The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The celestial blueprint of time: Stonehenge, United Kingdom Last updated: 08/10/25, 17:22 Published: 09/10/25, 08:00 The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator This is Article 3 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article coming soon. Previous article: The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids . Stonehenge, located within the south-west of England, is one of the UK’s most notable man-made structures, built during the neolithic period around 3100BC. Not only is this famous UNESCO heritage site a breakthrough in engineering, but the sandstone architecture also holds an enigmatic connection between the land and the sky. Its location and stone arrangement mirrors a blueprint that can be analysed to predict the timings of astronomical phenomena. The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator was established by astronomer Gerald Hawkins in 1965. Using computer software, Hawkins discovered that the location of Stonehenge aligned with several solar and lunar positions. He theorised that Stonehenge was built to predict astronomical events, such as eclipses, and to determine the position of summer and winter solstices. From the shape and positions of the 19 stones that comprise Stonehenge, its ‘horseshoe’ shape could predict the lunar eclipses. A booklet titled Stonehenge: Sun, Moon, Wandering Stars , written by M.W. Postins further detailed the significance of Stonehenge in archaeoastronomy. Postins suggested two scale models, the ‘Temple model’ and the ‘Enclosure model’, which detailed the significance of each stone and its relation to different events. For example, the booklet notes that the Altar Stone, a large sandstone located in the centre of Stonehenge, was placed across the solstice axis and represents the ‘Summer solstice sunrise’. Additionally, Postins hypothesised that the five trilithons, which are the vertical stones that form the structure of Stonehenge, represented planets that can be viewed with the naked eye. These include the two lowest trilithons on the East and Northern sides of the structure, representing Mercury and Venus. There has been new research, currently underway by the universities of Oxford, Leicester and Bournemouth in collaboration with the Royal Astronomical Society, linking the Stonehenge monument to a unique lunar phenomenon, called the ‘Major Lunar Standstill’. Right from the early construction of Stonehenge, researchers note that the major lunar standstill may have influenced the design of the monument. Four of the stones at Stonehenge align with two of the Moon’s positions, which aid to indicate moonrise and moonset. This would have allowed individuals to use the moonlight for longer periods of activity, such as night time hunting, as well as visualise the cycle of the lunar phases as a method of time watching for farming and celebratory purposes. Potentially, there is speculation that this made the positioning and construction of Stonehenge intentional. The timeless effect of the Stonehenge landmark, which shaped life in the past and continues to be of astronomical interest to determine the future, is a remarkable example of the functions of built structures for the analysis of astronomical events. It truly is a celestial blueprint for the relationship between the earth and cosmology. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Astro-geography of Lonar Lake REFERENCES English Heritage. (2024). Stonehenge: Major Lunar Standstill . https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/things-to-do/major-lunar-standstill/ OSR. (2009). Stonehenge: An Astronomical Calculator . https://osr.org/blog/astronomy/stonehenge-an-astronomical-calculator/?srsltid=AfmBOopNQnJ-XUZSyLY_Aqu3L2nOJgSoAceRzQJIVZbsIsFhW6s3U_NT Tiverton & Mid Devon Astronomy Society. (n.d.). Astro-Archaeology at Stonehenge . http://www.tivas.org.uk/stonehenge/stone_ast.html Project Gallery

'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Pangolins: from poached to protected Last updated: 27/03/25, 11:15 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China This is article no. 4 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: How Gorongosa National Park went from conflict to community . Previous article: Beavers are back in Britain Pangolins are a group of eight scaled mammal species from Asia and Africa. They are being poached mainly for their scales and meat, driving them to dangerously low numbers. Although commercial trade is banned for all species, pangolins are the most illegally trafficked animals in the world. One pangolin species has a fascinating story because of its appeal to traditional medicine and demand in a populated country. That species is the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla , and this article will describe its threats and conservation efforts. About pangolins in China Manis pentadactyla is the dominant pangolin species in China, living south of the Yangtze River ( Figure 1 ). The Sunda pangolin Manis javanica has a tiny habitat in southwest China ( Figure 1 ). Pangolins prefer natural forests, with an ambient temperature of 18-27°C and plenty of termites and ants to eat. Both Chinese species were classified as critically endangered in 2014, though accurately estimating pangolins' distribution and population size is complex. This is because they are nocturnal, solitary, and live underground. Pangolins also make no obvious sounds, or leave no apparent traces, for scientists to detect their presence. Despite these challenges, Chinese scientists are learning more about pangolin habitat to improve conservation strategies. Threats facing Chinese pangolins Chinese pangolins are critically endangered for various human-caused reasons ( Figure 2 ). The biggest reason is poaching because pangolin meat is a local delicacy, and its scales, bones, and blood are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Pangolin scales have recently been removed from the official list of ingredients for Chinese medicine, but that has not stopped hospitals from selling them. In a recent study, only a third of Chinese hospitals selling roasted pangolin scales had the required permit. Permits are also needed to sell or manufacture patented medicines containing pangolin scales, considered the gold standard for treating many conditions. Because these medicines and pangolin meat are so revered, one hunted pangolin sells for up to 90,000 yuan (≈£9800). This has incentivised the hunting and illegal trafficking of non-native pangolin species into China - where they could outcompete, or spread diseases to native species. Thus, illicit trade for traditional medicine threatens Chinese pangolins. Habitat destruction has made Chinese pangolins more vulnerable to poaching. Natural forests are being destroyed to grow crops, grow economic trees like rubber, or build human infrastructure. Farms or rubber plantations have fewer ants and termites than natural forests, so pangolins cannot survive there. As a result, in some parts of China, the pangolin geographical range halved in 30 years. With acres of this unsuitable habitat separating fragments of forest, pangolins may struggle to find mates, and inbreeding could be an issue. Thus, habitat loss is contributing to the decline of the Chinese pangolin. Conservation Conservation measures were taken in the last few decades in response to the pangolin population decline. In China, hunting pangolins was first restricted in 1987, and they were given legal protection in 1989. The Chinese government tightened this protection in 2020 after suggestions that pangolins were an intermediate species for SARS-CoV-2 to transmit from bats to humans. In addition to national restrictions, international authorities restricted pangolin trade, and the Chinese government ran public awareness campaigns about their endangered status ( Figure 3 ). Pangolins also have 100,000 squared kilometres of protected habitat in China, though this is only 9% of what models predict as a suitable pangolin habitat. Habitat protection and trade restrictions are essential to protect pangolins because captive breeding has either failed or acted as a front for illegal trafficking. Although Chinese pangolin conservation has come far in the last 40 years, more can be done. Conclusion Humans have driven Chinese pangolins to near extinction, mainly by hunting for traditional medicine ingredients and destroying native habitats. Conservation efforts have primarily involved legal and habitat protection, but pangolins are challenging to monitor and impossible to breed in captivity. Hopefully, public awareness and a clampdown on illegal trafficking will help to save this unique mammal species. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine iguanas / Galapagos tortoises REFERENCES Challender, D. et al. (2013) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Manis pentadactyla . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Available from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/en (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And Flora (2017) Appendices I, II and III valid from 4 October 2017 . Available from: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/app/2017/E-Appendices-2017-10-04.pdf . Mammoser, G. (20th February 2017) Chinese Police Go After ‘Pangolin Princess’ Who Proudly Eats Endangered Species. VICE . Available from: https://www.vice.com/en/article/chinese-police-go-after-pangolin-princess-who-proudly-eats-endangered-species/ (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Wang, Y., Turvey, S.T. & Leader-Williams, N. (2023) The scale of the problem: understanding the demand for medicinal pangolin products in China. Nature Conservation . 52: 47–61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.52.95916 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Xinhua News Agency (2015) Opinions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on Accelerating the Construction of Ecological Civilization . Beijing: The Central Government of the People’s Republic of China. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-05/05/content_2857363.htm (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Chen, Y., Tang, X., Xi, F., Cen, P., Pan, Z., Ye, W. & Wu, S. (2024) Predicting the distribution and characteristics of Chinese pangolin habitat in China: Implications for conservation. Global Ecology and Conservation . 51: e02907. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989424001112 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wang, W., Mahmood, A., Wu, S., Li, J. & Xu, N. (2021) Observations of Chinese pangolins ( Manis pentadactyla ) in mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 26: e01460. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100010X (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wu, S. & Cen, P. (2022) The past, present and future of the pangolin in Mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 33: e01995. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100545X (Accessed 19th October 2024). Project Gallery

An influential immunologist Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link From Playboy Model to Danger Model: The (brief) Story of Polly Matzinger 13/02/25, 12:47 Last updated: Published: 11/05/24, 12:06 An influential immunologist Polly Matzinger may be one of the most influential and important immunologists, even if her research is still a little controversial. She took the already known ‘Self/Non-self’ model by Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Frank Fenner from 1949 and expanded it to incorporate ‘danger signals’. However, her life prior to becoming a world-leading immunologist might be the most unexpected thing about her. Born into an artistic French-Dutch family in La Seyne she grew up playing instruments and composing music alongside her brother and sister, who would themselves go on to become a rock musician and artist, respectively. By the early 70s, she had already done stints as a dog trainer, jazz musician, and a Playboy Bunny, before settling as a cocktail waitress in California. At this point, she had been in and out of studying biology at the University of California. After eleven years, she completed her Bachelor of Science. While working at the bar, her professor, Robert Schwab brought in scientific articles for her to read after she asked him about animal mimicry. Matzinger would later credit Professor Robert Schwab for her foray into science and her life. While at graduate school, Matzinger began to question the generally accepted idea that the body rejects anything that is ‘non-self’. At first glance, the idea makes sense; the immune system should attack things it does not recognise to keep us healthy. But upon further analysis, it might seem to be counterintuitive. We do not reject food, water, or even foetuses. For example, in organ transplants, it is thought that the body needs immunosuppression so that the immune system does not reject the new organ. But why would the body have evolved for this when not until the mid-20th century, an organ had never been transplanted? Equally, why did the body sometimes attack itself in the case of autoimmune diseases? Matzinger did not pursue this line of thought until ten years later. Thus, the ‘Danger Model’ was derived. Matzinger proposed that in order for the immune response to be activated, there must first be a ‘danger signal’. This danger signal is emitted by unhealthy cells, which might be stressed or infected or have been mutated or damaged. Examples of danger signals include heat-shock proteins, extracellular matrix breakdown products, and cytokines, as well as other proteins and substances released by these stressed cells. Danger signals, or ‘alarmins’, are detected by dendritic cells, which activate T cells and start the immune response. While this model was originally met with scepticism, it has gained more and more support over the years, as the research into it expands and deepens. With the ‘Danger Model’, many routes for potential therapies have opened, including cancer vaccines. Matzinger believes that vaccinations can cure up to 80% of all cancers. If danger signals are induced within tumour cells, the tumour will be visible to the immune system. This is different to the current way that cancer vaccines target the tumour. In current therapeutic cancer vaccines (as opposed to preventative vaccines), the vaccines induce the immune system by showing them what the cancer cell ‘looks like’. It does this by introducing cancer antigens (or tumour-specific antigens, i.e. a protein that is only on the cancer and not on other healthy cells in the body) to the body and, thus, the immune system. Now that the immune cells have seen and identified the cancer antigens, they can search the body for the antigen, induce an immune response against them, and hopefully kill the cancer cells. This means that if the cancer mutates and the antigen changes, which is not unlikely, the vaccine may cease to have any effect because what the immune system is searching for no longer exists. In contrast, with this new method, the actual antigen does not matter. The vaccine works by inducing the danger signals, making the tumours visible to the immune system without the need for the tumour-specific antigen to be identified. This means that even if the cancer undergoes mutation, the vaccine will still be active and working, as its effectiveness does not depend on the cancer molecule itself. In addition to describing the ‘Danger Model’, Matzinger also made a name for herself when she cited ‘Galadriel Mirkwood’ as her co-author on a paper published in the Journal of Experimental Medicine. What is surprising about this, is that Galadriel Mirkwood is not another scientist, but her pet Afghan Hound. It is unknown why she did this, potentially to challenge the strict and rigid rules in the scientific community, to garner more interest in the paper, or just to be funny. Either way, it got her banned from publishing in the journal for more than ten years, but it certainly made her a scientist with a sense of humour and a memorable story. Written by Henrietta Owen Related article: Immune signals and metastasis Project Gallery

The properties and nature of matter, and energy. