Bilingual individuals must regularly manage interference, focus their attention, and switch between linguistic rules Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does being bilingual make you smarter? Last updated: 06/12/25, 20:07 Published: 11/12/25, 08:00 Bilingual individuals must regularly manage interference, focus their attention, and switch between linguistic rules The question of whether bilingualism makes a person smarter has fascinated researchers for years, and modern neuroscience provides strong evidence that speaking multiple languages gives the brain a significant cognitive workout. Because both language systems are constantly active, bilingual individuals must regularly manage interference, focus their attention, and switch between linguistic rules. This continuous practice strengthens executive functions, the mental skills responsible for problem solving, inhibition, and flexible thinking, resulting in sharper overall cognitive control. Brain imaging research highlights these effects clearly. When bilinguals switch between languages, areas such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex show increased activation, the same regions involved in handling complex decisions and monitoring conflicting information ( Figure 1 ). The left inferior frontal gyrus, a core language production area, also contributes to nonverbal cognitive control. This overlap suggests that the very skills required to manage multiple languages spill over into broader mental abilities, making the bilingual brain more efficient at processing information far beyond the realm of language. Together, these neural advantages align with emerging evidence that the sustained cognitive engagement required to manage multiple languages may offer long-term neuroprotective effects, including a meaningful delay in the onset of dementia. The cognitive boost extends into sensory processing as well. Studies show that bilingual adolescents encode speech sounds more robustly, especially in noisy environments. Their stronger brainstem responses reveal enhanced auditory attention and sharper sound discrimination ( Figure 2 ). This means that the mental discipline of navigating multiple languages does not only affect high level reasoning but also improves the brain’s ability to detect, filter, and interpret sound, giving bilingual individuals an advantage in environments where listening is challenging. These advantages are reinforced by physical changes within the brain itself. Learning and using multiple languages increases grey matter density and strengthens white matter pathways involved in communication between brain regions. Even a few months of second language learning can produce measurable structural changes. Taken together, these neurological, cognitive, and sensory benefits demonstrate that knowing multiple languages profoundly shapes the brain. While bilingualism may not raise IQ scores in the strictest sense, it enhances mental flexibility, attention, memory, and auditory precision, suggesting that in many practical ways, being bilingual truly does make you smarter. Written by Maria Z Kahloon Related articles: The mutualism theory of general intelligence / Childhood intelligence Project Gallery

Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Antiretroviral therapy: a key to helping HIV patients 13/06/26, 16:35 Last updated: Published: 12/10/24, 12:34 Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Human Immunodeficiency Virus, commonly called HIV, is a sexually transmitted disease that affects approximately 40 million people worldwide and is mostly common in ages 15-49 years. It is spread through direct contact with the blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, and vaginal fluids of an infected person through mucous membranes—contact with male and female genital tracks. Additionally, HIV can be spread through breast milk from mother to child—studies have shown that infants likely contract the virus when the milk makes contact with the mucous membranes of the gut. How does HIV affect immune cells? HIV is a retrovirus—enveloped RNA viruses that can evade the immune defense system and live within host cells indefinitely. To infect cells HIV uses several mechanisms to make contact with the host cell's membrane. This involves the binding of HIV envelope protein (Env) with the cell receptor CD4 of an immune cell (T-helper cells). Env then binds to a co-receptor on the surface of the cell membrane, triggering membrane fusion. Membrane fusion leads to formation of a fusion pore where HIV successfully enters into the cell's cytoplasm through. Following this, HIV converts its RNA to DNA using enzyme reverse transcriptase and then uses integrase enzymes to become a permanent part of the host cell’s DNA. This allows HIV to replicate at a rapid rate, eventually causing the cells to bloat and rupture, killing the cell all while also “hiding” from the immune defense system and going into latency. Such a process is what weakens the immune system as there is a significant depletion in T-helper cells—cells that fight off infections and diseases. The evolution of ART For the reasons above, HIV is almost impossible to cure. While research is still being conducted to find a cure for HIV, most studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). ART is a revolutionary treatment introduced in the late 1980s that aims to prevent transmission of HIV, prolong survival, improve immune function and increase CD4 cell count, and improve overall mortality. The first drug released in the late 1980’s was Zidovudine, a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that essentially prevents HIV’s RNA from being converted to DNA. This restricted replication hence increasing T-helper cell count. However, while shown to improve the condition of HIV patients, zidovudine did not work well on its own and caused drug resistance from prolonged use. Combination therapy was later introduced where scientists discovered zidovudine to be effective when used alongside another NRTI (dideoxycytidine). This combination did improve CD4 cell count and the overall condition of most patients, not in patients with advanced HIV who had prior use of zidovudine alone. Now, several medications such as NRTIs, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors have been introduced and are used in a combination of three (Triple-Drug Therapy) to help suppress viral load to undetectable levels in the blood and improve the overall quality of life for patients. Triple-drug therapy can be tailored by doctors to improve the patient's condition. HIV is a sexually transmitted, chronic condition that affects less than 1% of the world's population. There is no cure for HIV, however, treatments (ART) have been introduced to reduce the viral load of HIV as well as improve the overall quality of life of patients. Compared to the past where these medications had to be taken multiple times a day, often causing severe side effects, patients can now take just a single tablet daily. This has changed the course of HIV treatment, allowing people to live lengthy, normal lives with the disease. Written by Sherine A Latheef Related article: CRISPR-Cas9 to potentially treat HIV REFERENCES Guha D, Ayyavoo V. Innate immune evasion strategies by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. ISRN AIDS . 2013;2013:954806. Published 2013 Aug 12. doi:10.1155/2013/954806 AlBurtamani N, Paul A, Fassati A. The Role of Capsid in the Early Steps of HIV-1 Infection: New Insights into the Core of the Matter. Viruses . 2021;13(6):1161. Published 2021 Jun 17. doi:10.3390/v13061161 Pau AK, George JM. Antiretroviral therapy: current drugs. Infect Dis Clin North Am . 2014;28(3):371-402. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.06.001 Mayers, Douglas L. “Prevalence and Incidence of Resistance to Zidovudine and Other Antiretroviral Drugs.” The American Journal of Medicine , vol. 102, no. 5, May 1997, pp. 70–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9343(97)00067-3 . Accessed 5 Dec. 2021. “Antiretroviral Drug Discovery and Development | NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.” Www.niaid.nih.gov , www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/antiretroviral-drug-development#:~:text=D urable%20HIV%20Suppression%20with%20Triple%2DDrug%20Therapy&text=In %20December%201995%2C%20saquinavir%20became. CDC. “How HIV Spreads.” HIV , 14 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/hiv/causes/index.html . clinicalinfo.hiv.gov . (n.d.). Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH . [online] Available at: https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/glossary/protease-inhibitor-pi . www.who.int . (n.d.). HIV . [online] Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/hiv-aids#:~:text=Globally%2C%2039.9 %20million%20%5B36.1%E2%80%93. Project Gallery

A collaboration with the Mesothelioma Center (Asbestos.com), USA Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast Cancer and Asbestos 30/03/26, 18:06 Last updated: Published: 06/06/23, 11:03 A collaboration with the Mesothelioma Center (Asbestos.com), USA Breast cancer is a prevalent disease characterised by abnormal cell growth in the breast. There are various types of breast cancer, including invasive ductal carcinoma, invasive lobular carcinoma, Paget's disease, medullary mucinous carcinoma, and inflammatory breast cancer. In 2022, approximately 287,850 new cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed, making it the most commonly diagnosed cancer in women. Natural risk factors for breast cancer include gender, age, race, early onset of menstruation, family history, and genetics. Environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and metals, may also contribute to the risk of developing breast cancer. Some studies have suggested a possible connection between asbestos exposure and breast cancer. While the link between asbestos and other health conditions like mesothelioma cancer is well-established, the exact relationship between asbestos and breast cancer remains unclear. Statistical significance refers to the level of confidence in the results of a study or experiment. In the context of studies investigating the correlation between asbestos exposure and breast cancer, Dr Debra David points out that many studies fail to establish a conclusive link due to a lack of statistical significance. Certain factors can increase the risk of developing breast cancer, known as "partial risk factors." Some of these factors can be controlled by individuals, such as alcohol consumption. However, many other partial risk factors are not within an individual's control without compromising their overall health. For example, receiving radiation therapy to the chest or making decisions regarding childbirth can be deeply personal choices that impact breast cancer risk. Examples of partial risk factors include consuming more than two alcoholic drinks per day, having children after the age of 30, not having children, not breastfeeding, using the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) to prevent miscarriage, recent use of birth control pills, receiving hormone replacement therapy (HRT), undergoing radiation therapy to the chest area, and exposure to toxic substances or carcinogens. According to the American Cancer Society, approximately 5 to 10% of breast cancer cases can be directly attributed to inherited gene mutations. However, many other factors, such as exposure to carcinogens, may be beyond a cancer patient's control. Summary written by the Mesothelioma Center ( Asbestos.com ) For more information, visit their website , and also read important facts breast cancer and mesothelioma survival rate . For further information, particularly the legal consequences, check out the Lanier Law Firm, which has more specific information . Asbestos was widely used throughout the military, and while we now understand the severe health risks it poses, the damage has unfortunately already been done for many veterans. To raise awareness and help veterans understand their risks, we’ve put together a guide that outlines 20 ways asbestos was used in the military . Project Gallery

Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Survival Secrets of the Arctic Springtail 04/07/25, 13:59 Last updated: Published: 21/09/24, 17:09 Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Introduction Approximately 450 million years ago, during the Ordovician period, the Earth was characterised by a hot and humid globe. The sea was teeming with life, with early squids, eel-like fish, and sea worms hunting smaller animals. However, there was no sign of movement above ground as the animals had not yet crawled ashore. This period of warmth created ideal living conditions for wildlife, but it was about to change dramatically. Shortly after, the land masses began to freeze, and an ice cap started to spread. The once warm and accommodating waters turned cold and inhospitable, leading to the second-worst mass extinction in the history of the planet. Many species succumbed to the harsh conditions, but one animal survived - the springtail. The springtail, a small insect-like animal, had developed a special strategy to combat the cold. Its cells started producing proteins that could protect them from freezing. This discovery challenges the previous belief that animals did not develop antifreeze proteins until much later. Research from Aarhus University has shown that the springtail might have been the first animal to develop such proteins. Applications in the Food Industry Since then, scientists have found antifreeze proteins in various animals, plants, and microorganisms. These proteins have also found applications in different industries. One of the industries utilising antifreeze proteins is the food industry, especially in producing frozen foods. Frozen foods often suffer from changes in taste and texture due to the formation of ice crystals. However, by incorporating antifreeze proteins, these undesirable effects can be prevented. Industrial yeast cell cultures have been engineered to produce antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes. These proteins can then be added to different foods, including ice cream, to improve texture and prevent the formation of ice crystals. Exploring Arctic Fish Aside from their contribution to the food industry, springtails have also fascinated scientists due to their ability to survive in extremely cold regions. The discovery of antifreeze proteins explained how arctic fish could swim in icy seawater. The proteins prevent ice from forming in the cells and blood of the fish, allowing them to survive in freezing conditions. Martin Holmstrup, a researcher at Aarhus University, oversees colonies of springtails in his laboratory. These small animals require minimal space and can be easily maintained in Petri dishes with a base of moist plaster and a feed of dry yeast. Researchers have determined that springtails developed these proteins long before other animals by studying the DNA sequences responsible for building antifreeze proteins. The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails opens up possibilities for various applications, including in the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, which can affect the taste and texture of frozen foods. The genes responsible for their production have been copied into industrial yeast cell cultures to utilise these proteins. This allows the yeast to produce the antifreeze proteins, which can then be added to different foods. One example is the use of these proteins in ice cream, where they help create a delightful texture and allow the ice cream to be thawed and refrozen without compromising its quality. Conclusion The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails has revolutionised various industries, particularly the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, improving the taste and texture of frozen foods. Incorporating antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes into yeast cell cultures can produce and add these proteins to different foods, such as ice cream, ensuring a delightful texture and the ability to thaw and refreeze without compromising quality. This remarkable adaptation of springtails has provided insight into their survival in extremely cold regions and opened up possibilities for further applications of antifreeze proteins in various fields. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: p53 protein / Zinc finger proteins / Emperor penguins, kings of ice Project Gallery

