a large spherical terminal, which was intended to ionize the atmosphere and create a conductive path for the energy. Below ground, a network of metal rods and plates would transmit energy into the Earth, relying on the Earth’s conductivity to complete the circuit. The working of the tower fundamentally relied on two highly under-researched principles, which were: 1. Earth as a conductor : In 1899 before Tesla began work on Wardenclyffe, he studied the periodicity of lightning in Colorado Springs, USA, and discovered what he called earth resonance. He found that large electrical impulses travel longitudinally through the earth to the antipode and are reflected (i.e., ‘resonate’) creating terrestrial stationary waves. He planned to use the tower to send electrical energy through the ground, which would then be picked up by receivers located anywhere on the planet. 2. Air as a conductor: Although air is normally a good insulator, at high altitudes (the earth’s ionosphere) it becomes an excellent conductor of high frequencies and voltages. The tower was designed to generate extremely high-frequency alternating currents, however reaching the earth’s ionosphere would require an antenna of at least 15 miles tall. Tesla apparently discovered a way to bypass this but did not make his methods public. There was very little knowledge about these phenomena at the time and even today are still not fully validated. Why Wardenclyffe failed Tesla initially pitched the project to J.P. Morgan as a world system of wireless communication to send messages, reports, and secure military messages, and to broadcast news and music. Morgan invested around $150,000 which Tesla accepted and instead began working on wireless electricity transmission, despite the investment being far below a realistic sum for the cost of the project. As Wardenclyffe tower required frequent modifications to the tower’s design during construction as well as expensive materials, the project was very costly. At the same time, Guglielmo Marconi achieved his less ambitious and inexpensive aim of wirelessly communicating the letter ‘s’ in Morse code (using some of Tesla’s patents). Combined with the Panic of 1907 and realising Tesla’s primary aim was for electricity to be free worldwide, which would be difficult to monetise, J.P. Morgan withdrew financial support and Tesla was forced to abandon the project. The scientific community and further potential investors were also sceptical about the feasibility of wireless energy transmission particularly considering energy losses over long distances, which made it difficult to obtain further funding. At the same time as Wardenclyffe Tower was being developed, Tesla’s AC power distribution system was being implemented rapidly. The established infrastructure of wired electricity transmission made it even more difficult for Tesla's wireless system to gain traction and funding, and the tower was demolished in 1917 to satisfy Tesla’s debts. Conclusion Wardenclyffe tower was an ambitious and audacious project which ultimately was not financially feasible. Even with modern day technology, efficiency, safety, and economic considerations prevent the system being a practical reality. Nevertheless, Tesla was undeniably an ingenious inventor, and his futuristic and daring approach to engineering continues to inspire innovations as well as debate. Today the site of Wardenclyffe tower is home to the Tesla Science Centre, a memorial to Tesla’s life and work. Footnotes * A highly skilled and intelligent woman despite no formal education, she invented various household tools and devices like the loom and egg whisk. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Transformers / Mobile networks / Electricity in the body REFERENCE Tesla, N., & Johnston, B. (1982). My inventions: the autobiography of Nikola Tesla. Project Gallery

The role of honesty Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Behavioural Economics I 09/07/25, 10:58 Last updated: Published: 24/01/24, 21:37 The role of honesty This article is part 1 in a four-part series on behavioural economics. Next article: The endowment effect . In the classical realm of economic theory, consumers are said to be utility maximisers. These economic agents will always prefer a situation where they can increase their utility (a measure of well-being or happiness) and will achieve this by any means necessary. Given the opportunity, economic agents will take advantage of others and abuse their power, and although this can be true in many aspects of life, in this article we will explore why people are intrinsically honest, defying classical economic theory, giving a brief insight into how we can explain economic behaviour through the power of behavioural economics. ‘Lost Wallets’ In an effort to measure civic honesty around the globe, Cohn et al. devised a comprehensive study to measure whether people's own material incentives were able to overpower their innate sense of honesty and altruism all together. By distributing over 17,000 ‘lost wallets’ in over 40 countries, Cohn et al. were able to surprisingly prove that people are more honest than we