Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and the other sciences. Welcome to Scientia News DELIVERING INFORMATIVE CONTENT Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and other sciences. We hope this platform helps you discover something that inspires your curiosity, and encourages you to learn more about important topics in STEM. Meet the Official Team NAVIGATE AND CLICK THE PHOTOS BELOW TO LEARN MORE ABOUT US! To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. Latest Articles medicine How bionic eyes are helping people read again View More biology There’s always food at home: the diet of an ocean trench microbe– anammox View More medicine The link between vision loss and neurocognition View More medicine What really happens inside the body during high blood pressure View More CONTACT CONTACT US Scientia News welcomes anyone who wants to share their ideas and write for our platform. If you are interested in realising your writing potential with us AND live in the UK; and/ or would like to give feedback: Email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com or fill in our GET IN TOUCH form below and we'll be in contact... Follow us on our socials for the latest updates. Comment, like and share! Join our mailing list below for latest site content. You can also sign up to become a site member . SUBSCRIPTION Join our mailing list to receive alerts for new articles and other site content. Be sure to check your spam/ junk folders in case emails are sent there. Email Subscribe GET IN TOUCH First Name Last Name Email Message Send Thanks for submitting!

An extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you.  Discover Your Next Great Read Deep Dive into STEM Books Here you can explore an extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid or complement your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you. Our Curated Selections: Intern Blues by Robert Marion, M.D. The Emperor of All Maladies by Siddhartha Mukherjee The Molecule by Dr Rick Sax and Marta New

Neuromyelitis optica is also known as Devic disease Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Neuromyelitis optica – how is it different to multiple sclerosis? 15/10/26, 10:33 Last updated: Published: 13/07/24, 11:56 Neuromyelitis optica is also known as Devic disease This is article no. 6 in a series on Rare Diseases. Next article: Apocrine carcinoma . Previous article: Unfolding prion diseases . If you have never heard of neuromyelitis optica (NMO), you’re not alone! NMO is a rare disease affecting the spinal cord and optic nerve. A disease is determined as rare when it affects less than 1 in 2000 people. NMO, Devic’s disease in layman’s term, is an autoimmune disease, which means the immune system fails and attacks healthy self-cells, and can be one-off or recurrent. When patients experience a NMO attack, symptoms like eye pain and weakness in limbs, caused by inflammation of the spinal cord (transverse myelitis) and optic nerve (optic myelitis), commonly occur. There is a much higher prevalence of females with NMO than males. The exact reasons are still being researched, but some suggest it could be due to hormonal, genetic, and epigenetic factors, including the gut microbiome. New, highly effective, FDA-approved preventive treatments (eculizumab, inebilizumab, satralizumab, ravulizumab) and the investigation of daratumumab, which recently showed a 74% reduction in relapse risk. The field is shifting towards early, targeted therapy to prevent severe relapses. So the question arises – what causes NMO? In short, we don’t know yet. However, we do understand that 90% of NMO cases are caused by NMO-specific antibodies against Aquaporin4 (AQP4), an intrinsic membranes protein highly concentrated in the spinal cord and the brain, specifically in astrocytes and ependymal cells lining in the ventricles. AQP4 are water-selective channels in many plasma membranes and are responsible for maintaining brain-water homeostasis. Did you know NMO is often mistaken as Multiple Sclerosis (MS)? MS is also an autoimmune system and has similar symptoms as NMO, such as vision and mobility difficulties. However, there are important differences between the two. NMO specifically targets the optic nerves and spinal cord, leading to more severe attacks that can cause blindness and paralysis if not treated promptly. On the other hand, MS affects the brain and spinal cord more diffusely. Diagnosis and treatment for NMO and MS can be quite different, making it crucial to correctly distinguish between the two conditions. Advanced techniques like MRI scans, blood tests for specific antibodies (like AQP4-IgG for NMO), and careful clinical evaluation help doctors make the right diagnosis and provide appropriate treatment. Understanding these distinctions is vital for effective management and improving the quality of life for those affected by these diseases. Written by Chloe Kam Related articles: Comparing types of treatment for NMO / Neuroimaging / Bionic eyes / Vision loss and neurocognition REFERENCES Hor, J.Y., Asgari, N., Nakashima, I., Broadley, S.A., Leite, M.I., Kissani, N., Jacob, A., Marignier, R., Weinshenker, B.G., Paul, F., Pittock, S.J., Palace, J., Wingerchuk, D.M., Behne, J.M., Yeaman, M.R. and Fujihara, K. (2020). Epidemiology of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder and Its Prevalence and Incidence Worldwide. Frontiers in Neurology , 11. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00501 . Kim, S.-M., Kim, S.-J., Lee, H.J., Kuroda, H., Palace, J. and Fujihara, K. (2017). Differential diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders , 10(7), pp.265–289. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1756285617709723 . Mader, S. and Brimberg, L. (2019). Aquaporin-4 Water Channel in the Brain and Its Implication for Health and Disease. Cells , 8(2), p.90. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8020090 . Project Gallery

