Search Index

Integrins are desirable to target cancer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Biochemistry of cancer: integrins, the desirable targets 20/03/25, 12:01 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 08:39 Integrins are desirable to target cancer Every year, eight million people worldwide pass away from cancer, and this number is expected to rise. Cancer can damage a wide range of organs in people of various ages. It is quite honest to say that Cancer is the most common and severe problem in clinical medicine. Cancer's fundamental problems shed light on the biochemical and genetic processes underlying the unchecked expansion of cancer cells. The extracellular matrix (ECM)'s biochemical and biomechanical properties affect how sensitive cells are. Cell health depends on different reactions, such as proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and differentiation. The tumour microenvironment also largely influences cancer metastasis, medication resistance, and recurrence. Transmembrane glycoproteins called integrins mediate connections between cells and the ECM and connect it to the cytoskeleton. They relay the information from the ECM through downstream signalling pathways and can hence control the properties of the cell. Mammals have so far been found to contain 24 different integrin heterodimers, formed by combining 18 α- and 8 β-subunits. A cell's ability to bind to specific ECM elements depends on the pattern of integrin expression, which also affects how a cell recognises and reacts to its surroundings. These same integrin-mediated pathways are used by tumour cells in the context of cancer to boost invasiveness and oncogenic survival as well as to create a host milieu that supports tumour development and metastatic dissemination ( Figure 1 ). Hence, Integrins are interesting targets for cancer therapy due to their role in tumour progression, and several integrin antagonists, including antibodies and synthetic peptides, have been successfully used in clinics for cancer therapy. Unligated integrins may have a detrimental effect on tumour survival. They are generally unligated in adherent cells, which leads to the cleavage of caspase 8, which in turn causes tumour cells to undergo apoptosis through a process known as integrin-mediated death (IMD) ( Figure 2 ). Integrins' precise chemical signals and the mechanical environment of the ECM control how cancer cells behave. A key role is also played by the ECM's physicochemical environment. Chemically altered substrate surfaces have been used to study this interaction, but topology and functionality control are still difficult to achieve. Modifying a cell's local chemical environment does offer a viable method for selectively controlling the behaviour of cancer cells. Together, targeted external cue presentation has the potential to enhance existing intracellular cancer therapy approaches. When combined with other targeted therapies (tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-growth factor antibodies) for anticancer treatment, integrin inhibition may be used as a potential target for drug development. However, it needs to be thoroughly evaluated in the pre-clinical phase, possibly taking into account all of the plausible escape mechanisms by which tumour cells can develop. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Why whales don't get cancer / Breast cancer and asbestos / MOFs in cancer drug delivery / Anti-cancer metal compounds REFERENCES Hamidi, H., Pietilä, M., & Ivaska, J. (2016). The complexity of integrins in cancer and new scopes for therapeutic targeting. British Journal of Cancer, 115(9), 1017–1023. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2016.312 Jacob, M., Varghese, J., Murray, R. K., & Weil, P. A. (2016). Cancer: An Overview (V. W. Rodwell, D. A. Bender, K. M. Botham, P. J. Kennelly, & P. A. Weil, Eds.). Access Medicine; McGraw-Hill Education. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1366§ionid=73247495 Li, M., Wang, Y., Li, M., Wu, X., Setrerrahmane, S., & Xu, H. (2021). Integrins as attractive targets for cancer therapeutics. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2021.01.004 Yoshii, T., Geng, Y., Peyton, S., Mercurio, A. M., & Rotello, V. M. (2016). Biochemical and biomechanical drivers of cancer cell metastasis, drug response and nanomedicine. Drug Discovery Today, 21(9), 1489–1494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2016.05.011 Zhao, H., F. Patrick Ross, & Teitelbaum, S. L. (2005). Unoccupied αvβ3Integrin Regulates Osteoclast Apoptosis by Transmitting a Positive Death Signal. Molecular Endocrinology, 19(3), 771–780. https://doi.org/10.1210/me.2004-0161 Project Gallery

Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Latent space transformations 21/08/25, 15:53 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 16:42 Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Getting machines to understand the information we want to give it is quite the task. Especially, given the level of complexity of the information we give it. For example, when trying to process an image for classification algorithms, how does the algorithm recognise the paws of a dog or the curvature of a boat? We need to simplify the information for simpler processing and manipulation. Similar to how you would take summarised notes in a lecture instead of copying everything. While information is lost, the key features are kept. That is where the term “ latent space ” comes in. What are latent spaces? In the realm of mathematics, various types of spaces play crucial roles. One such space is the linear space, which encompasses the number line—a fundamental construct. Then there's Euclidean space, a broader category that encompasses 2D, 3D, and higher-dimensional spaces. However, as the number of dimensions increases, the mathematical intricacies become exceedingly complex, often pushing the limits of computational feasibility. In a latent space transformation, we essentially reduce the dimensions of the space in which the data exists and create an abstract representation of the key features in a lower dimension space. This has a host of benefits with the main one being a reduction in the compute power needed to process the data. It’s an example of data compression and a direct instance of dimension reduction with neither being new concepts. Example: auto-encoders Auto-encoders are a type of neural network. They consist of an encoder-to-decoder architecture (see image with caption). The transformation allows us to process and store the input data more efficiently. In addition, once trained, auto-encoders can sample data from the latent space to generate new data points also called data generation of a synthetic nature. Other applications of latent space Now that we can store our information more effectively for computers to understand, there are a host of applications for the technique you might want to be aware of: - Natural Language Processing: Latent space models have been used in natural language processing for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. - Audio Processing: Latent space models have been used for music analysis, speech recognition, and audio processing. - Computer Vision: This we have partially discussed already. - Anomaly Detection: Latent space models can be used to recognise security failures in cybersecurity, or potentially fraud in the financial system. The applications of data reduction would be endless but those are just few applications in technology right now. Written by Temi Abbass Related articles: Markov chains / Evolution of AI / Study on brain metastasis Project Gallery