take each other to be. The experiment was simple but comprehensive. A group of people in many different countries would hand in a ‘lost’ wallet to a desk in public areas, for example at a hotel desk or at a library. The wallet contained three business cards - a way to contact the owner, a grocery list, and a key to make it seem more legitimate. Another important detail was that the wallets were transparent, so the receiver did not have to open the wallet to see its contents. The reason why this is important is because some wallets contained money in them, and we wanted to see if this impacted the decision to hand the wallets in or not. In classic economic theory, we would expect that wallets with money in them would not be returned, but instead the receiver would take the money freely. They may be more inclined to return the wallet without money as there would be little benefit in keeping them. However, in real life, this could not be any further from the truth. In 38/40 of the countries, lost wallets were handed back more often when they contained money. Civic honesty was found to be statistically higher when the wallets were not empty. So why are people more likely to hand back their wallets when they contain money? Surely that’s counterintuitive? Well, in fact, one strong explanation is that people value honesty due to their own self-image. If we take the money, our own view of our perfect self becomes threatened, so that the psychological effect of taking the money is greater than the money’s value itself. Similarly, when the wallet contains only business cards, the receiver cannot see any intrinsic value in the wallet. The psychological value of handing the wallet back is now far less worth the effort of making contact with the owner. We disregard the wallet before we even know its contents. Another interesting fact is that when there is a big money condition (7x what was used initially), we find that people are even more likely to report the missing wallet. One explanation may be that with a greater stake, there is also a greater psychological reward for handing the wallet back. When doing an act of kindness as simple as this, people often feel good about themselves, boosting their own ego, and this could be perceived to be greater than the value of their wallet. If the combination of threatened self-image with the positive psychological value of returning the item is much greater than the monetary value of the ‘lost wallet’, then people are likely to return the wallet. In fact, the study showed that over 70% of the wallets were returned when it contained a substantial sum of money. ‘Dice in a Cup’ The second study that I wish to use to describe the effect honesty has on society, is one that involves an extremely simple setup. There is a benefit to having simple experiments in a lab setting. When people volunteer to participate in a lab-controlled experiment, they realise they are being watched (unlike with the previous experiment, which was performed on unsuspecting subjects). This often means that people put in fake answers—the answers they think we wish to hear—which aren’t useful to us. The way we get around this is by putting incentives in place and encouraging people to act the way they would in real life and by ensuring that the experiment is simple, there is no chance that a subject could misinterpret the rules of the experiment. The die-in-the cup experiment run by Gachter and Schulz did just that. Subjects were told to enter a room, and in the middle of the room sat a table with a die placed on top. The subjects were instructed before they entered the room to roll the die twice and then report the first roll of the die only. The number they reported then corresponded to a payout of the following: 1 = £1, 2 = £2... 5 = £5, and 6 = £0. (The pay-out for different countries were in their corresponding currency of equivalent value.) The aim of this experiment is to examine the amount of honesty in a society, and in this paper, they compared this with the presence of rule violations across different societies and looked for a relationship. They discovered that the inhabitants of wealthier countries are more honest on average. In classical economics, if everyone was ‘rational’, they would lie to get the maximum payout every time. This would give an average payout of £5. On the other hand, if everyone was completely honest, the average payout would be £2.50. In the experiment, the mean payout across all countries was around £3 (around £2.90 for the richer nations and up to as high as £4 for the poorer nations). What this tells us is that people are dishonest, but not fully dishonest. One possible explanation is that people would ‘justify dishonesty’. By choosing the higher of the two rolls, people feel less bad about lying completely and bend the rules in their favour. Another explanation is that people take the second-best outcome. In the fear of people being suspicious of them, subjects may decide to say 3 or 4 instead of 5 if, for example, they rolled a 1. But why don’t people lie and say they get a 5 every time? One theory is that people’s desires conflict with