Tesla’s vision was to develop wireless power across the globe Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nikola Tesla, wireless electricity, and the failure of Wardenclyffe Tower 10/07/25, 11:25 Last updated: Published: 04/09/24, 11:37 Tesla’s vision was to develop wireless power across the globe Nikola Tesla Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was a Serbian-American engineer and one of the most brilliant inventors of his time. His discoveries on how to utilise alternating current laid the foundation for the industrial revolution and today makes up the majority of power distribution systems globally. Finding inspiration from his mother Duka Mandic, whom he called a first-class inventor and credited for passing on her gift of discovery*, he went on to make significant contributions to the development of X-ray technology, radio, and robotics, as well as inventing the brushless AC motor, the rotating magnetic field, neon lights, and remote control. However, despite his many revolutionary inventions and around 300 patents to his name, Tesla died poor and ultimately failed in his greatest pursuit: to develop a free system of clean, wireless, electric power. Wardenclyffe Tower, also known as the Tesla Tower, was the first step in Tesla’s ‘World Wireless System’, a system designed to wirelessly broadcast electrical power across the globe, based on 20th century knowledge of resonance, the earth’s conductivity, and the Tesla coil. The Tesla coil: working principle The Tesla coil, invented by Nikola Tesla in 1894, is an alternating current resonant transformer that produces a high voltage from a low current. The high voltage produces sparks of ‘lightning’ or electrical discharge which can power lightbulbs. This experiment was a key motivator for Tesla’s later works with Wardenclyffe, although today the main use of the Tesla coil is for filming, entertainment, and educational displays. In a typical transformer, the ratio of turns determines the output voltage. The resonant properties of the secondary coil in a Tesla coil allows the transformer to achieve much higher voltages. A high voltage power supply from the first transformer is applied to a small primary coil, creating a large magnetic field. Current flow through the primary coil charges up a capacitor until the voltage across it exceeds the breakdown voltage of the spark gap (air). The capacitor discharges through the secondary coil in the opposite direction. This reverse current flow induces a magnetic field around the primary coil in the opposite direction. The constant changing of field direction induces a current in the secondary coil and produces a voltage proportional to the winding ratio of the coils. The resulting high voltage produces arcs of electricity similar to lightning from the terminal (typically torus shaped to direct sparks outward and prevent interference). Despite the high voltage, these electric discharges only produce a very small current in people who interact with it because of the high impedance of the coil and are not dangerous unless a person has a pacemaker or other medical device that could be affected by the high voltages. The frequency of the current has little interaction with nerve cells. Wardenclyffe Tower Following the same principles as the small-scale Tesla coil, Tesla’s vision was to replicate this on a large scale to develop wireless power across the globe, so that information could be transmitted from one tower to another by resonance. His early design featured two towers placed next to each other, so that the gap between the two domes could act as a spark gap. After cost revisions, the tower was redesigned to feature the entire transmitter circuit in one tower (see Figure 2 ). Figure 3 shows Tesla’s plan for the World Wireless System. An oscillator tower stands at 187 feet with a large dome of conductive metals on top, and an iron root system 300 feet into the earth. When the tower and Tesla receivers are tuned to the same resonant frequency, Tesla theorised that energy could be efficiently transferred between them. After obtaining funding from financier J.P. Morgan, Wardenclyffe tower began construction in 1901 in Shoreham, New York. The 187-foot tower featured a large spherical terminal, which was intended to ionize the atmosphere and create a conductive path for the energy. Below ground, a network of metal rods and plates would transmit energy into the Earth, relying on the Earth’s conductivity to complete the circuit. The working of the tower fundamentally relied on two highly under-researched principles, which were: 1. Earth as a conductor : In 1899 before Tesla began work on Wardenclyffe, he studied the periodicity of lightning in Colorado Springs, USA, and discovered what he called earth resonance. He found that large electrical impulses travel longitudinally through the earth to the antipode and are reflected (i.e., ‘resonate’) creating terrestrial stationary waves. He planned to use the tower to send electrical energy through the ground, which would then be picked up by receivers located anywhere on the planet. 2. Air as a conductor: Although air is normally a good insulator, at high altitudes (the earth’s ionosphere) it becomes an excellent conductor of high frequencies and voltages. The tower was designed to generate extremely high-frequency alternating currents, however reaching the earth’s ionosphere would require an antenna of at least 15 miles tall. Tesla apparently discovered a way to bypass this but did not make his methods public. There was very little knowledge about these phenomena at the time and even today are still not fully validated. Why Wardenclyffe failed Tesla initially pitched the project to J.P. Morgan as a world system of wireless communication to send messages, reports, and secure military messages, and to broadcast news and music. Morgan invested around $150,000 which Tesla accepted and instead began working on wireless electricity transmission, despite the investment being far below a realistic sum for the cost of the project. As Wardenclyffe tower required frequent modifications to the tower’s design during construction as well as expensive materials, the project was very costly. At the same time, Guglielmo Marconi achieved his less ambitious and inexpensive aim of wirelessly communicating the letter ‘s’ in Morse code (using some of Tesla’s patents). Combined with the Panic of 1907 and realising Tesla’s primary aim was for electricity to be free worldwide, which would be difficult to monetise, J.P. Morgan withdrew financial support and Tesla was forced to abandon the project. The scientific community and further potential investors were also sceptical about the feasibility of wireless energy transmission particularly considering energy losses over long distances, which made it difficult to obtain further funding. At the same time as Wardenclyffe Tower was being developed, Tesla’s AC power distribution system was being implemented rapidly. The established infrastructure of wired electricity transmission made it even more difficult for Tesla's wireless system to gain traction and funding, and the tower was demolished in 1917 to satisfy Tesla’s debts. Conclusion Wardenclyffe tower was an ambitious and audacious project which ultimately was not financially feasible. Even with modern day technology, efficiency, safety, and economic considerations prevent the system being a practical reality. Nevertheless, Tesla was undeniably an ingenious inventor, and his futuristic and daring approach to engineering continues to inspire innovations as well as debate. Today the site of Wardenclyffe tower is home to the Tesla Science Centre, a memorial to Tesla’s life and work. Footnotes * A highly skilled and intelligent woman despite no formal education, she invented various household tools and devices like the loom and egg whisk. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Transformers / Mobile networks / Electricity in the body REFERENCE Tesla, N., & Johnston, B. (1982). My inventions: the autobiography of Nikola Tesla. Project Gallery

Beavers alter their landscape through dams, canals, and felling trees Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beavers are back in Britain, ‘wood’ you like to know why? 08/03/26, 18:09 Last updated: Published: 03/12/24, 12:05 Beavers alter their landscape through dams, canals, and felling trees This is article no. 3 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: Pangolins: from poached to protected . Previous article: Conserving the California condor Eurasian beavers ( Castor fiber ) transform freshwater habitats so dramatically that they are nicknamed ‘ecosystem engineers’. Their dam-building and tree-felling activities could reduce flood risk and increase biodiversity. After being hunted to extinction centuries ago, beavers have been reintroduced to Britain in both organised and illicit ways. This article will describe where they have been reintroduced in Britain, and the impact they could have. Ecological importance of beavers By building dams, Eurasian beavers alter their habitat - often for the better. Beaver dams are made from wood, stones, and mud. They control the flow of river water, reducing the risk of floods and droughts. The resulting slower water is a good place for amphibians to lay eggs and undergo the aquatic part of their life cycle. As water builds up behind the dam, it converts the area into a wetland - a source of drinking water for animals like bats and an excellent carbon sink. Meanwhile, invertebrates can lay eggs or hide from predators in the spaces within beaver dams ( Figure 1 ). Further up the food chain, beaver dams have complex effects on fish. Although the still water provides habitat for overwintering and rearing young, dams restrict the movement of fish species like salmon. However, most studies have concluded that beaver dams benefit freshwater biodiversity. Dams are not the only way Eurasian beavers improve their landscape. To access food and construction materials easily, beavers dig canals – which make the habitat better drained and more complex. Moreover, beavers gnaw at tree trunks and branches, sometimes knocking over entire trees. This creates deadwood where terrestrial invertebrates can live. Felling trees also allow sunlight to reach the river surface, promoting aquatic plant growth. When beavers gnaw at willow trees, they create propagules, which disperse along the beaver-made canal network and grow downstream. These new willow trees stabilise the river bank and further reduce the flood risk. Humans often trim back trees to stimulate their growth – called coppicing – but beavers do this free of charge. Coppicing, dam building, and canal digging are just a few ways beavers save the human costs of restoring and protecting natural habitats. Extinction and reintroduction However, Eurasian beavers used to be more exploited than appreciated. They were hunted for their fur, meat, and a secretion called castoreum, which is used in perfume and pharmaceuticals. Exactly when and how the beaver population went extinct from Britain is unclear, but the last written record of a beaver is from 1526 in Scotland and 1780 in England. Since then, the British turned wetlands into farmland and forgot about beavers … until recently. After centuries, beavers returned to Scotland in the late 2000s. A handful of beavers were spotted in River Tay about 15 years ago, after either an enclosure escape or an illegal release. There are 114 families in this illegal population, which has genetic origins in Germany. The first official beaver reintroduction occurred in Knapdale Forest, Scotland, in 2009 – but this population did not grow as quickly as the River Tay one. With scepticism, the reintroduction of Eurasian beavers to Scotland was deemed a success, and they became a ‘European Protected Species’ in Scotland in 2019. Seeing Eurasian beavers thriving in Scotland encouraged reintroduction plans in England. In the English county of Devon, River Otter showed signs of beaver presence since 2008 and breeding since 2013. Authorities were worried these illegally released beavers would spread foreign diseases to local wildlife, but the public campaigned to let the beavers be. Public affection for beavers led to the River Otter Beaver Trial in 2015, where two breeding pairs were released into the river after thorough health checks. By 2019, the number of breeding pairs grew to seven ( Figure 2 ). Therefore, beavers have successfully returned to England. Encouraged by the unofficial projects, in February 2025 the UK government announced a new programme to officially re-introduce beavers to England. This programme ensures existing beaver populations are carefully managed and new reintroductions are licensed. Since then, beavers have been legally released in Dorset (March 2025) and Cornwall (February 2026). Thus, the UK government has joined the British public in returning Eurasian beavers to their ancestral home. Conclusion Beavers alter their landscape through dams, canals, and felling trees. However, in Britain, they were hunted to extinction a long time ago. Although beavers first returned to England and Scotland illegally, they now live in healthy, growing populations supported by the government . Hopefully they will remain protected and loved by the public, helping us to restore wetlands and improve British freshwater biodiversity. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Vicuna conservation REFERENCES Andersen, L.H. et al. (2023) ‘Can reintroduction of beavers improve insect biodiversity?’, Journal of Environmental Management , 337, p. 117719. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117719 . Brazier, R.E., Elliott, M., Andison, E., Auster, R.E., Bridgewater, S., Burgess, P., Chant, J., Graham, H., Knott, E., Puttock, A.K., Sansum, P., Vowles, A., (2020) ‘River Otter Beaver Trial: Science and Evidence Report’. Brazier, R.E. et al. (2021) ‘Beaver: Nature’s ecosystem engineers’, WIREs Water , 8(1), p. e1494. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1494 . Campbell-Palmer, R. et al. (2020) ‘Beaver genetic surveillance in Britain’, Global Ecology and Conservation , 24, p. e01275. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01275 . Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs and Natural England (2025) Wild beavers: Nature’s engineers to return to English waterways , GOV.UK . Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/wild-beavers-natures-engineers-to-return-to-english-waterways (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Gaywood, M., Batty, D. and Galbraith, C. (2008) ‘Reintroducing the European Beaver in Britain’, British Wildlife , 19, pp. 381–391. Halley, D.J., Saveljev, A.P. and Rosell, F. (2021) ‘Population and distribution of beavers Castor fiber and Castor canadensis in Eurasia’, Mammal Review , 51(1), pp. 1–24. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12216 . Harris, S. (2025) ‘Wild beavers make historic return to England at Dorset nature reserve’, BBC News , 5 March. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cwygxvzpkevo (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Hooker, J. et al. (2024) ‘Re-establishing historic ecosystem links through targeted species reintroduction: Beaver-mediated wetlands support increased bat activity’, Science of The Total Environment , 951, p. 175661. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175661 . Robinson, C. (2026) Two pairs of beavers released in Cornwall by wildlife trust , BBC News . Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cm2x9ndl4l9o (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Wilson, J.B., Bradley, J. and Bremner-Harrison, S. (2024) ‘The short-term impact of Eurasian beavers ( Castor fiber ) post-reintroduction on amphibian abundance and diversity in a lentic environment’, The Glasgow Naturalist , 28(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.37208/tgn28224 . Project Gallery

Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Foremothers of Gynaecology 10/07/25, 11:18 Last updated: Published: 05/03/24, 12:15 Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha In collaboration with Dr Aakila Sammy from Publett for International Women's Month We have honoured remarkable women in science across the centuries. From Marie Curie's pioneering research on radioactivity in the 1800s to Henrietta Lacks's unintentional contribution to immortalised human cell lines in the 1900s and Rosalind Franklin's crucial work on the structure of DNA. Yet, even as their achievements shine, the names of their male counterparts, like Watson and Crick, often dominate the narrative. Let's journey back a century or two. Were the experiences of Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha, the foremothers of gynaecology, similar? In the 19th century, Dr. James Marion Sims was celebrated as a surgical hero and the father of gynaecology. His fame stemmed from pioneering the first reliable surgery to treat vesicovaginal fistula, a severe childbirth complication causing a hole between a woman's bladder and vagina, leading to continuous urinary leakage and sometimes palliative care. Sims conducted his initial attempts at a small hospital behind his home in Montgomery, Alabama, focusing on enslaved African American women whom he housed. Over several years, he performed numerous operations on these women. Historical records indicate that 12 enslaved women underwent experimentation, with only three identified by name: Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha. While Sims did treat white women, indicating a universal need for treatment, he probably began experimenting with black women first. Unfortunately, many records were destroyed after slavery ended, obscuring our understanding of these events. Consequently, many who suffered or displayed bravery may not receive proper historical recognition. But we're about to change that here! Slave owners often viewed enslaved women as valuable assets due to their potential to increase the slave population and, thus, the owner's wealth through labour. However, when complications arose during childbirth, rendering these women unable to work, slave owners sought alternative means to cover medical expenses and maintain profitability. This often involved leasing them to physicians like Sims for medical experimentation and treatment. Additionally, enslaved women who experienced complications during childbirth were often ostracised by their communities and left with no choice but to comply with the demands of their owners. While on lease, these teenage girls aged 17 to 19 worked for the Sims family and were subjected to experimentation, naked and restrained in front of an audience of male doctors. Lucy was the first of the three women to undergo Sims's experimental operation and remained conscious throughout the entire hour-long surgery. Post-surgery, Lucy developed an infection, and even though Sims was able to cure her infection, her injuries did not heal, which rendered the operation a failure. Betsy was operated on next with the same outcome minus the infection. Anarcha, operated on last, had the same results, but this did not stop Sims. Sims persisted in his experiments, even when his male assistants quit. He eventually trained the women to assist each other during surgeries, and over time, they became proficient enough to be considered medical practitioners in their own right. The turning point came after Anarcha's 30th surgery, where success was finally achieved. However, shortly afterwards, Sims closed his hospital and relocated north. The fate of the women after this point is noted as being returned to their masters, indicating the continued exploitation and oppression they faced despite their contributions to medical science. While Sims's legacy indeed sparks ethical concerns about consent, anaesthesia, and racism, it's vital to recognise the dire circumstances faced by the women he treated and their significant contributions to his work. Despite the troubling context of slavery, characterised by ambiguous consent, potential underuse of anaesthesia, and the enduring belief that black women could endure more pain (a misconception that persists in healthcare today), these women sought relief from their suffering. Or was it their slave owners who sought to protect their investment? In addition to recognising the systemic exploitation and dehumanisation suffered by enslaved individuals, it is important to celebrate the resilience and bravery of these women, who played a crucial role in advancing gynaecological understanding and techniques. Now, just a mile from the remaining Sims statue stands another monument honouring the true mothers of gynaecology: Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha (by the artist and activist Michelle Browder). These teenagers played a profound role in shaping the field. It's imperative that we shift the narrative to acknowledge them as our foremothers in gynaecology when recounting this history. Their names deserve a place in the textbooks as well. -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Aakila Sammy , co-founder and CEO of Publett , for this interesting article on the pioneering individuals in the field of gynaecology. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Follow them @Dr.Publett on Instagram and @Publett Limited on Linkedin for more information. -- Our last collaboration: Micro-chimerism and George Floyd's death Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics and in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research / Women leading the charge in biomedical engineering / Endometriosis and PCOS / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES National Library of Medicine. "Vesicovaginal fistula was a catastrophic complication of childbirth for many enslaved women between 1845 and 1849." Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563360/#:~:text=Vesicovaginal%20fistula%20was%20a%20catastrophic,women%20between%201845%20and%201849 . ProQuest. "Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy: The Mothers of Modern Gynecology."Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.proquest.com/openview/a02db7be4c84ed0066ed13e79513b6ad/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=41361 . Smithsonian Magazine. "A monument honouring enslaved women, known as the 'Mothers of Gynecology' has been erected."Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/mothers-of-gynecology-monument-honors-enslaved-women-180980064/ New York Historical Society. "To learn more about Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy, visit the New York Historical Society's online exhibit, 'A Nation Divided: The Civil War Era"'.Accessed 28th February 2024. https://wams.nyhistory.org/a-nation-divided/antebellum/anarcha-betsy-lucy/ . Project Gallery

What they are, uses, and future outlook Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Advancements in Semiconductor Laser Technology 11/04/26, 15:51 Last updated: Published: 23/06/24, 10:39 What they are, uses, and future outlook Lasers have revolutionised many fields starting from the telecommunications, data storage to medical diagnostics and consumer electronics. And among the semiconductor laser technologies, Edge Emitting Lasers (EEL) and Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSEL) emerged as critical components due to their unique properties and performance. These lasers generate light through the recombination of electrons and holes in a semiconductor material. EELs are known for their high power and efficiency and they are extensively used in fiber optic communications and laser printing. VCSELs on the other hand are compact and are used for applications like 3D sensing. Traditionally VCSELs have struggled to match the efficiency levels of EELs however a recent breakthrough particularly in multi junction VCSEL, has demonstrated remarkable efficiency improvements which place the VCSELs to surpass EELs in various applications. This article focuses on the basics of these laser technologies and their recent advancements. EELs are a type of laser where light is emitted from the edge of the semiconductor wafer. This design contrasts with the VCSELs which emit light perpendicular to the wafer surface. EELs are known for their high power output and efficiency which makes them particularly suitable for applications that require long-distance light transmission such as fiber optic communications, laser printing and industrial machining. EELs consist of an active region where electron hole recombination occurs to produce light. This region is sandwiched between two mirrors forming a resonant optical cavity. The emitted light travels parallel to the plane of the semiconductor layers and exits from the edge of the device. This design allows EELs to achieve high gain and power output which makes them effective for transmitting light over long distances with minimal loss. VCSELs are a type of semiconductor laser that emits light perpendicular to the surface of the semiconductor wafer unlike the EELs which emit light from the edge. VCSELs have gained popularity due to their lower threshold currents and ability to form high density arrays. VCSELs consist of an active region where electron-hole recombination occurs to produce light. This region is situated between two highly reflective mirrors which forms a vertical resonant optical cavity. The light is emitted perpendicular to the wafer surface which