A plethora of studies have found some correlation between the two variables, particularly amongst elderly patients. Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The link between vision loss and neurocognition Last updated: 15/10/26, 10:36 Published: 15/10/26, 08:00 A plethora of studies have found some correlation between the two variables, particularly amongst elderly patients. The eye. A seemingly small organ, however it is responsible for most of our human experiences. Being able to see the world around us is deeply intertwined with our brain processes and impacts our day-to-day function. Unfortunately, as with other things, our vision starts to decline and there is a plethora of evidence suggesting there is an association between visual impairment and cognitive decline. However, the question remains – to what extent does reduced vision influence neurocognitive health? Does reduced visual acuity have a correlation to cognitive decline? The biological mechanism for the link between visual loss and neurocognition is poorly understood. However, a plethora of studies have found some correlation between the two variables, particularly amongst elderly patients. One study found two significant processes: Shared disease process – for example, certain vascular diseases may damage the vessels supplying the brain and visual system leading to mutual decline. Cognitive load theory – In the event of preceding visual disturbance, it may lead the cognitive system to channel more energy into interpreting this limited sensory information, thereby contributing to cognitive decline. Another study specifically highlighted Alzheimer’s disease as sharing common pathways with that of age-related macular degeneration, specifically because of the amyloid beta deposition. From a comprehensive perspective, vision loss may reduce a person’s social interaction as well as activities such as reading and other cognitively stimulating tasks, inevitably leading to cognitive decline. The study also highlighted the possibility that there is no correlation and both visual decline and cognitive decline are an integral part of brain aging. All theories are plausible but provide conflicting explanations so further research is needed to establish a more concrete explanation for the vision-cognition relationship. Next steps? It is important to note that vision impairment is potentially correctable, especially cataracts and refractive error. These can be improved through surgery, glasses and other interventions which could benefit older adults against further visual impairment and cognitive decline regardless of if there is an established relationship or not. In conclusion, the relationship between neurocognition and visual acuity is poorly understood, however it is an ever-growing field which shows a lot of promising research. In the interim, taking measure to protect and rehabilitate one’s vision could potentially form part of strategies for healthy cognitive ageing, but more research is needed to establish causation and determine whether treating vision loss prevents cognitive decline. Written by Blessing Amo-Konadu Related articles: Neuromyelitis optica / How bionic eyes are helping people read again REFERENCES London, A., Benhar, I. and Schwartz, M. (2012). The retina as a window to the brain—from eye research to CNS disorders. Nature Reviews Neurology , 9(1), pp.44–53. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2012.227. Luke (2019). Following the Light - Part VIII: The Brain and Vision . [online] AmblyoPlay. Available at: https://www.amblyoplay.com/following_the_light_part_viii_the_brain_and_vision/ [Accessed 26 Sept. 2026]. Nagarajan, N., Assi, L., Varadaraj, V., Motaghi, M., Sun, Y., Couser, E., Ehrlich, J.R., Whitson, H. and Swenor, B.K. (2022). Vision impairment and cognitive decline among older adults: a systematic review. BMJ Open , 12(1), p.e047929. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047929. Spierer, O., Fischer, N., Barak, A. and Belkin, M. (2016). Correlation Between Vision and Cognitive Function in the Elderly. Medicine , [online] 95(3), p.e2423. doi:10.1097/md.0000000000002423. Project Gallery

A tiny retinal implant offers new possibilities for people with severe central sight loss Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How bionic eyes are helping people read again Last updated: 15/10/26, 10:37 Published: 15/10/26, 08:00 A tiny retinal implant offers new possibilities for people with severe central sight loss For Sheila Irvine, losing her central vision meant losing the pleasure of reading. “I was an avid bookworm, and I wanted that back,” she told UCL. After receiving a wireless retinal implant at Moorfields Eye Hospital, she began recognising letters again. Her story illustrates the promise of PRIMA: a tiny chip paired with camera glasses that may restore some central vision. When the light sensors fail Geographic atrophy is an advanced form of dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD). It damages the macula, the central part of the retina used for reading and recognising faces. Light-sensitive cells called photoreceptors die, leaving gaps in central vision, although peripheral vision can remain ( Figure 1 ). How PRIMA works Surgeons place a silicon chip beneath the retina. It measures just 2 mm by 2 mm and is 30 micrometres thick ( Figure 2 ). A camera on the glasses captures the scene, and a pocket processor prepares the image. The glasses then project the processed image onto the implant using near-infrared light (Figure 3). This light has a wavelength of 880 nanometres, just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum (roughly 400 to 700 nanometres), so the eye cannot see it. Using invisible light avoids the glare and potential damage that bright visible light could cause. The chip’s 378 light-sensitive pixels turn that light into tiny electrical pulses. These pulses trigger the surviving bipolar cells to send electrical signals, doing the job the lost photoreceptors once did. The signals travel through the retina and along the optic nerve to the brain, which interprets them as a pattern of light. Using controls on the pocket processor, patients can adjust zoom, contrast and brightness, and spend months learning to make sense of the resulting artificial vision. What the trial showed The PRIMAvera trial, led by Professor Frank Holz at the University of Bonn and published online in the New England Journal of Medicine in October 2025, tested the implant in 38 people with severe vision loss at 17 hospitals in Germany, France, the UK, Italy and the Netherlands. It was funded by Science Corporation, which develops the device, and the Moorfields NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. At one year, 26 of the 32 participants assessed (81%) had improved by at least two lines on an eye chart. With PRIMA glasses, the average gain was approximately five lines; participants could use digital zoom during testing. Separately, 27 of 32 reported reading letters, numbers and words at home. Average remaining natural peripheral visual acuity was unchanged. “In the history of artificial vision, this represents a new era,” said Mr Mahi Muqit, who led the UK arm of the trial at Moorfields. Reasons for caution The study recorded 26 serious adverse events related to the procedure or device in 19 participants. Of these, 21 occurred within two months of surgery; 20 of those resolved within two months of onset. The most common was raised pressure inside the eye; others included small tears in the retina, bleeding beneath the retina and holes in the macula. Some complications required further surgery. Researchers compared participants’ vision before and after implantation, and with and without the glasses, but there was no separate randomised control group. Longer follow-up will help establish how durable the benefits are. These results also concern selected patients with geographic atrophy, not blindness of every cause. The device does not restore normal sight, and improvements on an eye chart should not be mistaken for effortless everyday reading. Support beyond the operation Earlier implants offer a warning. In 2019, the company Second Sight announced that it would phase out its Argus II retinal implant. The technology magazine IEEE Spectrum later documented patients struggling to obtain repairs and support. Therefore, PRIMA raises a question that extends beyond the trial: who will maintain the equipment and support its users throughout their lives? What comes next In July 2026, Science Corporation announced PRIMA’s European commercial launch after the device received CE marking, which shows that a product meets European safety and performance requirements. This allowed PRIMA to be sold in 30 European countries. The company’s website also states that the device is registered for supply in the UK. However, this does not, by itself, establish routine NHS access. Regardless, for some people with profound central sight loss, PRIMA offers the chance to read words again. For readers such as Sheila, that matters enormously. Written by Saad Sheikh Related articles: Silicon hydrogel contact lenses / Neuromyelitis optica / Vision loss and neurocognition REFERENCES Holz FG, Le Mer Y, Muqit MMK, et al. Subretinal photovoltaic implant to restore vision in geographic atrophy due to AMD. N Engl J Med. 2026;394(3):232–242. Published online 20 October 2025. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2501396. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2501396 (accessed 28 September 2026). UCL News. Pioneering eye device restores reading vision to blind eyes. 20 October 2025. Available from: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2025/oct/pioneering-eye-device-restores-reading-vision-blind-eyes (accessed 28 September 2026). Macular Society. Revolutionary implant for dry AMD – your questions answered. 