Health in Syria and Lebanon are hindered by inequities and inequalities stemming primarily from warfare Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Syria and Lebanon’s diverging yet connected struggles Last updated: 17/07/25, 10:46 Published: 19/06/25, 07:00 Health in Syria and Lebanon are hindered by inequities and inequalities stemming primarily from warfare This is article no. 4 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Yemen- a neglected humanitarian crisis . Next article: Injustices in conflicted Kashmir . Introduction Welcome to the fourth article of the Global Health Injustices Series. The previous article discussed Yemen, specifically how the health and well-being of the population are affected by the intricate geopolitics at play. In this article, I collaborated with Jana Antar , to discuss Syria and Lebanon. Although these countries border one another, they encounter distinct challenges. Similar to previous articles, the health and wellbeing of the Syrian and Lebanese people are hindered by the inequities and inequalities stemming primarily from warfare. Impact of war on healthcare: Syria's deliberate destruction Since the onset of the Syrian conflict in 2011, the country’s healthcare system has been systematically dismantled. Beyond the direct casualties of war, the destruction of hospitals, clinics, and medical supply chains has led to a secondary crisis, one where preventable deaths become inevitable. Between 2011 and 2020, Physicians for Human Rights documented nearly 600 attacks on healthcare facilities. The deliberate targeting of hospitals and medical personnel has rendered healthcare not just a casualty of war, but a weapon of war itself ( Figure 1 ). This destruction has had catastrophic consequences. Maternal and infant mortality rates have soared, vaccination coverage has plummeted, and chronic disease management has become nearly impossible. In the northwest of Syria, where displaced populations reside in makeshift camps, infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis continue to spread due to poor sanitation and lack of medical oversight. The COVID-19 pandemic only exacerbated these challenges, whereby 46% of reported cases in Northwest Syria resulted in death due to the collapse of medical infrastructure. As of early 2025, only 57% of hospitals and 37% of primary healthcare centres in Syria remain fully functional. The remaining facilities operate under severe constraints due to damage from attacks and resource shortages. In 2024 alone, there were 77 attacks on healthcare facilities, further disrupting access to trauma care, maternal health, and treatment for chronic illnesses. Overcrowding in displacement camps and poor sanitation have also heightened the risk of outbreaks such as tuberculosis, making urgent intervention critical ( Figure 2 ). Impact of war on healthcare: Lebanon's fragile healthcare system Lebanon, a country once regarded as a regional medical hub, has borne the brunt of Syria’s refugee crisis. With an estimated 1.5 million Syrian refugees seeking shelter within its borders, the country has faced a 50% surge in demand for healthcare services. The healthcare system, already strained before the crisis, has since crumbled under the weight of economic collapse, political instability, and donor fatigue. The Lebanese economic crisis, which began in 2019, had devastating effects on healthcare delivery. The Lebanese pound has lost over 90% of its value, placing essential medical supplies out of reach for hospitals and individuals. Pharmacies frequently run out of life-saving medications, power outages disrupt critical care units, and the departure of healthcare professionals has left hospitals understaffed. The situation has worsened due to escalating hostilities, starting from the south of Lebanon and later expanding, displacing over 112,000 people as of February 2025. The violence has led to the closure of 130 primary health centres and seven hospitals, with 15 out of 153 hospitals either non-functional or operating at reduced capacity. In Nabatieh Governorate alone, 40% of hospital bed capacity has been lost. Attacks on health workers and facilities continued to mount between January and November 2024, when 137 attacks were reported, nearly half of which resulted in fatalities. These disruptions create a ripple effect, limiting immediate medical care and undermining public health initiatives such as vaccination programs and maternal health services. NGOs: the last line of defence In the face of government inaction, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have become the backbone of healthcare provision in Syria and Lebanon. International and local NGOs have mobilised to provide vaccination campaigns, mental health support, and medical supplies to those in need. For example, WHO and UNICEF have facilitated vaccination drives, reaching 250,000 children under five years old, 30% of whom were displaced Syrians. However, while NGOs have played a crucial role in mitigating healthcare crises, their efforts remain primarily reactive rather than systemic and preventative, addressing immediate needs without long-term sustainability, and not adequately focusing on precautionary measures to avoid these undesirable situations. In fact, NGOs face mounting challenges. The overwhelming demand for services, lack of sustainable funding, and security threats have made it increasingly difficult for organisations to operate. Moreover, while NGOs are stretched in their deliverables, the humanitarian workers encounter frequent targeting, making their mission even more perilous. Conclusion: the role of the international community The crises in Syria and Lebanon are not isolated events; they are a reflection of global health injustices that demand international attention and intervention. Providing short-term aid is no longer enough, so long-term solutions must be prioritised to rebuild these destroyed healthcare systems. Moreover, de-escalating both crises would improve health outcomes for the vulnerable communities in Syria and Lebanon. The next article will focus on the population in conflicted Kashmir; addressing their injustices is crucial because of the profound impact and lack of coverage in mainstream discussions. Written by Jana Antar and Sam Jarada Related article: Understanding health through different stances REFERENCES A Decade of Destruction: Attacks on health care in Syria. The IRC. 2025. Available from: https://www.rescue.org/report/decade-destruction-attacks-health-care-syria-0 The Syrian Conflict: Eight Years of Devastation and Destruction of the Health System - PHR. PHR. 202. Available from: https://phr.org/our-work/resources/the-syrian-conflict-eight-years-of-devastation-and-destruction-of-the-health-system/ Ammar W, Kdouh O, Hammoud R, Hamadeh R, Harb H, Ammar Z, et al. Health system resilience: Lebanon and the Syrian refugee crisis. Journal of Global Health. 2016 Dec;6(2). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5234495/ Lebanon 2025 Indicators and Targets Lebanon Multi-year Strategy 2023 -2025. Available from: https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2025-01/Lebanon%20-%20Strategy%202023%20%E2%80%93%202025_0.pdf Lebanon | Humanitarian Action. Humanitarianaction.info . 2024. Available from: https://humanitarianaction.info/document/global-humanitarian-overview-2025/article/lebanon-1 WHO. WHO’s Health Emergency Appeal 2025 [Internet]. 2025. Available from: https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/documents/emergencies/2025-appeals/2025-hea-lebanon.pdf?sfvrsn=45f2a018_5&download=true Lebanon’s Pharmaceutical Sector: Challenges, Opportunities, and Strategic Solutions. LCPS. 2025. Available from: https://www.lcps lebanon.org/en/articles/details/4903/lebanon%E2%80%99s-pharmaceutical-sector-challenges-opportunities-and-strategic-solutions Sousa C, Akesson B, Badawi D. “Most importantly, I hope God keeps illness away from us”: The context and challenges surrounding access to health care for Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Global Public Health. 2020 Jun 12;1–10. Syrian refugee access to healthcare in Lebanon - Lebanon. ReliefWeb. 2020. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/lebanon/syrian-refugee-access-healthcare-lebanon World. Lebanon: a conflict particularly destructive to health care [Internet]. Who.int . World Health Organization: WHO; 2024. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/22-11-2024-lebanon--a-conflict-particularly-destructive-to-health-care Project Gallery

The importance of implementing Maths into our lives Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Teaching maths like it matters 11/07/25, 09:54 Last updated: Published: 03/10/23, 13:43 The importance of implementing Maths into our lives …But I’m never going to use Algebra in my life! The above is a typical response from students across the country when walking into a Maths class. I did not understand others’ disdain, because I love Maths. I got satisfaction from solving numerical problems, stimulation from equations, and excitement from learning new variables like alpha, or constants like Pi. The abstract nature of Maths was like art to me. Later, I realised that not all my peers felt the same way, that somehow, I was the anomaly and that they were the norm. Many maths teachers feel the same way. They get lost in the subject that they love and try to teach it in the way that makes sense to them, without thinking on how the lack of context in equations and processes means nothing to disengaged students. As teachers, our job is to show how applicable Maths can be to our students on an individual basis. Rather than using real-life questions as extensions after the core activity, we must utilise them from the beginning when introducing topics, showing student’s how the methods that they learn can be applied to have some use beyond a pass mark in their exams. I am not talking about examples of ladders leaning against walls when teaching Pythagoras’ theorem and SOHCAHTOA, or, taking counters from a bag, to explain Probability. The examples here are forced, no student will connect with them because they are not lived examples or likely scenarios in most of their lives. We need to build strong relationships with our students, understand their demographic and interests, then introduce topics based on this. For example: If I know that my class enjoys football, I will begin with a video of Messi playing the game, pausing the video, and splitting the pitch up into segments, which can lead a conversation into areas of segments and circles, or, I can discuss the trajectory of the ball after a kick, to talk about quadratic equations. In another class, we can ask what students are budgeting for, perhaps concert tickets or new clothes, and use that to open a discussion into arithmetic series. Another great example is asking students to find an event happening somewhere in the country that they would like to go to, and as a class, plan for this. We would use research skills, calculate speed, distance and time if going by car, or pull up a train timetable where we can teach two-way tables and time conversions. To create meaningful connections to Math topics will take time, effort, and research, and the difficulty will be that not every application will be relatable to every cohort. We will need to build a portfolio of contextual examples related to each topic, however, if there is buy-in from others in our departments, it is an achievable target. In conclusion, we must teach Maths to students in meaningful ways that applies to their life, to keep up engagement and motivation as well as providing opportunities to deepen understanding. Maths should be based around conversation and interests, rather than an exercise of memorising and processes. It should make sense to students, it should matter. Written by Sara Altaf Related article: The game of life Project Gallery

The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Creatio ex Nihilo: a Christian creation doctrine including physics Last updated: 09/11/25, 20:52 Published: 20/11/25, 08:00 The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies At first glance, physics seems like a fairly straightforward field. Maths is the language that explains how everything in the universe behaves in a particular way. But the more you delve into the field, the more you realise that it actually intersects with all other fields - biology, neuroscience, philosophy, religion, etc. The example covered in this article is the creation of the universe. One of the subfields of physics is cosmology - the study of the universe, or cosmos, including its origin, development and fate. The most famous piece of modern work to come out of this field is the Big Bang theory. This is the suggestion that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe started out as a very hot, very dense point smaller than the size of an atom before it suddenly and rapidly expanded - bang! Out of this came everything. Every atom for all known and unknown things in the universe, all of the laws of time and space, literally everything came into existence in a big explosion of energy. How do we know this? Well, there is evidence of the Big Bang theory all over the universe, as far as physicists can tell. Particles flying about the universe can provide information about where they came from. For example, if we study the light from other galaxies we can see that the light is ‘red-shifted’ - meaning that as the galaxies move away from us, it shows up differently on the light spectrum then it would if it was very close. Think of it like when you drop a stone in the middle of a pond. The ripples start out very close together, but as they move away from the center they stretch out. Light does the same thing and physicists can use this to determine how celestial objects are moving, which is how we know the universe continues to expand. Such evidence not only tells us a lot about the universe as it is now, but it also allows us to theorise about the universe’s beginning. Unfortunately, this then begs the question…what caused the Big Bang? Better yet, what was there before the Big Bang? Nothing? Perhaps, but then how did everything in the universe come into being from nothing? It is questions like these that create an opportunity for other fields to join the conversation. One suggested answer to this particular question comes from the long-held Christian doctrine ‘creatio ex nihilo’, which is Latin for creation from, or out of, nothing. This concept is found in Genesis 1:1, ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.’ The suggestion is that first, there was nothing (which physics cannot prove or disprove). Then, God the Creator began the act of creation, which physics describes as the Big Bang. Physics cannot prove or disprove God as Creator either. Therefore, the argument is that the creatio ex nihilo doctrine is technically a valid possibility. Regardless of whether these theories are true or not, the topic of creation is an example of how physics works with other fields like religion or philosophy. Physics cannot necessarily answer all of the big questions, but it can certainly help provide information about the universe we live in. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: The Anthropic Principle- Science or God? Project Gallery

How chemistry plays a part Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The role of chemistry in space exploration 14/07/25, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 05/08/23, 09:41 How chemistry plays a part Background Space exploration is without a doubt one of the most intriguing areas of science. As humans, we have a natural tendency to investigate everything around us – with space, the main question we want to answer is if there is life beyond us on Earth. Astronomers use advanced telescopes to help look for celestial objects and therefore study their structures, to get closer in finding a solution to this question. However, astronomers do have to communicate with other scientists in doing so. After all, the field of science is all about collaboration. One example is theoretical physicists studying observed data and, as the name suggests, come up with theories using computational methods for other scientists to examine experimentally. In this article, we will acknowledge the importance of chemistry in space exploration, from not only studying celestial bodies but also to life support technology for astronauts and more. Examples of chemistry applications 1) Portable life support systems To survive in space requires advanced and well-designed life support systems due to being exposed to extreme temperatures and conditions. Portable life support systems (PLSS) are devices connected to an astronaut’s spacesuit that supplies oxygen as well as removal of carbon dioxide (CO2). The famous apollo lunar landing missions had clever PLSS – they utilised lithium hydroxide to remove CO2 and liquid cooling garments, which used any water to remove heat from breathing air. However, these systems are large and quite bulky, so hopefully we can see chemistry help us design even more smart PLSS in the future. 2) Solid rocket propulsion systems Chemical propellants in rockets eject reaction mass at high velocities and pressure using a source of fuel and oxidiser, causing thrust in the engine. Simply put, thrust is a strong force that causes an object to move – in this case, a rocket launching into space. Advancements in propellant chemistry has allowed greater space exploration to take place due to more efficient and reliable systems. 3) Absorption spectroscopy Electromagnetic radiation is energy travelling at the speed of light (approx. 3.0 x 108 m/s!) that can interact with matter. This radiation consists of different wavelengths and frequencies, with longer wavelengths possessing shorter frequencies and vice versa. Each molecule has unique absorption wavelength(s) – this means that if specific wavelengths of radiation ‘hits’ a substance, electrons in the ground state will become excited and can jump up to higher energy states. A line appears in the absorption spectrum for every excited electron (see Figure 1 ). As a result, spectroscopic analysis of newly discovered planets or moons can give us information on the different elements that are present. It should also be noted that the excited electrons will relax back down to the ground state and emit a photon, allowing us to observe emission spectra as well. In the emission spectra, the lines would be in the exact same place as those in the absorption, but coloured in a black background (see Figure 2 ). Fun fact: There are six essential elements needed for life – carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. In 2023, scientists concluded that Saturn’s moon Enceladus has all these which indicates that life could be present here! 1) Space medicine Whilst many people are fascinated by the idea of going to space, it is definitely not an easy task as the body undergoes more stress and changes than one can imagine. For example, barotrauma is when tissues filled with air space due to differences in pressure between the body and ambient atmosphere becomes injured. Another example is weakening of the immune system, as researchers has been found that pre-existing T cells in the body were not able to fight off infection well. However, the field of space medicine is growing and making sure discomforts like those above are prevented where possible. Space medicine researchers have developed ‘countermeasures’ for astronauts to follow, such as special exercises that maintain bone/muscle mass as well as diets. Being in space is isolating which can cause mental health problems, so early-on counselling and therapy is also being provided to prevent this. To conclude Overall, chemistry plays a vital role in the field of space exploration. It allows us to go beyond just analysis of celestial objects as demonstrated in this article. Typically, when we hear the word ‘chemistry’ we often just think of its applications in the medical field or environment, but its versatility should be celebrated more often. Written by Harsimran Kaur Related articles: AI in space / The role of chemistry in medicine / Astronauts in space Project Gallery

Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does insomnia run in families? Here's what genetics tells us Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:25 Published: 10/07/25, 18:11 Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side Have you ever noticed restless nights affecting more than one relative? Maybe your sister tosses and turns, or your brother wakes up before dawn, wide awake and anxious. It might feel like poor sleep is passed down from parents to kids, and science suggests that feeling isn’t just in your head. In one study, nearly 40% of people with insomnia had a close family member with it, compared to 29% of those without; making them 1.57 times more likely to share the struggle. So is that inherited, or just a string of bad luck? Here’s what science has to say. Your DNA can affect sleep Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side. If someone in your family, say a parent, sibling or even a grandparent, struggles night after night, you’re more likely to face similar problems. That doesn’t guarantee you’ll wake up at 3 a.m. every night, but it does raise your baseline risk: studies estimate that around one-third of insomnia liability is genetic. In practical terms, inheriting certain gene variants can make the brain’s sleep-promoting signals weaker or the wake-promoting signals stronger. Think of those genes as nudging you toward more restless nights rather than pushing you entirely into insomnia. So if genes only lay the groundwork, what else determines whether someone actually stays awake counting sheep? That’s where life’s daily stresses come into play. How genes shape your sleep Scientists have identified a handful of genes that guide our body’s natural clock. Our circadian rhythm influences how deeply and how long we sleep. For instance, variants in the PER3 or CLOCK genes can shift your internal timing. This makes it harder to feel sleepy at a conventional hour. Picture the circadian clock as an orchestra conductor: if the conductor’s timing fluctuates, the entire performance, your sleep cycle, can fall out of sync. Other inherited factors affect the brain’s “volume knobs” for alertness. Certain gene differences can heighten sensitivity to minor disturbances; like a creaky floorboard or an ambulance siren, so that you jitter awake even when there’s no real threat. Over time, those tiny awakenings add up, preventing you from reaching the deep, restorative stages of sleep. Yet, these genes don’t act in isolation. The brain remains remarkably adaptable through epigenetic changes; chemical tags that turn genes on or off. Experiences such as stress, illness, or a drastically changed schedule can strengthen or weaken those genetic susceptibilities. Sleep isn’t just genetic; here’s why Even if you inherit gene variants linked to insomnia, your environment and habits often decide the end result. High-pressure jobs, financial worries, or family conflicts can ignite sleep troubles in someone without a family history of insomnia. Conversely, someone with a strong genetic vulnerability might sleep soundly if life stays relatively stress-free and routines remain consistent. Everyday choices, like scrolling through social media until the last minute, drinking coffee late afternoon, or keeping wildly shifting bedtimes, further fuel the problem. For example, evening exposure to bright screens suppresses melatonin, the hormone that signals your brain it’s time to sleep. That means even if your “insomnia genes” are mild, you’re still creating obstacles to a good night’s rest. On the other hand, regular exercise (aim for at least 30 minutes most days), a balanced diet, and a calm, screen-free wind-down routine signal the brain that it’s safe to switch off. Over months, those good habits can overwrite the nudge from your genes, steering you towards deep, uninterrupted rest. Can you change your genetic destiny? Knowing that insomnia has a genetic component can feel validating. It clarifies that tossing and turning isn’t simply an unexplained routine. That awareness reduces shame and makes it easier to adopt practical solutions. If you suspect poor sleep runs in your family, watch for early warning signs: difficulty falling asleep, waking often, or waking too early. Catching these patterns early means you can experiment with sleep hygiene tweaks before the problem becomes chronic. Actionable steps include setting a consistent bedtime, dimming lights an hour before sleep, avoiding caffeine after mid-afternoon, and practising relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation. If these changes don’t help, cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) targets both the thoughts and behaviours that perpetuate sleeplessness, effectively retraining the brain’s response to the bedroom. Those inherited sleep tendencies might suggest insomnia is written in your DNA; but by keeping a consistent bedtime, cutting down on late-night screens and being kind to yourself, you can rewrite that genetic script and finally enjoy the deep rest you’ve earned. Written by Rand Alanazi Related articles: Does anxiety run in families? / Link between sleep and memory loss / The chronotypes REFERENCES Beaulieu-Bonneau S, LeBlanc M, Mérette C, Dauvilliers Y, Morin CM. Family History of Insomnia in a Population-Based Sample. Sleep. 2007 Dec;30(12):1739–45. Pacheco D. Is Insomnia Genetic? [Internet]. Sleep Foundation. 2021. Available from: https://www.sleepfoundation.org/insomnia/is-insomnia-genetic PER3 [Internet]. Wikipedia. 2023. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PER3 Dashti HS, Jones SE, Wood AR, Lane JM, van Hees VT, Wang H, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies genetic loci for self-reported habitual sleep duration supported by accelerometer-derived estimates. Nature Communications [Internet]. 2019 Mar 7;10(1):1–12. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-08917-4 Halperin D. Environmental noise and sleep disturbances: A threat to health? Sleep Science [Internet]. 2014 Dec;7(4):209–12. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1984006314000601 www.ushealthconnect.com H. Unraveling the Impact of Environmental Factors on Sleep Quality and Parkinson Disease [Internet]. Practicalneurology.com . 2025. Available from: https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/unraveling-the-impact-of-environmental-factors-on-sleep-quality-and-parkinson-disease/32197/ Levenson JC, Kay DB, Buysse DJ. The Pathophysiology of Insomnia. Chest [Internet]. 2015 Apr;147(4):1179–92. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4388122/ Spielman AJ, Caruso LS, Glovinsky PB. A Behavioral Perspective on Insomnia Treatment. Psychiatric Clinics of North America [Internet]. 1987 Dec 1;10(4):541–53. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193953X1830532X the I. amBX [Internet]. amBX. 2020 [cited 2025 Jun 6]. Available from: https://www.ambx.com/news/what-is-the-natural-circadian-rhythm Hassell K, Reiter RJ, Robertson NJ. MELATONIN AND ITS ROLE IN NEURODEVELOPMENT DURING THE PERINATAL PERIOD: A REVIEW. Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review. 2013 May 1;24(2):76–107. Wang J, Liu J, Xie H, Gao X. Effects of Work Stress and Period3 Gene Polymorphism and Their Interaction on Sleep Quality of Non-Manual Workers in Xinjiang, China: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jun 3;19(11):6843–3. Project Gallery

The unique condition of microgravity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Astronauts in space… losing gravity, losing immunity? 09/07/25, 10:58 Last updated: Published: 08/09/24, 13:39 The unique condition of microgravity Introduction Since the first successful human launch to space on April 12th, 1961, over 600 astronauts have travelled beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. Space travel is essential in driving technological innovation and consistently increases our understanding of the cosmos. However, alongside the thrill of space exploration, astronauts face significant challenges, including profound risks to their immune systems. Astronauts in space endure a unique condition of near weightlessness known as microgravity, which often causes dysregulation of their immune systems. Effect of microgravity on T-cell immunity One of the critical studies emphasising the effects of microgravity on the immune system is a twin study conducted by NASA, where they compared various gene expression datasets between an astronaut who had been on the International Space Station (ISS) for one year and their identical twin who had not travelled to space. They discovered changes in the methylation patterns of immunologically relevant genes such as NOTCH3 and SLC1A5 , which are both crucial in T cell development. They also found microgravity caused an increase in pro-inflammatory molecules and decreased anti-inflammatory molecules, alluding to spaceflight causing an increased inflammatory state. These patterns are consistent with other experiments simulating microgravity conditions, such as prolonged bed rest models. Microgravity has also been shown to induce thymic atrophy, which is when the thymus slowly shrinks and loses its function. The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ that is crucial in T cell development. An experiment performed on the International Space Station (ISS) has shown that exposing mice to 1g gravity can alleviate microgravity-induced thymic atrophy ( Figure 1 ), suggesting that exposure to a standard gravitational field is a potential treatment. The thymic environment is altered due to microgravity. In particular, thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are misplaced and, therefore cannot perform their role in T cell maturation. Overall, there is a significant decrease in the output of T cells from the thymus, shown by a clear decrease in thymic mass and alterations in gene expression related directly to the process of T cell differentiation. Effect of microgravity on the bone marrow Furthermore, microgravity affects the bone marrow, another primary lymphoid organ. The bone marrow consists of many mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which differentiate hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) into leukocytes. Microgravity inhibits osteogenesis and promotes adipogenesis, which means that bone formation is slowed down, but fat cell production is increased. This happens due to the changes to the structure inside the cell, known as actin cytoskeleton, which affects transcriptional regulators, which generally control cell differentiation. In space, there is also suppression of the cytokine CXCL2 in MSCs, which affects HSC differentiation into immune cells, indicating a link between MSC dysfunction and immunosuppression faced by astronauts. Other factors affecting the immune system Microgravity is the main factor behind immune system dysregulation in astronauts, but other factors, such as stress and exposure to cosmic radiation, also play a role. Cosmic radiation can damage DNA, leading to mutations that impair the immune system’s ability to function properly. Stress hormones are known to affect immune system function. For instance, cortisol can reduce the number of leukocytes in circulation. Conclusion Due to the compromised state of the astronauts’ immune systems, latent viruses often reactivate. Herpes viruses, such as varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox!) and Epstein-Barr virus, have been documented to be reactivated in astronauts during and after space flight. This is mainly due to the loss of T cell immunity ( Figure 2 ) and a reduction in NK cell potency and number. Microgravity affects NK cells by changing their cytoskeletal form, which they need to perform cytotoxic functions. Understanding and mitigating the risks of space travel is crucial as more prolonged and ambitious missions are planned, such as sending humans to Mars. The primary medical countermeasure for the reactivation of herpes viruses is re-vaccination. However, at this current point, only a vaccine for varicella-zoster virus is available. Future research focusing on artificial gravity and environmental changes on spacecraft and the ISS may provide a safer journey for astronauts spending extended time in space. Written by Devanshi Shah Related articles: AI in space / The role of chemistry in space REFERENCES Akiyama, T., Horie, K., Hinoi, E., Hiraiwa, M., Kato, A., Maekawa, Y., Takahashi, A. & Furukawa, S. (2020) How does spaceflight affect the acquired immune system? npj Microgravity. 6 (1), 1–7. doi:10.1038/s41526-020-0104-1. Simon N. Archer, Carla Möller-Levet, María-Ángeles Bonmatí-Carrión, Emma E. Laing, Derk-Jan Dijk. Extensive dynamic changes in the human transcriptome and its circadian organization during prolonged bed rest -ScienceDirect. https://www-sciencedirect.com.iclibezp1.cc.ic.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S2589004224005522?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Hicks J, Olson M, Mitchell C, Juran CM, Paul AM. The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. Immunohorizons. 2023 Oct 1;7(10):670-682. doi: 10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063. PMID: 37855736; PMCID: PMC10615652. The NASA Twins Study: A multidimensional analysis of a year-long human spaceflight | Science. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau8650 [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Hicks, J., Olson, M., Mitchell, C., Juran, C.M. & Paul, A.M. (2023) The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. ImmunoHorizons. 7 (10), 670–682. doi:10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063. Hobbs, Z. (2023) How many people have gone to space? | Astronomy.com. Astronomy Magazine. https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/how-many-people-have-gone-to-space/ . Mehta, S.K., Laudenslager, M.L., Stowe, R.P., Crucian, B.E., Feiveson, A.H., Sams, C.F. & Pierson, D.L. (2017) Latent virus reactivation in astronauts on the international space station. npj Microgravity. 3 (1), 1–8. doi:10.1038/s41526-017-0015-y. Surrey, U. Microgravity found to cause marked changes in gene expression rhythms in humans. https://phys.org/news/2024-03-microgravity-gene-rhythms-humans.html [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Project Gallery

A scientific reflection on the humanitarian, physical, and psychological cost of war Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Maveerar Naal: health, trauma, and resilience amid decades of war Last updated: 11/01/26, 18:48 Published: 27/11/25, 08:00 A scientific reflection on the humanitarian, physical, and psychological cost of war Every year on 27 November — and throughout the month of remembrance — Eelam Tamils worldwide observe Maveerar Naal, honouring those who lost their lives during Sri Lanka’s war (1983–2009). While traditionally centred on fallen fighters, this period also serves as a vital opportunity to reflect on the epidemiology of trauma, the collapse of public health systems, and the long-term physical and psychological consequences carried by Eelam Tamil communities after more than two decades of conflict. This article reframes Maveerar Naal not only as a commemoration, but also as a scientific reflection on the humanitarian, physical, and psychological cost of war — and the resilience of those who survived it. A health system under siege From the mid-1980s onward, northern and eastern Sri Lanka experienced a chronic, escalating humanitarian emergency. Repeated mass displacement, food scarcity, blocked medical supply routes, and intermittent bombardment steadily eroded the region’s healthcare infrastructure. Clinics became inaccessible due to shelling or military restrictions, and maternal and child health services deteriorated sharply. Early epidemiological observations from the 1990s documented widespread anxiety, depression, and trauma symptoms among civilians, demonstrating that mental-health consequences were emerging long before the war’s final years. By the late 2000s, the public health crisis intensified dramatically. As the conflict entered its final phase — from late 2008 to May 2009 — more than 2.5 million people were trapped in active conflict zones, while approximately 800,000 civilians were internally displaced. Entire districts lost functional hospitals; others were forced to convert schools, churches, and tarpaulin shelters into emergency medical centres. Human resource shortages reflected the near-total systemic collapse: in some northern districts, only 34 of 108 midwife posts and 6 of 27 doctor posts remained filled. Pregnant women delivered in makeshift bunkers, neonatal mortality spiked, and infectious diseases spread rapidly through overcrowded displacement camps. For many, survival came at the cost of long-term disability, untreated injuries, and profound psychological trauma. Physical health consequences across populations The physical scars of the war persist across generations. Civilians experienced blast injuries, shrapnel wounds, burns, and amputations, often without access to timely surgical care. Emergency operations were performed in unsterile environments; in some cases, anaesthesia was unavailable, forcing staff to improvise with inadequate substitutes. Conditions in displacement camps — overcrowding, poor sanitation, contaminated water — led to outbreaks of diarrhoea, hepatitis A and E, and vector-borne diseases. For combatants, chronic health burdens are well-documented. Peer-reviewed studies, including research published in journals such as the International Journal of Social Psychiatry and the Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine , report the following long-term conditions among injured veterans: Back pain: 69.4% Knee osteoarthritis: 18.8% Hypertension: 22.4% Diabetes: 34.2% Phantom-limb pain among amputees: over 77% PTSD among amputees: ~41.7% These outcomes reflect years of untreated injuries, limited rehabilitation access, chronic stress, and long-term nutritional deficiencies. Psychological trauma and intergenerational consequences The psychological impact of the war has been profound. Medical workers described witnessing mass casualties with inadequate supplies — a situation that produced significant moral injury, compassion fatigue, and long-lasting mental-health consequences. Among severely injured fighters, mental-health assessments published in trauma and rehabilitation journals report: PTSD: 41.7% Adjustment disorder: 16.4% Depressive disorder: 15.6% Somatoform/dissociative disorders: significant prevalence Civilians exposed to high-intensity conflict show similarly alarming patterns. Studies from humanitarian organisations and academic institutions report that approximately: 64% of civilians exhibited long-term trauma-related effects 27% experienced PTSD 26% had anxiety disorders 25% had depression 18% experienced functional disability due to psychological distress Notably, emerging research has identified intergenerational transmission of trauma, with children of survivors — even those born after 