allows for efficient vertical emission and easy integration into arrays. Recent advancements in VCSEL technology marked a significant milestone in the field of semiconductor lasers. And in particular the development of multi junction VCSEL which led to the improvements in power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the laser. Research conducted by Yao Xiao et al. and team has demonstrated the potential of a multi junction VCSELs to achieve efficiency levels which were previously thought unattainable. This research focuses on cascading multiple active regions within a single VCSEL to enhance gain and reduce threshold current which leads to higher overall efficiency. The study employed a multi-junction design where several active regions are stacked vertically within the VCSEL. This design increases the volume of the gain region and lowers the threshold current density resulting in higher efficiency. Experimental results from the study revealed that a 15-junction VCSEL achieved a PCE of 74% at room temperature when driven by nanosecond pulses. This efficiency is the highest ever reported for VCSELs and represents a significant leap forward from previous records. Simulations conducted as part of the study indicated that a 20-junction VCSEL could potentially reach a PCE exceeding 88% at room temperature. This suggests that further optimization and refinement of the multi-junction approach could yield even greater efficiencies. The implications of this research are profound for the future of VCSEL technology. Achieving such high efficiencies places VCSELs as strong competitors to EELs, particularly in applications where energy efficiency and power density are critical. The multi junction VCSELs demonstrated in the study shows promise for a wide range of applications and future works may focus on optimising the fabrication process, reducing thermal management issues and exploring new materials to further enhance performance. Integrating these high-efficiency VCSELs into commercial products could revolutionise industries reliant on laser technology. Note: latest research shows development of photonic crystal surface-emitting lasers (PCSELs) for free-space optics, offering superior power and beam quality compared to traditional VCSELs. Written by Arun Sreeraj Related articles: The future of semi-conductor manufacturing / The search for a room-temperature superconductor / Advances in mass spectrometry Project Gallery

And its chemical effects Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exposing medication to extreme heat 09/07/25, 15:09 Last updated: Published: 08/10/23, 17:18 And its chemical effects Introduction The majority of us look forward to when summer is just around the corner. It is a time for parents to start planning days off to be able to go on holiday with their kids to relax from their studies and enjoy sunsets at the beach. But for people who take medication, whether this just be a week-long course of antibiotics or for long-term conditions, summer may also be a chance for some negligence to occur. Specifically, alongside making sure you have applied SPF to protect your skin from the sun’s rays, you should also protect your medicine as well. This applies to both oral and non-oral drugs. Experts at The Montreal Children’s Hospital say that “many prescription drugs are very sensitive to changes in temperature and humidity”; in this article, we will therefore discuss the effect of extreme heat on drugs from a medicinal chemistry perspective. Factors affecting drug activity due to heat Certain drugs may begin to degrade before their expiry date if not stored appropriately. This affects the efficacy, which is the maximum biological response that is achievable with a certain drug. A dose-response curve can be plotted (see Figure 1 ) to show the relationship between the two variables; the label Emax refers to the efficacy. During hot weather, the structure of the drug can change and therefore unable to bind to its target, causing a lowered and shifted Emax to be seen. Simply put, the medication will not relieve your symptoms as effectively. Another physiochemical property of a drug that can be altered in the heat is the potency. Many people confuse this term with efficacy, but potency refers to the concentration of a drug required to achieve 50% of its maximum therapeutic effect i.e., half the Emax. Potency is therefore also known as EC50, which abbreviates for ‘half maximal effective concentration’. The lower the concentration needed, the more potent your drug is. Like reduced efficacy, the drug’s potency will also decrease in the heat due to altered chemical structure. For drugs like antibiotics, it is crucial to note that if potency is reduced significantly, it could risk infection spreading to other parts of the body as the medication will not fight off bacteria as well as it should. Potentially dangerous! Finally, drug absorption is when a drug moves into the bloodstream after being administered. The chemical structure of the drug and the environment in which it is present hugely affects this; for example, if a lipophilic (‘fat loving’) drug is also present in a lipophilic surrounding, fast absorption is seen as they work well with each other. As you have probably guessed, high temperatures outside of the body can reduce drug absorption due to the above factors mentioned, as the drug is not in its optimal structure to be absorbed effectively. Examples of medicine that are heat sensitive Here is a list of some medicines that require extra care to prevent the above: 1) Nitroglycerin – used to treat chest pains for those with cardiovascular disease. It is especially sensitive to heat or light as it degrades very fast. Dr. Sarah Westberg, a professor at The University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, says you should follow the storage instructions and replace them regularly. 2) Some antibiotics – research has shown that ampicillin, erythromycin, and furosemide show a reduction in activity in the heat, although this was found after storing them for a year in a car with a temperature exceeding 25 degrees Celsius. Other antibiotics such as cefoxitin are shown to have some “stability in warmer climates”. 3) Levothyroxine – used to treat an underactive thyroid, also known as hypothyroidism. This drug should be stored between 15 to 30 degrees Celsius, although even 30 is quite high so the lower the temperature the better. Interestingly, levothyroxine isn’t heat sensitive itself, it is the fact that the body becomes sensitive to the drug and may make a person feel strange in the heat. 4) Metoprolol succinate – used to treat high blood pressure, also known as hypertension, and heart failure in emergencies . The ideal storage conditions for this drug are 15 to 30 degrees Celsius, like Levothyroxine. Key things to look out for with your medicine in the heat Below are the 2 main things you should be checking for before taking your medicine in the summer: 1) Change in colour – Light can initiate all sorts of reactions, such as oxidation. If, for example, your medicine that is normally white has now changed into a different colour, this suggests that a reaction has taken place within your drug and will not be effective when administered. 2) Change in texture – Similar to change in colour, if a normally solid, oral tablet has become soft then this also suggests that the medication will not be as effective when consumed. How you can prevent your medicine from degrading To make sure you do not contribute to wasting medicine, you should do the following: 1) Check storage information – for any medication that you take, this will let you know how to store them correctly. 2) Travel with care – do not pack prescription drugs into your luggage, as it will almost always become very warm due to the surrounding environment. Instead, carry your medicine with you with the labels still on. 3) Do not leave medicine in any vehicle – everyday vehicles such as cars tend to get warm after a period , which can affect the colour and texture of your medicine. 4) Careful deliveries – for those who have their medicine delivered to them, you can request for your local pharmacy to deliver your medicine in temperature-controlled packages. Summary As discussed, chemicals in the majority of over-the-counter prescription drugs are heat sensitive and should therefore be handled with care, to prevent degradation of the drug. Changes in colour and texture are signs of degradation, which result in loss of efficacy, absorption, and potency. However, many other pharmacological factors interfere, so scientists especially involved in drug synthesis should (or continue to) take great precautions with the manufacturing process. Drugs are costly to make and require a lot of time, so the takeaway is to store them correctly! You should contact your pharmacist if you are still unsure about your prescription(s). Written by Harsimran Kaur Sarai Project Gallery