27 November 2025. Available from: https://www.macularsociety.org/about/media/news/2025/november/revolutionary-implant-for-dry-amd-your-questions-answered/ (accessed 28 September 2026). Strickland E, Harris ME. Their bionic eyes are now obsolete and unsupported. IEEE Spectrum. 15 February 2022. Available from: https://spectrum.ieee.org/bionic-eye-obsolete (accessed 28 September 2026). Science Corporation. Science Corp. announces European commercial launch of PRIMA, the only treatment to restore functional central vision to patients with geographic atrophy caused by age-related macular degeneration, a leading cause of blindness. 22 July 2026. Available from: https://science.xyz/news/ce-mark/ (accessed 28 September 2026). Science Corporation. PRIMA. Undated. Available from: https://prima.science.xyz/ (accessed 28 September 2026). Muqit MMK, Le Mer Y, Olmos de Koo L, et al. Prosthetic visual acuity with the PRIMA subretinal microchip in patients with atrophic age-related macular degeneration at 4 years follow-up. Ophthalmol Sci. 2024;4(5):100510. doi:10.1016/j.xops.2024.100510. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xops.2024.100510 (accessed 9 October 2026). Project Gallery

​Dive into the latest biological research! Learn about the regulation and policy of stem cell research, health inequalities and other public health news. Biology Articles Dive into the latest biological research! Learn about the regulation and policy of stem cell research, health inequalities and other public health news. You may also like: Cancer , Ecology , Genetics , Immunology , Neuroscience , Zoology , and Medicine Regulation and policy of stem cell research The 14-day rule and stem cell-based embryo models Maveerar Naal Health, trauma, and resilience amid decades of war in Sri Lanka What are health inequalities? Unequal access to healthcare. Article #1 in a series on health inequalities. Socioeconomic health inequalities Unequal access to healthcare due to social and financial factors. Article #2 in a series on health inequalities. Ethnic health inequalities Unequal access to healthcare due to ethnicity and race. Article #3 in a series on health inequalities. Addressing health inequalities Addressing these inequalities due to various reasons. Article #4 in a series on health inequalities. Dessert deception How junk food advertising affects public health The diet of an ocean trench microbe– anammox There's always food at home for these bacteria in the deep sea Previous

An engineering case study Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Silicon hydrogel contact lenses 15/10/26, 10:31 Last updated: Published: 29/04/24, 11:59 An engineering case study Introduction Contact lenses have a rich and extensive history dating back over 500 years; when, in 1508, Leonardo Di Vinci first conceived the idea. It was not until the late 19th century that the concept of contact lenses as we know them now were realised. In 1887, F.E.Muller was credited with making the first eye covering that could improve vision without causing any irritation. This eventually led to the first generation of hydrogel-based lenses as the development of the polymer, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), allowed Rishi Agarwal to conceive the idea of disposable soft contact lenses. Silicon hydrogel contact lenses dominate the contemporary market. Their superior properties have extended wear options and have transformed the landscape of vision correction. These small but complex items continue to evolve, benefiting wearers worldwide. This evolution is such that the most recent generation of silicon hydrogel lenses have recently been released and aim to phase out all the existing products. Benefits of silicon hydrogel lenses There are many benefits to this material’s use in this application. For example, the higher oxygen permeability improves user comfort and experience through relatively increased oxygen transmissibility that the material offers. These properties are furthered by the lens’ moisture retention which allows for longer wear times without compromising on comfort or eye health. Hence, silicon hydrogel lenses aimed to eradicate the drawbacks of traditional hydrogel lenses including: low oxygen permeability, lower lens flexibility and dehydration causing discomfort and long-term issues. This groundbreaking invention has revolutionised convenience and hygiene for users. The structure of silicon hydrogel lenses Lenses are fabricated from a blend of the two materials: silicon and hydrogel. The silicon component provides high oxygen permeability, while the hydrogel component contributes to comfort and flexibility. Silicon is a synthetic polymer and is inherently oxygen-permeable; it facilitates more oxygen to reach the cornea, promoting eye health and avoiding hypoxia-related symptoms. Its polymer chains form a network, creating pathways for oxygen diffusion. Whereas hydrogel materials are hydrophilic polymers that retain water, keeping the lens moist and comfortable as it contributes to the lens’s flexibility and wettability. Both materials are combined using cross-linking techniques which stabilise the matrix to make the most of both properties and prevent dissolution. (See Figure 1 ). There are two forms of cross-linking that enable the production of silicon hydrogel lenses: chemical and physical. Chemical cross-linking