their perception of an honest self-image. Like with the lost wallets experiment, people feel guilty by lying completely, but by changing the rules slightly or not taking the highest payout, the benefit of lying is greater than any negative self-perception as in their eyes, they are not lying completely. People are only as dishonest as they can be whilst maintaining a ‘honest’ self-image. So, as we have shown, the foundation of economics can indeed fall short. The basis that people are utility maximisers is not necessarily true in all circumstances, such as when maximising utility violates self-perception. However, this is not to say that we have disproved all of economics. Economics provides an insight into how people and systems in society interact in an ideal setting, which is still beneficial for understanding what a policy is needed to achieve, but behavioural economics can be used to develop the policy further so that its implementation is more seamless. To learn even more about the developments in this ongoing discipline, be sure to follow Scientia News on social media and don’t forget to look out for Part 2 in this new 4-part series discussing the realm of behavioural economics! Written by George Chant Related article: Mathematical models in cognitive decision-making REFERENCES Alain Cohn et al., Civic honesty around the globe. Science 365,70-73(2019) Gächter , S., Schulz, J. Intrinsic honesty and the prevalence of rule violations across societies. Nature 531 , 496–499 (2016) Project Gallery

The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can you erase your memory? 09/07/25, 13:31 Last updated: Published: 23/11/23, 11:08 The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex What is memory? Our brain is a wiggly structure in our skull, made up of roughly 100 billion neurones. It is a wondrous organ, capable of processing 34 gigabytes of digital data per day, yet being able to retain information, and form memory – something that many would argue, defines who we are. So.. what is memory? And how does our brain form them? Loosely defined, memory is the capacity to store and retrieve information. There are three types of memory: short-term, working, and long-term memory (LTM). Today, we will be focusing on LTM. In order to form LTM, we need to learn and store memory. This follows the process of encoding, storage, retrieval, and consolidation. In order to understand the biochemical attributes of memory in our brain, a psychologist, Dr Lashley, conducted extensive experiments on rats to investigate if there were specific pathways in our brain that we could damage to prevent memory from being recalled. His results showed that despite large areas of the brain being removed, the rats were still able to perform simple tasks ( Figures 1-2 ). Lashley’s experiment transformed our understanding of memory, leading to the concept of “engrams”. Takamiya et al., 2020 defines “memory engrams” as traces of LTM consolidated in the brain by experience. According to Lashley, the engrams were not localised in specific pathways. Rather, they were distributed across the whole of the brain. Can memory be erased? The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex. In order to simplify this, let’s divide them into two categories: unintentional, and intentional. Let’s take amnesia for example. This is a form of unintentional memory ‘erasure’. There are two types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia, and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory that was formed before acquiring amnesia. On the other hand, anterograde amnesia is the inability to make new memories since acquiring amnesia. Typically, a person with amnesia would exhibit both retrograde, and anterograde amnesia, but at different degrees of severity ( Figure 3 ). Can we ‘erase’ our memory intentionally? And how would this be of use to us? This is where things get really interesting. Currently, the possibility of intentional memory ‘erasure’ is being investigated in patients for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In these clinical trials, patients with PTSD are given drugs that block these traumatic memories. For example, propranolol, an adrenergic beta receptor blocker impairs the acquisition, retrieval, and reconsolidation of this memory. Incredible, isn’t it? Although this is not the current standard treatment for PTSD, we can only imagine how relieving it would be for our fellow friends who suffer from PTSD if their traumatic memories could be ‘erased’. However, with every step ahead, we must always be extremely cautious. What if things go wrong? We are dealing with our brain, arguably one of the most important organs in our body after all. Regardless, the potential for memory ‘erasure’ in treating PTSD seems both promising and intriguing, and the complexities and ethical considerations surrounding such advancements underscore the need for careful and responsible exploration in the realm of neuroscience and medicine. Written by Joecelyn Kiran Tan Related articles: Synaptic plasticity / Boom, and you're back! (intrusive memories) / Sleep and memory loss Project Gallery