Known as microbial endocrinology, it is a complex field Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Investigating the interplay of hormones and the microbiome 03/05/26, 18:05 Last updated: Published: 08/11/24, 12:00 Known as microbial endocrinology, it is a complex field The microbiome The human body hosts a vast ecosystem of bacteria, with trillions crawling on our skin, colonising our gut, and living throughout our bodies. Most of these microbes serve to protect us against infections influencing our metabolism and even our behaviour. However, scientists have started to question the mechanisms by which these bacteria affect our bodily functions and characteristics. Scientists have studied these communities of microorganisms residing within our bodies and the genes they contain, yielding new and exciting perspectives… …Welcome to the human microbiome. The microbiome is the dynamic community of microorganisms (like fungi, bacteria and viruses) that exist in a particular environment. In humans, the term is most often used to describe the collection of microorganisms that inhabit a particular body area, such as the gastrointestinal tract, mouth or skin. While a person’s core microbiome is established within the first few years of life, its composition can shift over time in response to factors like medication, such as potent antibiotics and environmental factors. Researchers have uncovered that the gastrointestinal microbiota can influence some physiological processes, including a direct line of communication between the gut and the brain. But what facilitates this dialogue? What mechanisms enable the gut to relay signals to the brain? The answer is hormones. Hormones and the endocrine system The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and release chemical messengers known as hormones. They travel via the bloodstream and bind to specific receptors on their target tissues. This binding of hormones to their receptors triggers a response in the target tissue. For instance, during stressful situations, epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) is produced by the adrenal medulla, the inner region of the adrenal glands. This hormone, released into the bloodstream, acts on target tissues such as the heart, where it increases heart rate. Hormones regulate most of the body’s vital functions through their release. Some of these crucial processes include growth, metabolism, and reproduction. In the following sections, however, we specifically focus on how hormones influence the microbiome. The interactions between hormones and the microbiome Exploring the relationship between hormones and the microbiome is known as microbial endocrinology; it is a complex field because there are numerous interactions to account for, and the effects of each one can have lasting impacts on human physiology. For example, epinephrine and norepinephrine can lead to more bacteria, notably E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa , signifying that imbalance could harm humans. Also, parts of the host, ranging from mood to gender, impact hormones, bacterial presence and activity ( Figure 3 ). An emerging area of microbial endocrinology is how the microbiome and sex hormones engage with each other in disease and female health- this is called microgenderome (this describes "bidirectional interactions between human microbiomes, sex hormones, and immune systems"). This may help to explain why women are more prone to certain autoimmune conditions. One paper noted that disorders from metabolic syndrome (MetS) to type 2 diabetes (T2D) have distinctions in the levels of sex hormones and gut microbiota, indicating that they are essential to understanding in developing those conditions. The influence of gut microbiota on sex hormones can occur through various mechanisms, such as bacteria controlling the activity and expression of endocrine receptors and even bacteria metabolising sex hormones; this knowledge can help create treatments against polycystic ovarian syndrome and ovarian cancer, among other diseases that usually impact females due to gut microbiome imbalances ( Figure 4 ). Another part of microbial endocrinology being researched is how the microbiome impacts human growth. In one study involving adult male mice, decreased growth hormone (GH) led to undeveloped microbiomes, while surplus GH was linked to an expanded microbiome; this depicts that bacteria influences development via the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor 1 (GH-IGF-1) axis; maintaining a steady dynamic between the microbiome and this axis is vital for development ( Figure 5 ), particularly in children. In puberty, hormones and the gut microbiome interact, as observed in obesity and precocious puberty. Hence, a deeper awareness of the bacteria and sex hormones during puberty is crucial to designing targeted medicines for growth disorders. Moreover, patients with GH-secreting pituitary adenoma (GHPA) have modified gut microbiota, like increased Alistipes shahii and Odoribacter splanchnicus . Still, more research is needed to investigate this. Conclusion The microbiome refers to the millions of microorganisms on and within the human body that influence various physiological functions ranging from digesting food to outcompeting pathogens for resources. Also, the microbiome can affect the endocrine system, which consists of hormones that control glucose and reproduction, among other processes. This bridge, known as microbial endocrinology, has critical applications for understanding women’s health and growth disorders (microgenderome); this emerging area is growing, so it can address knowledge gaps in diseases like cancer and even improve other medical treatments. Written by Sam Jarada and Fozia Hassan The interactions between hormones and the microbiome, and Conclusion sections by Sam The microbiome, and Hormones and the endocrine system sections by Fozia Related articles: The gut microbiome / Dopamine and the gut / The power of probiotics / Vitamins REFERENCES “The Human Microbiome and Its Impacts on Health - PWOnlyIAS.” PWOnlyIAS , 18 Jan. 2024, pwonlyias.com/current-affairs/gut-microbiome-and-health/ . Accessed 17 Oct. 2024. Mittal, Rahul, et al. “Neurotransmitters: The Critical Modulators Regulating Gut-Brain Axis.” Journal of Cellular Physiology , vol. 232, no. 9, 10 Apr. 2017, pp. 2359–2372, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5772764/ , https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.25518 . Accessed 17 Oct. 2024. Neuman, Hadar, et al. “Microbial Endocrinology: The Interplay between the Microbiota and the Endocrine System.” FEMS Microbiology Reviews , vol. 39, no. 4, 1 July 2015, pp. 509–521, academic.oup.com/femsre/article/39/4/509/2467625 , https://doi.org/10.1093/femsre/fuu010 . Hiller-Sturmhöfel S, Bartke A. The Endocrine System: An Overview. Alcohol Health and Research World. 2024;22(3):153. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6761896/ Neuman H, Debelius JW, Knight R, Koren O. Microbial endocrinology: the interplay between the microbiota and the endocrine system. FEMS Microbiology Reviews [Internet]. 2015 Feb 19 [cited 2024 Sep 18];39(4):509–21. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/39/4/509/2467625?login=false Jose Antonio Santos-Marcos, Mora-Ortiz M, Tena-Sempere M, José López-Miranda, Camargo A. Interaction between gut microbiota and sex hormones and their relation to sexual dimorphism in metabolic diseases. Biology of Sex Differences. 2023 Feb 7;14(1). He S, Li H, Yu Z, Zhang F, Liang S, Liu H, et al. The Gut Microbiome and Sex Hormone-Related Diseases. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2021 Sep 28;12. Siddiqui R, Makhlouf Z, Alharbi AM, Alfahemi H, Khan NA. The Gut Microbiome and Female Health. Biology [Internet]. 2022 Nov 1;11(11):1683. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/11/11/1683 Jensen E, Young JA, Jackson Z, Busken J, List EO, Ronan O’Carroll, et al. Growth Hormone Deficiency and Excess Alter the Gut Microbiome in Adult Male Mice. Endocrinology [Internet]. 2020 Feb 26 [cited 2023 Nov 9];161(4). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7341558/ Jensen EA, Young JA, Mathes SC, List EO, Carroll RK, Kuhn J, et al. Crosstalk between the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 axis and the gut microbiome: A new frontier for microbial endocrinology. Growth Hormone & IGF Research. 2020 Aug;53-54:101333. Project Gallery

PTSD and Tetris Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can Tetris help treat Post Traumatic Stress Disorder? 13/06/26, 16:47 Last updated: Published: 06/03/24, 11:47 PTSD and Tetris This is the last part (Part II) in the two-part series on PTSD and intrusive memories, discussing how a common and well-loved visuospatial game, Tetris, can reduce the presence of the core clinical symptom. Previous article: Boom, and you're back! As discussed in an earlier article , psychological trauma resulting from threat to life or serious injury from events such as vehicle accidents or assault, among others, can result in development of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The core clinical feature is intrusive memories, where memories of the event involuntarily intrude into a person’s consciousness after being triggered by environmental cues, resulting in extreme emotional distress. Two of the most common and effective treatments for PTSD include trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy. These approaches address an individual’s memory of the event alongside their emotional understanding of the experience. Unfortunately, there is a lack of qualified therapists and patients are often wary of delving into the event details. This results in many patients not receiving sufficient treatment. Following an event, the memory must be consolidated into long-term memory for it to be remembered at a later date. Memory consolidation theory states that the memory is flexible several hours following the event, meaning it can be interfered with. Engaging in a visuospatial task during this period may weaken the consolidation of the traumatic memory because the tasks compete with limited cognitive resources. Therefore, completing tasks with high visuospatial demands in the consolidation period may reduce the occurrence of intrusive memories. Many studies have looked into this, using Tetris to disrupt the memory up to six hours post exposure, and have found positive results. One study took this outside of the laboratory, recruiting patients in an emergency department following serious vehicle accidents. The intervention involved two steps, first patients were asked to remember the accident and state the most traumatising experience they observed. Following this they played Tetris for a minimum of 10 minutes, which competed with the visual memories they had just produced. It was found that 62% of those in the Tetris intervention group had a reduction in intrusive memories in the subsequent week, compared to those in the control group. However, it is not always practical to play a video game in the direct aftermath of the event. The memory consolidation theory also states that memories become flexible to change when they are remembered and subsequently must be reconsolidated into long-term memory. Therefore, other studies have investigated using Tetris as an intervention for those already experiencing PTSD. In this case, combining Testis game play with EMDR therapy has been found useful. After completion of therapy, both control and Tetris groups were found to have a reduction in symptoms at 6-months. However, only the Tetris group had reductions in anxiety and depression. Remember in the previous article we spoke about the neuroanatomy of PTSD and how that related to intrusive memories. Research has shown those with PTSD have reductions in hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex volume, with the reduced hippocampal volume correlating to symptom severity. In fact, studies investigating the use of Tetris have shown that playing this during psychological therapy increases the hippocampal volume, and this increase correlates to the reduced symptoms 6-months following treatment. Currently, the interventions for PTSD have limitations surrounding the longevity of symptom improvements. Therefore, combining Tetris playing with psychotherapies may maintain the symptom improvements long term by increasing the hippocampal volume. Not only this, but videogames with high visuospatial demands like Tetris, may provide some utility as preventative interventions, which are currently lacking. Considering patients involved in vehicle accidents wait upto four hours in emergency departments in the UK, there is an opportunity to reach patients within the memory consolidation window. This approach is not only cost-effective and requires straightforward training for implementation but has been found acceptable in clinical populations. Notably, the earlier study found 48% of patients engaged in this approach, surpassing participation rates of 10% in a psychotherapy trial and 8% in a pharmacological trial within the same emergency department. In line with this, a groundbreaking study (Beckenstrom et. al, 2026), published in the Lancet, demonstrated that Tetris gameplay had a huge potential as an easily accessible digital treatment for PTSD patients worldwide. Overall, interfering with memory consolidation using Tetris could provide a good treatment option for intrusive memories in PTSD. Research is still being undertaken, with some even investigating the effects of other visuospatial games such as Candy Crush. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Project Gallery

The main difference between children and adults lies in what needs to be rebuilt Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why brain injuries affect children and adults differently Last updated: 13/06/26, 16:54 Published: 13/11/25, 08:00 The main difference between children and adults lies in what needs to be rebuilt When we think about a brain injury, it is easy to assume that the same thing happens in everyone; a bump to the head, swelling, and hopefully a recovery. In reality, things aren’t quite that simple. A child’s brain is not a smaller version of an adult’s, it is still developing, which makes it both incredibly adaptable and, at the same time, especially vulnerable. Smaller bodies, bigger risks Although the brain’s basic reaction to injury is similar in children and adults, injuries in younger people tend to cause more widespread and severe damage. This is due to the differences in anatomical development. Children’s heads are proportionally larger compared to the rest of their bodies, and their neck muscles are much weaker than those of adults. This means that when a child falls or is knocked, their head can move suddenly and forcefully, placing extra strain on the brain. On top of that, children’s brains have a higher water content and are softer in texture, which makes them more vulnerable to rotational forces and acceleration-deceleration injuries. These types of movements can lead to diffuse axonal injury, where nerve fibres are torn across large areas, and cerebral swelling, both of which are less common in adults experiencing similar trauma. Additionally, a November 2024 study from the University of Glasgow found that while adults often have damaged medium/ large blood vessels, children suffer damage to the smallest vessels (capillaries) and more severe brain swelling. A clear example of this vulnerability is seen in abusive head trauma. When an infant is shaken, their softer skull and brain structure can lead to a combination of skull fractures, internal bleeding, and swelling. Sadly, these injuries are often linked to very poor outcomes. The double-edged sword of brain plasticity One of the most remarkable things about the young brain is its plasticity, which is its ability to reorganise itself and form new connections after injury. This flexibility often means that children recover some functions, such as movement or daily activities, more quickly than adults do in the early months after a brain injury. However, this adaptability has limits. During childhood, the brain is constantly developing new skills and abilities. If an injury occurs during one of these critical periods, it can interrupt processes essential for normal development. This means that difficulties might not appear straight away. A child could seem to recover well at first but then struggle later when their brain is expected