involves covalent bonds between polymer chains, enhancing the lens’s mechanical properties and stability. Additionally, physical cross-links include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and crystallisation. Both techniques contribute to the lens’s structure and properties and can be enhanced with polymer modifications. In fact, silicon hydrogel macromolecules have been modified to optimise properties such as: improved miscibility with hydrophilic components, clinical performance and wettability. The new generation of silicon hydrogel contact lenses Properties Studies show that wearers of silicon hydrogel lenses report higher comfort levels throughout the day and at the end of the day compared to conventional hydrogel lenses. This is attributed to the fact that they allow around 5 times more oxygen to reach the cornea. This is significant as reduced oxygen supply can lead to dryness, redness, blurred vision, discomfort, and even corneal swelling. What’s more, the most recent generation of lenses have further improved material properties, the first of which is enhanced durability and wear resistance. This is attributed to their complex and unique material composition, maintaining their shape and making them suitable for various lens designs. Additionally, they exhibit a balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties which have traditionally caused an issue with surface wettability. This generation of products have overcome this through surface modifications improving comfort by way of improving wettability. Not only this, but silicon hydrogel materials attract relatively fewer protein deposits. Reduced protein buildup leads to better comfort and less frequent lens replacement. Manufacturing There are currently two key manufacturing processes that silicon hydrogel materials are made with. Most current silicon hydrogel lenses are produced using either cast moulding or lathe cutting techniques. In lathe cutting, the material is polymerised into solid rods, which are then cut into buttons for further processing in computerised lathe - creating the lenses. Furthermore, surface modifications are employed to enhance this concept. For example, plasma surface treatments enhance biocompatibility and improve surface wettability compared to earlier silicon elastomer lenses. Future innovations There are various future expansions related to this material and this application. Currently, researchers are exploring ways to create customised and personalised lenses tailored to an individual’s unique eye shape, prescription, and lifestyle. One of the ways they are aiming to do this is by using 3D printing and digital scanning to allow for precise fitting. Although this is feasible, there are some challenges relating to scalability and cost-effectiveness while ensuring quality. Moreover, another possible expansion is smart contact lenses which aim to go beyond just improving the user's vision. For example, smart lenses are currently being developed for glucose and intraocular pressure monitoring to benefit patients with diseases including diabetes and glaucoma respectively. The challenges associated with this idea are data transfer, oxygen permeability and therefore comfort. (See Figure 2 ). Conclusion In conclusion, silicon hydrogel lenses represent a remarkable fusion of material science and engineering. Their positive impact on eye health, comfort, and vision correction continues to evolve. As research progresses, we can look forward to even more innovative solutions benefiting visually-impaired individuals worldwide. Written by Roshan Gill Related articles: Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor / How bionic eyes are helping people to read again / Nanogels REFERENCES Optical Society of India, Journal of Optics, Volume 53, Issue 1, Springer, 2024 February Lamb J, Bowden T. The history of contact lenses. Contact lenses. 2019 Jan 1:2-17. Ţălu Ş, Ţălu M, Giovanzana S, Shah RD. A brief history of contact lenses. Human and Veterinary Medicine. 2011 Jun 1;3(1):33-7. Brennan NA. Beyond flux: total corneal oxygen consumption as an index of corneal oxygenation during contact lens wear. Optometry and vision science. 2005 Jun 1;82(6):467-72. Dumbleton K, Woods C, Jones L, Fonn D, Sarwer DB. Patient and practitioner compliance with silicon hydrogel and daily disposable lens replacement in the United States. Eye & Contact Lens. 2009 Jul 1;35(4):164-71. Nichols JJ, Sinnott LT. Tear film, contact lens, and patient-related factors associated with contact lens–related dry eye. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2006 Apr 1;47(4):1319-28. Jacinto S. Rubido, Ocular response to silicone-hydrogel contact lenses, 2004. Musgrave CS, Fang F. Contact lens materials: a materials science perspective. Materials. 2019 Jan 14;12(2):261. Shaker LM, Al-Amiery A, Takriff MS, Wan Isahak WN, Mahdi AS, Al-Azzawi WK. The future of vision: a review of electronic contact lenses technology. ACS Photonics. 2023 Jun 12;10(6):1671-86. Kim J, Cha E, Park JU. Recent advances in smart contact lenses. Advanced Materials Technologies. 2020 Jan;5(1):1900728. Project Gallery

Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Survival Secrets of the Arctic Springtail 15/10/26, 10:29 Last updated: Published: 21/09/24, 17:09 Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Introduction Approximately 450 million years ago, during the Ordovician period, the Earth was characterised by a hot and humid globe. The sea was teeming with life, with early squids, eel-like fish, and sea worms hunting smaller animals. However, there was no sign of movement above ground as the animals had not yet crawled ashore. This period of warmth created ideal living conditions for wildlife, but it was about to change dramatically. Shortly after, the land masses began to freeze, and an ice cap started to spread. The once warm and accommodating waters turned cold and inhospitable, leading to the second-worst mass extinction in the history of the planet. Many species succumbed to the harsh conditions, but one animal survived - the springtail. The springtail, a small insect-like animal, had developed a special strategy to combat the cold. Its cells started producing proteins that could protect them from freezing. This discovery challenges the previous belief that animals did not develop antifreeze proteins until much later. Research from Aarhus University has shown that the springtail might have been the first animal to develop such proteins. Applications in the Food Industry Since then, scientists have found antifreeze proteins in various animals, plants, and microorganisms. These proteins have also found applications in different industries. One of the industries utilising antifreeze proteins is the food industry, especially in producing frozen foods. Frozen foods often suffer from changes in taste and texture due to the formation of ice crystals. However, by incorporating antifreeze proteins, these undesirable effects can be prevented. Industrial yeast cell cultures have been engineered to produce antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes. These proteins can then be added to different foods, including ice cream, to improve texture and prevent the formation of ice crystals. Exploring Arctic Fish Aside from their contribution to the food industry, springtails have also fascinated scientists due to their ability to survive in extremely cold regions. The discovery of antifreeze proteins explained how arctic fish could swim in icy seawater. The proteins prevent ice from forming in the cells and blood of the fish, allowing them to survive in freezing conditions. Martin Holmstrup, a researcher at Aarhus University, oversees colonies of springtails in his laboratory. These small animals require minimal space and can be easily maintained in Petri dishes with a base of moist plaster and a feed of dry yeast. Researchers have determined that springtails developed these proteins long before other animals by studying the DNA sequences responsible for building antifreeze proteins. The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails opens up possibilities for various applications, including in the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, which can affect the taste and texture of frozen foods. The genes responsible for their production have been copied into industrial yeast cell cultures to utilise these proteins. This allows the yeast to produce the antifreeze proteins, which can then be added to different foods. One example is the use of these proteins in ice cream, where they help create a delightful texture and allow the ice cream to be thawed and refrozen without compromising its quality. Conclusion The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails has revolutionised various industries, particularly the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, improving the taste and texture of frozen foods. Incorporating antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes into yeast cell cultures can produce and add these proteins to different foods, such as ice cream, ensuring a delightful texture and the ability to thaw and refreeze without compromising quality. This remarkable adaptation of springtails has provided insight into their survival in extremely cold regions and opened up possibilities for further applications of antifreeze proteins in various fields. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: p53 protein / Zinc finger proteins / Emperor penguins, kings of ice / Diet of an ocean trench microbe Project Gallery

Read through articles that investigate the different mechanisms that lead to high blood pressure, figure out the link between vision and neurocognition, and more. Medicine Articles Read through articles that investigate the different mechanisms that lead to high blood pressure, figure out the link between vision and neurocognition, and more. You may also like: Dentistry , Biology What really happens inside the body during high blood pressure Investigating the different mechanisms that can lead to high blood pressure e.g. cardiac output and peripheral resistance The link between vision loss and neurocognition A plethora of studies have found some correlation between the two variables, particularly amongst elderly patients. How bionic eyes are helping people read again A tiny retinal implant offers new possibilities for people with severe central sight loss COMING SOON Previous

Ways in which pathogens avoid being detected by the immune system Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Mechanisms of pathogen evasion 27/03/25, 11:23 Last updated: Published: 05/09/24, 11:54 Ways in which pathogens avoid being detected by the immune system Introduction Pathogens such as bacteria and viruses have evolved strategies to deceive and outsmart the immune system's defences. From hiding within cells to avoiding immune detection to blocking signals crucial for immune function, pathogens have developed an array of tactics to stay one step ahead of the immune system. This article introduces some key strategies pathogens employ to evade the immune system. Antigenic variation The influenza virus is a persistent and challenging pathogen to treat because it employs a clever strategy known as antigenic variation to evade the immune system. Antigenic variation is the pathogen’s ability to alter the proteins on its surface (antigens), particularly hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), which are the primary targets of the immune system. As the virus conceals itself, it is no longer recognised and attacked by the host's defences. But how do the surface antigens change? This occurs through two primary mechanisms: antigenic drift and antigenic shift. The former process involves gradual changes in the virus's surface proteins by progressive accumulation of genetic mutations. Meanwhile, the latter requires a slightly different explanation. Antigenic shift is an abrupt process. It occurs when two influenza virus strains infect the same host cell and exchange genetic material. The exchange can lead to a new hybrid strain. This hybrid strain usually presents a new combination of surface proteins. It is a more abrupt process, and because the immune system lacks prior exposure to these new proteins, it fails to clear the viral pathogen. Antigenic shifts can lead to the emergence of strains to which the population has little to no pre-existing immunity. Some examples are the 1968 Hong Kong flu and the 2009 swine flu pandemic. Variable serotypes- Streptococcus pneumoniae When the host encounters a pathogen, the body creates antibodies against specific proteins on the pathogen's surface, ensuring long-term immunity. However, some species of pathogens evade this protection by evolving different strains. These strains involve multiple serotypes, each defined by distinct variations in the structure of their capsular polysaccharides. This variability allows them to infect the same host repeatedly, as immunity to one serotype does not confer protection against other serotypes. A perfect example of such a pathogen is the pneumonia-causing bacterium, Streptococcus pneumoniae , which has more than 90 strains. After successful infection with a particular S. pneumoniae serotype, a person will have devised antibodies that prevent reinfection with that specific serotype. However, these antibodies do not prevent an initial infection with another serotype, as illustrated in Figure 1 . Therefore, by evading the immune response, a new primary immune response is required to clear the infection. Latency- chicken pox & Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Pathogens can cleverly persist in the host by entering a dormant state where they are metabolically inactive. In this state, they are invisible to the immune system. Human Immunodeficiency Virus is well known for its use of HIV latent reservoirs. These reservoirs, consisting of metabolically inactive T-cells infected with HIV, can exist for years on end. When the host becomes immunocompromised at any stage in life, the T-cells in these reservoirs are suddenly activated to renew HIV production. The Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) is responsible for causing varicella (chickenpox) and zoster (shingles). Similarly, this virus can remain latent in the host to evade immune detection. VZV establishes latency in sensory ganglia, particularly in neurons. Since neurons are relatively immune-privileged sites, they are less accessible to immune surveillance mechanisms. This provides a safe haven from immune detection. When the host is immunocompromised, the virus reactivates. This renewed viral activity results in the production of viral particles which travel along the sensory nerve fibres towards mucous membranes. When the virus reaches the skin, it causes an inflammatory response. This results in painful vesicular skin lesions, commonly known as shingles (herpes zoster). Conclusion Pathogens employ diverse mechanisms to evade the host immune system, ensuring their survival and propagation through host cells. These evasion mechanisms can hinder the development of treatments for certain infectious diseases. For instance, the diversity in Strep A serotypes challenges vaccine development because immunity to one serotype may not confer protection against another. Additionally, the influenza virus constantly evolves via antigenic variation, always one step ahead of the immune system. The strategies employed by pathogens to evade the immune system are as diverse as they are sophisticated. Scientists continue to study these mechanisms, paving the way for developing more effective vaccines, treatments, and public health strategies to out-manoeuvre these organisms. We can better protect human health by staying one step ahead of pathogen evolution. 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