2009 — displaying elevated rates of anxiety, behavioural challenges, and trauma-related symptoms. This represents a critical area for continued scientific study and intervention. Health workers on the frontline: the hidden scientific story The war’s final months produced some of the most extreme medical working conditions documented in modern conflict settings. For ethical, political, and safety reasons, this article does not name frontline medical staff; however, their experiences are well-recorded in reports by Physicians for Human Rights (PHR), Human Rights Watch (HRW), and eyewitness testimonies. One regional physician coordinated makeshift hospitals inside schools and religious buildings. With no supplies, he sterilised instruments over open flames, used sarongs as dressings, and suspended IV fluids from tree branches. He performed dozens of emergency surgeries daily, sometimes operating while artillery fire struck nearby. A field-hospital superintendent described conducting amputations without anaesthesia, supported only by volunteer nurses. When their facility was shelled — an incident documented by multiple international observers — dozens died instantly. Survivors were treated in trenches illuminated by mobile phone torches. Another medical coordinator reported overseeing triage for thousands of displaced civilians, many severely dehydrated or malnourished. He described having to prioritise patients based solely on survivability, an ethically devastating but necessary decision in conditions of extreme scarcity. PHR and HRW documented at least 30 direct attacks on hospitals between December 2008 and May 2009. These incidents — some among the most thoroughly investigated attacks on medical facilities globally — illustrate the catastrophic collapse of health infrastructure and the extraordinary resilience of those who continued to provide care. Reflection, healing, and the path ahead Maveerar Naal is, at its core, a day of remembrance. Yet for many Eelam Tamils, it is also a day of scientific reflection — a moment to acknowledge the measurable, long-term consequences of conflict on physical health, mental well-being, and community resilience. Healing requires investment in: Long-term mental-health services rooted in trauma-informed care Rehabilitation programmes for amputees and individuals with chronic injuries Public health research into intergenerational trauma Accessible healthcare for survivors living in diaspora communities Preservation of evidence and health data for historical and scientific record By understanding the epidemiology of suffering, communities can better design strategies for recovery. By recognising the extraordinary resilience of civilians, fighters, and health workers, they honour all forms of courage. And by grounding remembrance in scientific truth, Maveerar Naal becomes not only a memorial, but a commitment to protecting health, dignity, and humanity for future generations. In remembering the past, we build the foundation for a more compassionate, prepared, and resilient future. Written by Jeevana Thavarajah Related articles: Impact of war on health (series) / South Asian Mental Health REFERENCES Amnesty International (2009) Sri Lanka: Twenty Years of Make-Believe. Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa37/005/2009/en/ BBC News (2009) Sri Lanka shells no-fire zone. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8046136.stm Catani, C. et al. (2008) ‘War trauma, child abuse and PTSD in Sri Lankan children’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry . Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18673497/ Channel 4 News (2011) Sri Lanka’s Killing Fields. Available at: https://www.channel4.com/news/sri-lankas-killing-fields Fernando, G. and Ferrari, M. (2013) ‘Short- and long-term psychological effects of war in Sri Lankan populations’, Asian Journal of Psychiatry . Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23885541/ Human Rights Watch (2009) Sri Lanka: Repeated Shelling of Hospitals. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2009/05/08/sri-lanka-repeated-shelling-hospitals International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (2014) War injury rehabilitation and prosthetics – Sri Lanka. Available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/document/sri-lanka-prosthetics-rehabilitation International Crisis Group (2010) War Crimes in Sri Lanka. Available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/war-crimes-sri-lanka Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) (2015) OISL Report: Sri Lanka. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/oisl-sri-lanka Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) (2009) PHR calls for inquiry into detention of doctors and war crimes in Sri Lanka. Available at: https://phr.org/news/phr-calls-for-inquiry-into-detention-of-doctors-and-war-crimes-in-sri-lanka/ Project Gallery

An exposé to the undisclosed condition Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast cancer in males 03/07/25, 10:26 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 16:51 An exposé to the undisclosed condition This is article no. 2 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Herpes vs devastating skin disease . Previous article: Rare zoonotic diseases . Following the breakthroughs and increasingly successful screening programmes in most recent years, breast cancer in women has become increasingly talked about. Throughout October, social media is filled with information on breast cancer in women, what to do if diagnosed, memorable fundraising events that will generate thousands of pounds, and the heartwarming stories of survivors and patients fighting against this horrible disease. In the UK, 1 in 7 females will be diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in their lifetime. If we look at other areas in the world, this statistic shifts significantly: in the USA 1 in 8 females will develop the condition, whilst in Japan, it is 1 in 38 females. Although the percentages of breast cancer incidence differ around the globe, they all underline one common characteristic: many women and their families throughout the globe will suffer because of breast cancer ( Figure 1 ). Interestingly, though, with how prevalent breast cancer is in women, breast cancer in men is hardly ever mentioned. Whilst breast cancer is much more common in women, with around 55 thousand diagnoses every year, only 400 males a are diagnosed annually, which is equivalent to 1% of breast cancer diagnoses in the UK. However, the unlikelihood of a disease does not mean that it is any less significant. Conditions like epilepsy, strangulated inguinal hernias, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and Paget’s disease are all conditions with an incidence of around 1% or less. Nevertheless, they all may severely change the lifestyle of patients and even cause death - the fact that they have a low presence makes them no less important. This makes one wonder, what causes breast cancer in men and women to differ so extensively in numbers, and why is breast cancer in men so undisclosed? To answer this question, we must first understand what breast cancer is. Cancers are cells that grow uncontrollably, often forming tumours in the tissue or organs of the body and usually caused by a mutation or environmental factors, such as carcinogens. Cancers can be classified as benign and malignant, the difference being that benign cancers will stay in the original location, whilst malignant cancers are invasive. In other words, the tumour may spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes or metastasise, spreading to other locations in the body. Breast cancer can be divided further into several types – this is one of the reasons finding a “cure” for breast cancer is so complicated. In men, the two most