A glimpse into the early universe Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) 23/10/25, 11:22 Last updated: Published: 08/07/23, 14:11 A glimpse into the early universe June 2023 marked the early release of data from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI). This instrument will study the nature of Dark Energy, an elusive addition to our cosmological equations that is thought to explain the accelerating expansion of the Universe. Current models estimate that Dark Energy comprises 68% of the total mass and energy of the universe and is distinct from matter and radiation in the sense that as space expands, its energy density remains constant rather than diluting. Imagine your favourite concentrated juice drink tasting the same regardless of how much water you add! DESI will investigate the large-scale structure of the Universe, obtaining spectra of around 40 million galaxies and using their redshift to create 3-D distance maps. The five-year observation effort has aptly been dubbed an experiment in “cosmic cartography”. (Redshift is the phenomenon wherein the light from objects moving away from us is stretched to longer and redder wavelengths.) The revolutionary engineering behind this instrument enables the measurement of light from more than 100,000 galaxies in a single night! This includes 5,000 optical fibres, each connected to a robotic positioner programmed to aim at galaxies from a specified target list. The survey is conducted on the 4-metre Mayall Telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona. Another staggering feature DESI boasts is that the eventual sample size will outstrip the 20-year Sloan Digital Sky Survey by a factor of 10 in extra-galactic targets! The early release contains 80 Terabytes of data, representing 2% of the total dataset that should be available in 2026. See Figures 1 and 2. In 2005, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey found a signal that DESI will validate and make more precise. This signal is that of Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations (BAO). In the incredibly early universe, there were protons and neutrons, known as baryons, which existed in a hot, dense plasma with electrons. Photons were trapped in this plasma due to the extremely high probability of colliding with an electron. The universe was opaque. Only when the universe had cooled sufficiently so that protons and electrons could form neutral hydrogen atoms—an epoch known as recombination*—*did photons decouple from matter. The Cosmic Microwave Background is actually caused by these photons that were emitted after recombination. Before photons decoupled, the gravitational and high-pressure interactions in the plasma produced oscillations that radiated spherically outward from overdense regions, causing photons and baryons to travel through space together. However, as mentioned earlier, when the universe cooled and photons decoupled, the baryonic matter that was present in these oscillations became essentially frozen in space. The photons were free to stream throughout the now-transparent universe. This provided a so-called standard ruler, the distance that these baryons had travelled as an acoustic oscillation prior to recombination. Linking this back to Dark Energy requires the important detail that the radius of the spherical shell of baryons is tied to the expansion rate of the universe. As Dark Energy has propelled the Universe to expand, this standard ruler has expanded with it. See Figure 3. DESI's 3-D map of galaxies will provide a much clearer picture of the universe's large-scale structure, which is our only hope of finding the imprint of BAO. DESI will show (and has already shown) that there exists an overabundance of galaxies separated by a distance equivalent to the length of the standard ruler. Today, the size of this standard ruler is thought to be approximately 490 million lightyears. DESI represents an impressive step into the era of precision cosmology, and it will require the efforts of hundreds of scientists to make sense of the vast quantities of data we expect by 2026. Written by Joseph Brennan Related articles: Light Project Gallery

Malaria is a vicious parasitic disease spread through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito, with young children being its most prevalent victim. In 2021, there were over 600,000 reported deaths, giving us an insight into its Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Could this new vaccine spell the end of malaria? Last updated: 08/03/26 Published: 01/02/23 Malaria is a vicious parasitic disease spread through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito, with young children being its most prevalent victim. In 2021, there were over 600,000 reported deaths, giving us an insight into its alarming virulence. The obstacle in lessening malaria's disease burden is the challenge of creating a potent vaccine. The parasite utilises a tactic known as antigenic variation, where its extensive genetic diversity of antigens allows it to modulate its surface coat, allowing it to effectively evade the host immune system. However, unlike other variable malaria surface proteins, RH5, the protein required to invade red blood cells (RBC), does not vary and is therefore a promising target. Researchers at the University of Oxford have demonstrated various human antibodies that block the interaction between the RH5 malaria protein to host RBCs, providing hope for a new way to combat this deadly disease. The researchers have reported up to an 80% vaccine efficacy, surpassing the WHO's goal of developing a malaria vaccine with 75% efficacy. Published results also report that the vaccine was well-tolerated in individuals, with no safety concerns. Therefore, this vaccine has the potential to be the world’s first highly effective malaria vaccine, and with adequate support in releasing this vaccine, we could be well on our way to seeing a world without child deaths from malaria. Written by Bisma Butt Related articles: Rare zoonotic diseases / mRNA vaccines

Conservation efforts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An end at the beginning: the tale of the Galápagos Tortoises 25/03/26, 16:39 Last updated: Published: 06/06/24, 12:20 Conservation efforts The Galápagos Islands Most who know of the name “Darwin” will be familiar with the Galápagos. These relatively uninviting islands protrude harsh, crashing waves like spears of mountainous rock, formed through millions of years of fierce volcanic activity. Even Charles Darwin himself thought life could not be sustained in such a remote and harsh environment, writing in his 1835 Journal of Researches: A broken field of basaltic lava, thrown into the most rugged waves, and crossed by great fissures, is everywhere covered by stunted, sun-burnt brushwood, which shows little signs of life. Little did the 22-year-old university graduate know at the time, these rugged islands would spark the most pivotal and influential theory in the field of modern biology. Due to the Hawaiian archipelago’s unique volcanic origins, the cluster of islands have grown jagged and fractured, with some islands showcasing altitudes as low as a few meters above sea level to others flexing spaces over 5000 feet above sea level. These extremely diverse habitats enable the observation of vastly different sub-populations of the same (or closely related) species*, exhibiting differing adaptations to their unique environments. These morphological distinctions lead to Darwin’s infamous 1859 book ‘On the Origin of Species’, detailing his evidence for the theories of evolution. *This article may refer to the Galápagos Tortoises as different subspecies or species interchanagably, as this remains a contentious area. The giant tortoises One most apparent examples of evolution that Darwin noted were the Galapagos tortoises, Chelonoidis niger ( Chelonoidis porteri) , of which there were at least 15 subspecies. Darwin devoted almost four pages of his Journal of Researches to the Galapagos tortoise, more than he did to any other Galápagos species. These captivating reptiles can grow up to 5 feet in length and weigh over 220kg, making them the largest tortoises in the world. This miraculous species can survive over a year without food or water, able to store tremendous volumes of liquid in their bladders in periods of drought - one of the many adaptive characteristics that enable them to routinely live well over 150-years-old. Darwin notably observed the species’ two unique primary shell morphologies - saddleback and domed. Some subspecies, such as the Pinta Island Tortoise ( Chelonoidis niger abingdonii ), have saddle-shaped shells which raise at the front, making it easier for the neck to stretch upwards to feed on taller vegetation on hotter, more arid islands. Whereas the populations with the dome-shaped shells, including the Chelonoidis niger porteri , occupy islands where there’s an abundance of flora lower to the ground, making upward stretching of the neck unnecessary to feed. Features such as these are well documented in Darwin’s evidence for evolutionary adaptation throughout the islands. Torment and tragedy Only two centuries ago, the Galápagos Islands were rife with life, with an estimated 250,000 giant tortoises. Today, multiple species are extinct, with only around 10% of the individuals surviving. The dramatic decline of the Galápagos tortoises has been characterised by frequent human failure, and in some instances, human design. Between the 1790s and 1800s, whalers began operating around the Galápagos, routinely taking long voyages to explore the Pacific Ocean. With whaling voyages lasting about a year, the tortoises were selected as the primary source of fresh meat for the whalers, with each taking 200 to 300 tortoises aboard. Here, in a ship’s hold, the hundreds of tortoises would live without food or water for months, before being killed and consumed. Documentation regarding how many tortoises were taken aboard by whalers is scarce, however estimates place the number between 100,000 and 200,000 by 700 whaling ships between 1800 and 1870. This initial decimation via over-consumption was then followed by the introduction of harmful invasive species. In the years since, multiple foreign species have been introduced to the archipelago, mainly for farming, including pigs (a lot of which are feral), dogs, cats, rats, goats and donkeys. These non-native species are an enduring threat to the giant tortoise populations, preying on their eggs and hatchlings, whilst also providing fierce and unprecedented competition for food. Furthermore, increasing temperatures attributed to climate change are thought to trigger atypical migrations. These migrations have the potential to reduce tortoise nesting success, further adding to the list of threats these species have had to endure. The Pinta giant tortoise, Chelonoidis niger abingdonii , a species of the unique saddleback shell variety, was thought to be extinct since the early 20th century. But then, in 1971, József Vágvölgyi, a Hungarian scientist on Pinta island made a special discovery – Lonesome George. Seemingly a sole survivor of his kind, Lonesome George became an icon of the sparking conservation movement surrounding the Galápagos species. This lone Pinta individual could have been wandering the small island for decades in search for another member of his species - a search that would unfortunately never bear fruit. Despite selective breeding efforts, on June 24, 2012, at 8:00 A.M. local time, Lonesome George would pass away without producing any offspring, found by park ranger Fausto Llerena who had looked after him for forty years. Hope and the future Despite all the devastation the Galápagos tortoises have endured, not is all lost. Just like the story of Lonesome George, a microcosm of this larger crisis, there is a small light at the end of the tunnel. Just prior to George’s passing a remarkable discovery was made. During 2008, research conducted by the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department of Yale University on neighbouring Isabela Island, set out to genetically sequence the local giant tortoise population. Over 1,600 tortoises were tagged and sampled for their DNA, with analyses revealing an astonishing number of tortoises with mixed genetic ancestry. Within this sample, 17 individuals contained DNA from the Pinta tortoise species (and more contained DNA from the also extinct Floreana species). Retrospective study of old whaling logbooks seems to indicate that, in order to lighten the burden of their ships, whalers and pirates dropped large numbers of tortoises in Banks Bay, near Volcano Wolf, Isabela Island, likely accounting for these hybrids. This miracle discovery opens the door to selective breeding efforts, paving a future of reintroduction of the previously-extinct Pinta Island species. While only a fraction of their original numbers remain, the Galápagos tortoises continue to personify evolution’s stunning intricacies and persist as a bright beacon of hope for the greater world of conservation. It is vital that we do our part as human beings to correct the errors of our past and to respect and nurture these gentle giants and all that they represent in this world we call home. In line with this, recently, 158 captive-bred Galápagos tortoises have returned to the Galápagos island of Floreana for the first time in more than 180 years; this has been dubbed as a significant win by conservationists. Written by Theo Joe Andreas Emberson Related articles: Conservation of marine iguanas / 55 years of vicuna conservation / Gorongosa National Park / Modern Evolutionary Synthesis REFERENCES Sulloway FJ. Tantalizing tortoises and the Darwin-Galápagos legend. J Hist Biol. 2009;42(1):3-31. doi:10.1007/s10739-008-9173-9 Patrick J. Endres. AlaskaPhotoGraphics.com Project Gallery

The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Creatio ex Nihilo: a Christian creation doctrine including physics Last updated: 09/11/25, 20:52 Published: 20/11/25, 08:00 The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies At first glance, physics seems like a fairly straightforward field. Maths is the language that explains how everything in the universe behaves in a particular way. But the more you delve into the field, the more you realise that it actually intersects with all other fields - biology, neuroscience, philosophy, religion, etc. The example covered in this article is the creation of the universe. One of the subfields of physics is cosmology - the study of the universe, or cosmos, including its origin, development and fate. The most famous piece of modern work to come out of this field is the Big Bang theory. This is the suggestion that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe started out as a very hot, very dense point smaller than the size of an atom before it suddenly and rapidly expanded - bang! Out of this came everything. Every atom for all known and unknown things in the universe, all of the laws of time and space, literally everything came into existence in a big explosion of energy. How do we know this? Well, there is evidence of the Big Bang theory all over the universe, as far as physicists can tell. Particles flying about the universe can provide information about where they came from. For example, if we study the light from other galaxies we can see that the light is ‘red-shifted’ - meaning that as the galaxies move away from us, it shows up differently on the light spectrum then it would if it was very close. Think of it like when you drop a stone in the middle of a pond. The ripples start out very close together, but as they move away from the center they stretch out. Light does the same thing and physicists can use this to determine how celestial objects are moving, which is how we know the universe continues to expand. Such evidence not only tells us a lot about the universe as it is now, but it also allows us to theorise about the universe’s beginning. Unfortunately, this then begs the question…what caused the Big Bang? Better yet, what was there before the Big Bang? Nothing? Perhaps, but then how did everything in the universe come into being from nothing? It is questions like these that create an opportunity for other fields to join the conversation. One suggested answer to this particular question comes from the long-held Christian doctrine ‘creatio ex nihilo’, which is Latin for creation from, or out of, nothing. This concept is found in Genesis 1:1, ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.’ The suggestion is that first, there was nothing (which physics cannot prove or disprove). Then, God the Creator began the act of creation, which physics describes as the Big Bang. Physics cannot prove or disprove God as Creator either. Therefore, the argument is that the creatio ex nihilo doctrine is technically a valid possibility. Regardless of whether these theories are true or not, the topic of creation is an example of how physics works with other fields like religion or philosophy. Physics cannot necessarily answer all of the big questions, but it can certainly help provide information about the universe we live in. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: The Anthropic Principle- Science or God? Project Gallery

Ibuprofen requires a multistep synthesis to build up to its increased complexity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Molecular blueprints: the synthesis of ibuprofen Last updated: 26/02/26, 18:28 Published: 05/03/26, 08:00 Ibuprofen requires a multistep synthesis to build up to its increased complexity This is the second and last article in a two-part series on retrosynthesis. First article: Molecular Blueprints: The Art of Synthetic Planning . Introduction In the second article in this series on synthetic planning, the retrosynthetic techniques discussed previously are applied to the synthesis of ibuprofen. Developed by the Boots company in the 1950s and 1960s as an analogue of aspirin, ibuprofen had been taken by more than 100 million people in over 120 countries by 1985. Widely used for pain relief and as an anti-inflammatory, the chemical importance of ibuprofen cannot be overstated. Retrosynthetic analysis of ibuprofen In the previous article, all the syntheses of aspirin shown were achievable in two steps due to its relatively simple molecular structure. However, ibuprofen requires a multistep synthesis to build up to its increased complexity. A useful FGI at the outset would be to convert the carboxylic acid into a nitrile, as this group can later be readily converted back using acid and water. To build the isobutyl fragment, a Friedel–Crafts acylation could be employed, avoiding unwanted side reactions which come from Friedel–Crafts alkylation. Lastly, the resulting ketone product can be easily reduced using a Clemmensen reduction (Zn/Hg) to remove the carbonyl group altogether. Once a retrosynthetic pathway has been proposed, the next step is to identify a suitable starting material — typically something cheap and readily available. For this synthesis, a sensible starting material would be benzene. As shown in Figure 1 , the disconnection strategy targets the isobutyl portion of the side chain. To install the remaining carbon framework, a second Friedel–Crafts acylation will work nicely ( Figure 2 ). At this stage, two challenges remain. Firstly, the molecule is missing a carbon atom — this is not an issue, as the earlier retrosynthetic analysis shows the addition of a nitrile group which will extend the chain. The next question is how to convert a ketone to a nitrile group. This sequence begins with a reduction of the ketone to form a secondary alcohol using sodium borohydride (NaBH₄). Since alcohols are poor leaving groups, direct nucleophilic substitution (SN2) is not possible. Instead, an Appel reaction can be used to convert the alcohol into a halide, creating a stable leaving group. An Appel reaction proceeds via an SN2-like mechanism using triphenylphosphine (PPh₃). The reason the alcohol is now a good leaving group is due to the formation of a phosphorus–oxygen double bond, which drives the reaction forward. This now allows substitution using NaCN, after which acid and water can be added to form the final product ( Figure 3 ). Conclusion Together, the two articles in the Molecular Blueprints series highlight the power of retrosynthetic analysis in guiding organic synthesis. This technique forms the foundation for one of the most active areas of modern chemistry: total natural product synthesis. Written by Antony Lee Related article: Exploring ibuprofen Project Gallery

(LINNAEUS, 1758) Killer Whale Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Orcinus orca 25/03/26, 16:41 Last updated: Published: 06/06/23, 16:19 (LINNAEUS, 1758) Killer Whale DEFINITION & DIAGNOSIS Orcinus orca comes from the Delphinadae family (oceanic dolphins) and are the largest members of the dolphin family. The largest male orcas can grow up to 10 metres while for females, upto 8.5 metres. They have proportionately bigger dorsal fins that other big delphinids ranging between 1/10 th to 1/5 th of their body length. Orcinus orca can be easily identified by their colouration- black and white. It has also been seen that their skull is larger and holds the largest brain compared to all the other dolphins except Pseudorca crassidens (false killer whale). TAXONOMIC HISTORY Species: Orcinus orca Genus Orcinus, Family Delphinidae, Class Mammalia, Phylum Chordata, Kingdom Animalia . Synonyms : Orca ater, Orca capensis, Orcinus glacialis, Delphius gladiator, Orcinus Nannus, Orca recipinna, Delphinus orca FEATURES Killer whales are predominantly black with a white midsection mammals with a blunt head that has no distinct beak. Females usually grow to be 7m and males 8.2m. They also have large flippers which, in adult males, can measure up to 20% of their body length but in females and young males they will only achieve up to 11-13% of their body length. They also have a dorsal fin which in males can reach up to 1.8 m in length but in females it only reaches 0.9m. This difference in dorsal fin length can be useful in determining the sex of O.orca . The white midsection runs across the whole lower jaw but tightens between the flippers. This white area can be seen as more yellowish incertain oceans, mainly in the Antarctic, and more predominantly in adolescents. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A killer whale’s skin is very smooth and the outer layer continuously sheds and behind the dorsal fin and back, there is a grey- white patch known as a ‘saddle patch’ (Figure.1). O.Orca have dorsal fins and have paddle shaped pectoral fins which help control directional movement. The skeleton of a killer whale is robust and long and has a skull, backbone and a bone structure of the pectoral flippers. In general it was seen that O.Orca’s facial anatomy was slightly different to a typical delphinid structure of an asymmetrical nasal sac but some structures were smaller compared to several other species. Their teeth are conical shaped and curved inward and backward (Figure 2). The temporal fossa is very large, showing that there is a strong temporal muscle helping with closure of the jaw. Meuth examined that the amino acid sequence of myoglobin of O.Orca had similarities to Globicephala than to other delphinids and phocoenids with myoglobin. The reniculi of the kidney of the killer whale was found to be in groups of four which are connected. Differences have been seen with Hyperoodon based on the venous return in the kidney and the O.Orca have no peripheral venous complex whilst Hyperoodon does. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR The breeding cycles range over many months and vary depending on where the species are found. For example, in the northeast Atlantic, mating takes place between late autumn to midwinter. The approximate annual birth is between 4 to 5% and the annual pregnancy rates are roughly around 13.7 to 39.2%, and the growth spurt of an adolescent male killer whale varies within a range of 5.5 to 6.1 m, this is also the the time in which they reach sexual maturity. This was confirmed after comparing and examining two different male adolescents. The individual with 656-cm and testes masses of 3,632 g (R) and 2,270 g (L) was not sexually mature, but the individual that was 724-cm with 11,400 g (R) and 12,200 g (L) testes was sexually mature. A further examination of 57 mature males found in the Antarctic showed us that the average testis width is 22 cm and length is 55 cm. The average testis mass was calculated at 10,000 g with a maximum mass of 23,100 g. Prior to this peak, the growth curves of males are similar to that of females. The length for a female killer whale to become sexually mature ranges between 4.6 to 5.4 m. This length varies depending on whether the individual is found in the northeastern Atlantic or the Antarctic. If they are found in the Atlantic they become sexually mature around 4.6m and if they are found in the Antarctic they become sexually mature around 5.4m. The ovaries size range from 10 to 12 cm by 5 to 7 cm. The maximum size of foetuses varies geographically. The largest found in the North Pacific was 274cm, the one in North Atlantic is 255cm and 250 cm for the Antarctic. The smallest foetuses recorded are 228 cm for the North Pacific, 183cm for the North Atlantic, and 227 cm for the Southern Hemisphere . Calves are usually dependent for at least 2 years and weaning takes place when a calf grows to 4.3 m in length with lactation lasting for around 12 months . The sex ratios at birth on average looks like it is 1:1, however the ratio of males to females has been reported as 1.34:1 for the Marion Islands and 0.83:1 for the northeast Pacific. ECOLOGY O.orca are carnivores and also opportunistic feeders so their diets change seasonally and based on the region they’re in. They mainly consume fish but it has been found that they can also prey on seabirds and other marine mammals such as minke whale, squid and pinnipeds. The estimated daily food intake is thought to be around 4% of their body weight. Predation for killer whales can also determine their migration such as in the Atlantic it is dependent on the migration of herring. Although O.Orca predate on many different species’, the only predator for orcinus orca is humans. They are mainly hunted for oil and meat or killed as they are competition for fishermen. In Japan and Norway the fresh meat of killer whales is eaten and the old meat is usually used for fertilisers or for bait. To figure out the age of O.orca the teeth can be sectioned and the dentine or cementum layers can be counted but this can be hard to determine due to the presence of accessory layers as well. The estimated lifespan of killer whales is thought to be 25 years but could be as long as 35 to 40 years. Killer whales aren’t subject to many diseases but the main one they face is infection in the pulp cavity due to the wearing down of teeth. If the infection penetrates through the pulp cavity it can cause a jaw abscess. In captive killer whales the main killers are pneumonia, bacterial infections, systemic mycosis and mediastinal abscess. Written by Jeevana Thavarajah Related article: Why blue whales don't get cancer Project Gallery