to handle more complex tasks, such as problem-solving or emotional regulation. Over time, recovery often plateaus, and children may continue to face long-term challenges with learning, behaviour, and social interaction. Research also shows that injury severity is a major factor in long-term outcomes. Children who suffer severe traumatic brain injuries are more likely to experience lower academic performance and, later in life, face higher rates of unemployment or lower paid work compared with their peers. Behaviour, learning and life after injury Brain injuries in childhood can also affect behaviour and mental health. Conditions such as ADHD are especially common following injury, affecting between 20-50% of children. These difficulties can make returning to school and social life far more challenging. Children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often experience extra barriers, including limited access to rehabilitation and educational support. This can increase the risk of social isolation and mental health difficulties. Children are also more likely than adults to develop secondary brain conditions, such as epilepsy, after an injury which adds further complexity to their recovery. Why recovery is not the same The main difference between children and adults lies in what needs to be rebuilt. Adults are generally trying to re-learn skills they already had, while children are still learning those skills for the first time. That makes recovery a much more delicate and unpredictable process. Moreover, most rehabilitation is concentrated in the first few months after the injury, but children’s challenges often become clearer years later, when their brains, and the demands placed on them, have developed further. In summary The developing brain is both fragile and flexible . While its biological features make it more prone to injury, its capacity for plasticity allows for impressive short-term recovery. Yet the same developmental processes that support growth also make it more vulnerable to long-term disruption. Injuries sustained during childhood can alter the course of brain development, leading to lasting effects on thinking, learning, and behaviour. These consequences can shape a person’s future long after the initial recovery period has ended. Understanding these differences is crucial, not just for doctors, but also for teachers, parents, and anyone supporting a young person recovering from a brain injury. Written by Alice Greenan Related articles: Synaptic plasticity / Brain plasticity / Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) / Childhood intelligence REFERENCES Anderson, V. (2005). Functional Plasticity or Vulnerability After Early Brain Injury? PEDIATRICS , 116 (6), 1374–1382. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-1728 Anderson, V., Brown, S., Newitt, H., & Hoile, H. (2011). Long-term outcome from childhood traumatic brain injury: Intellectual ability, personality, and quality of life. Neuropsychology , 25 (2), 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021217 Anderson, V., & Yeates, K. O. (2010). Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury. In Cambridge University Press eBooks . Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511676383 ARAKI, T., YOKOTA, H., & MORITA, A. (2017). Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Characteristic Features, Diagnosis, and Management. Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica , 57 (2), 82–93. https://doi.org/10.2176/nmc.ra.2016-0191 Blackwell, L. S., & Grell, R. M. (2023). Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Impact on the Developing Brain. Pediatric Neurology . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2023.06.019 Figaji, A. A. (2017). Anatomical and Physiological Differences between Children and Adults Relevant to Traumatic Brain Injury and the Implications for Clinical Assessment and Care. Frontiers in Neurology , 8 (685). https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2017.00685 Manfield, J., Oakley, K., Macey, J.-A., & Waugh, M.-C. (2021). Understanding the Five-Year Outcomes of Abusive Head Trauma in Children: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Developmental Neurorehabilitation , 24 (6), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/17518423.2020.1869340 Narad, M. E., Kaizar, E. E., Zhang, N., Taylor, H. G., Yeates, K. O., Kurowski, B. G., & Wade, S. L. (2022). The Impact of Preinjury and Secondary Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on Outcomes After Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics , 43 (6), e361–e369. https://doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000001067 Neumane, S., Câmara-Costa, H., Francillette, L., Araujo, M., Toure, H., Brugel, D., Laurent-Vannier, A., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Meyer, P., Dellatolas, G., Watier, L., & Chevignard, M. (2021). Functional outcome after severe childhood traumatic brain injury: Results of the TGE prospective longitudinal study. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine , 64 (1), 101375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2020.01.008 Parker, K. N., Donovan, M. H., Smith, K., & Noble-Haeusslein, L. J. (2021). Traumatic Injury to the Developing Brain: Emerging Relationship to Early Life Stress. Frontiers in Neurology , 12 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.708800 Project Gallery

The future of precision healthcare: nanocarriers Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nanomedicine and targeted drug delivery Last updated: 17/07/25, 11:53 Published: 17/07/25, 08:00 The future of precision healthcare: nanocarriers In recent years, nanomedicine - the application of nanotechnology in healthcare - has emerged as a powerful and versatile area of research and is rapidly developing with many promising opportunities in the medical sciences. Nanocarriers are being developed for pharmaceuticals for example, with uses in cancer treatment and in particular targeted drug delivery. In nanomedicine, the materials are engineered at the nanoscale, with sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 nm, and can be used to perform specific biomedical tasks. These nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, are often made from crosslinked polymer chains and can encapsulate therapeutic molecules for delivery within the body. Their small sizes give them unique properties, as they can interact with cells at a molecular level, and be designed to respond at specific times and locations, which can be directed to specific tissues or environments. Since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, nanoparticle-based drug delivery platforms have been widely studied - lipid nanoparticles were used in the vaccine to combat the virus. Being highly successful, and looking ahead, research and development in nanomedicine-based drug delivery is expected to keep growing, as the interest in more precise and effective treatments continues to rise. How can nanoparticles be used for drug delivery? A significant challenge in conventional drug therapies lies in their limited solubility, which can reduce the effectiveness of a drug and cause harmful side effects. Nanoparticles offer a solution to this: they can encapsulate poorly soluble drugs, protecting them from degradation in the body, and this allows them to be carried safely to the targeted tissues. This localised delivery improves the drugs’ biodistribution, and reduces systemic toxicity, which is a common concern in treatments such as chemotherapy, where healthy tissues in the body are damaged. Nanoparticles in particular are exciting as they have tuneable surface properties and a high surface to area volume ratio. This means their physical and chemical behaviours can be adjusted - for example through changing their sizes, shapes, or surface chemistries - to match a specific medical application or target. In addition to this, nanoparticles undergo the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect; a phenomenon where they naturally accumulate in tumour tissues due to the leaky nature of tumour blood vessels. This effect improves the targeting precision, and drugs can be delivered more efficiently to cancer cells, while sparing healthy ones one, avoiding unnecessary damage and side effects to the patient. While drug delivery is a major focus, nanomedicine research also plays a role in diagnostics. Nanoparticles can be engineered to function as contrast agents in medical imaging, helping doctors detect diseases earlier and monitor treatments more accurately. There is also a growing interest in using nanomaterials for tissue regeneration, by creating scaffolds that support the repair and regrowth of damaged tissues. As research continues, nanomedicine holds promise for tacking some of the most pressing challenges in modern healthcare - from treating cancer more safely to developing new vaccines and personalised therapies. Though there are some hurdles, particularly around large-scale manufacturing and regularly approval, the path ahead for nanomedicine has huge potential. As the field of nanomedicine continues to grow, it shows great promise in reshaping healthcare with treatments that are smarter, safer, and more effective - ultimately improving patient outcomes and transforming the way we fight disease. Written by Saanchi Agarwal Related articles: Nanomedicine / Nanoparticles and diabetes treatment / Nanoparticles and health / Nanogels Project Gallery

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 09/03/26, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs We are in the era of innovation and cutting-edge technology in biosciences and health. This article goes through some of the most remarkable technologies slowly conquering the world of biosciences. Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Gene editing is based on the idea that correcting the genetic mistake that causes a disease offers a permanent result than curing the symptoms. This technique allows scientists to alter the DNA of cells by deleting, adding or modifying genes. There are numerous ways to edit a gene. The most widely used and revolutionary method for gene editing is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR- associated protein 9. The process begins with the design of a synthetic RNA molecule, known as guide RNA (gRNA) that matches the target gene sequence. The gRNA, combined with the Cas9 protein, forms a complex that is then introduced into the target cells. Cas9 acts like scissors, guided by the gRNA, to locate the precise location on the DNA where the genetic modification is intended. Once the target site is identified, Cas9 induces a break in the DNA strand. The cell's natural DNA repair mechanisms then come into play. The non- homologous end joining pathway introduces insertions and deletions at the site, resulting in gene knockout or inactivation. On the other hand, once a DNA template with homology to the sequences is present, the homology-directed repair pathway allows the incorporation of a desired genetic sequence, facilitating gene insertion or replacement. Several other gene-editing techniques have been developed, each with unique approaches. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) are two examples. These methods also use proteins that act as molecular scissors to cut the DNA at specific locations. ZFNs use zinc finger proteins to bind to target DNA sequences, while TALENs use transcription activator-like effector proteins. As the field of gene editing rapidly advances, these diverse methods contribute to the expanding toolkit available for researchers and hold promise for addressing a wide array of applications, from medical treatments to agricultural improvements. CAR T-cells Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a new type of immunotherapy, considered to be the new fighters in the war on cancer. In general, immunotherapies use the patient’s immune system to fight the cancer. This therapy promises more specificity than traditional therapies and more permanent results. T-cells naturally exist in the human organism, supporting the adaptive immune system. They are a group of lymphocytes in the blood or lymph tissue that target or kill specific pathogens. Each type of T-cell recognises specific pathogens. T-cells have proteins on their outer surface, called receptors and these receptors recognize specific proteins on the outer surface of the pathogen. Depending on the type of T-cell, after recognizing the specific pathogen, they are either killing the pathogen (killer T-cells) or signaling to other elements of immune system to attack the pathogen (helper T-cells). CAR T-cell therapy involves modifying a patient’s own T-cells to express a specific CAR on their surface. The receptor is designed to recognise antigens commonly found on the surface of cancer cells. To introduce CARs on the outer surface of T-cells, the patient’s T-cells are genetically modified in the lab. A viral vector is often used to knock out the original T-cell receptors and express the CAR construct. The newly created CAR-T-cells are introduced into the patients, where they target and destroy cancer cells expressing the specific antigen for which the CAR is designed. Incretins The scientific journal “Science” proclaimed glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists The Breakthrough of 2023. These medications, originally approved for type 2 diabetes, demonstrated remarkable weight-loss benefits. GLP-1 is a natural hormone produced in the intestines that plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we eat a meal, incretins, GLP-1 and Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), are released into the bloodstream. They bind to specific receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas, triggering insulin release. Incretins also suppress the release of glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of stored glucose. GLP-1 receptor agonists are medications that mimic the effects of GLP-1. They bind to the GLP-1 receptors on pancreatic beta cells, promoting insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon release. By mimicking the actions of GLP-1, these medications help to lower sugar levels, improve glucose control, and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia. At the same time, they seem to regulate the appetite and delay gastric emptying. New GLP-1 medicines have been produced to combat weight loss with high efficacies; some are available on the NHS while others can be purchased privately. iPSCs Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are becoming a new powerful weapon in lab research. They are a type of stem cell that can be generated from adult cells, such as skin or blood cells, through reprogramming. The process of creating iPSCs involves introducing a set of specific genes into the adult cells. These reprogramming factors reset the adult cells' developmental clock, turning them back into a pluripotent state, similar to embryonic stem cells. Once iPSCs are generated, they can be expanded indefinitely in the laboratory and induced to differentiate into various cell types. iPSCs are a valuable tool for studying human development and disease, as well as for drug discovery and regenerative medicine. iPSCs can be derived from patients with genetic diseases or other conditions, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms in a dish. By differentiating iPSCs into the relevant cell types affected by the disease, researchers can observe how the disease develops and test potential treatments. Moreover, iPSC-derived cells can screen potential drugs for safety and efficacy. Because iPSCs can differentiate into many different cell types, they provide a more accurate model of human biology than traditional cell culture methods. Finally, because iPSCs can be derived from individual patients, they offer the potential for personalised therapies. iPSCs could be used to generate patient-specific cells for transplantation or to test drugs for individual patients. Conclusion These cutting-edge technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for targeted interventions in the treatment of genetic disorders, cancer, diabetes, and a myriad of other diseases. However alongside their immense promise, these biotechnological techniques and therapies also raise important ethical, social and regulatory considerations. The implications of gene editing on human germline cells, the accessibility of advanced therapies, and the long-term safety of these interventions are critical areas that warrant careful attention and thoughtful deliberation. Embracing these innovative techniques with diligence holds the key to unlocking a future where previously incurable conditions become manageable, and where the boundaries of medical possibility are continually expanded. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Medical biotechnology / Mesenchymal stem cells Project Gallery