common types of breast cancer are invasive ductal carcinoma, which can spread through the ducts to the body, and ductal carcinoma in situ, which arises in the ductal lining of the breast tissue. But what causes these cancers to develop in men? There are multiple risk factors to consider when it comes to breast cancer in men, one of the most common being genetic mutations. Genetic mutations are when a copy of the DNA sequence in a gene has a change, and it can cause a different function or phenotype of the gene. In breast cancer, two critical and potentially inheritable mutations are in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, which increase the risk of breast cancer in both men and women. Furthermore, this is why taking the family history of breast cancer is essential: an individual with a positive family history for breast cancer may wish to take a genetic test to confirm whether they have the mutated genes. After all, genes are inherited. Hence, if one parent has the mutated gene, they could pass it on to their children. In addition, it is important to understand how breast cancer can only occur in breast tissue. Therefore, even if a male has the mutated gene, they could only have said cancer if there is breast tissue where the hormones oestrogen and progesterone can bind to and lead to mutation, causing the cancer to further multiply and spread – this is not always the case. Another genetic risk for breast cancer is a diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome. This syndrome, which affects less than 1% of newborn males, involves having an extra X chromosome, leading to the body producing higher levels of oestrogen and lower levels of androgen. Androgens are a group of sex hormones, usually found at higher levels in men, one example being testosterone. Meanwhile, oestrogen appears to be another risk factor. This natural hormone has been shown to correlate with breast cancer. A study in the Nature Journal found that the inhibition of oestrogen has decreased the incidence of cancer in patients considered high-risk. But how are men exposed to the hormone? Aside from being diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome, men can be exposed to hormone therapy treatments, which include drugs that could contain oestrogen. Likewise, another treatment that’s considered a risk factor is chest radiation therapy. Radiation is one of the known carcinogens of cancer, causing cells to mutate. Therefore, elevated levels of radiation could increase the risk for a patient. Other factors such as obesity, age and liver disease should also be carefully considered. As you can see, the list of risk factors for men is abundant, so why is it that breast cancer is still more present in women? And why is the general male public less aware of these risks, as they are for women? The answer to the first question is easy enough. Although the list of risk factors for breast cancer in men seems extensive, it is even longer for women. Furthermore, women are considered at higher risk as certain risk factors that both men and women share are more prevalent in women. For instance, oestrogen is produced in larger quantities by women. Additionally, a higher proportion of women are taking hormone replacement therapy drugs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) drugs are usually given to post-menopausal women to supplement more hormones, such as oestrogen. In the 90s alone, one study found that 22% of post-menopausal women took HRT whilst another study found that 51% of women have discussed taking the drug with their doctors. Meanwhile, the number of men taking HRT is much smaller, and usually these have a lower quantity of oestrogen, focusing more on testosterone. Although it is important to consider that within this time, incidences of individuals taking the hormones could change as the culture, awareness and research into hormone therapy changes. The second question, on the other hand, is slightly more complicated to answer. Of course, regardless of the rarity and prevalence of a condition in the population, the aim would be to treat and cure all. However, despite the significant impact and importance the NHS has on British healthcare, its limited resources meant that the most pressing and widespread issues were given priority. For instance, concentrating resources towards the C-19 virus during the last few years. Similarly, all healthcare systems globally are under constant pressure of this public health issue, managing its resources. Nevertheless, this does not mean that treating and raising awareness towards male breast cancer is less urgent and necessary. Another issue is the misinformation towards male breast cancer. In March 2023, a study in the American Journal of Men’s Health found that 61.1% of the participants (a total of 270 women and 141 men) were unaware that men could, in theory, have breast cancer. If we think about breast cancer, it is in many incorrect ways associated with femininity, perhaps from the organ it is found it arises on and to the colour (pink) used to represent breast cancer. Therefore, it all boils down to a convenient misconception, often following illogical stereotypes, that “large, strong, macho men” would never have this “women-only condition”. But how do we diagnose men with a condition they may not even know they could have? Following the process for diagnoses, specialists may recommend men with a strong family history to do regular screenings from the age of 35. Whilst screening is found to be an effective method when diagnosing women, its success in men is limited. For a majority of men, their process for diagnosis will start by noticing symptoms. Symptoms can be as obscure as a “different feel” to the breast tissue, or something more visible like a lump or hard mass. In theory, this would encourage men to approach their GPs which can then lead to the next steps of screening. However, many go seek experts late, often when seriously ill. This can both be explained culturally (such as Hispanics) and generationally, where older generations avoid medical consultations. This is very dangerous, as men often only received an official diagnosis of breast cancer six months after noticing symptoms, allowing the cancer to significantly grow within this time. On the other hand, an early diagnosis can allow for a swifter start to treatment, greater possibilities in treatment options, and could be less brutal for the patient. Hence, a better chance of treatment success and recovery. In summary, the procedures for the treatment of breast cancer in men do exist. However, for this treatment to be effective, healthcare professionals could consider increasing the awareness of the importance of regular screenings and appointments for early treatment. Overall, breast cancer in men is indeed rare. However, one must not overlook its consequences or its significance solely due to statistics. Breast cancer in men impacts many lives of both the patient and their families. Understanding the risks and the process for diagnosis could be essential in the early treatment of male patients. However, a further understanding of the astigmatisms and culture around breast cancer could be useful when educating the public on this condition. This article used “men” and “women” when describing breast cancer in patients. However, note that many individuals may not identify within these categories but could still be diagnosed and affected by breast cancer. Written by Inês Isabel Couto André ------------------ Learn more about this disease with Against Breast Cancer Take action and donate to Breast Cancer UK , and Cancer Research UK ------------------ Related articles: New radiation therapy to treat cancer / Apocrine carcinoma (a rare form of breast cancer) / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Project Gallery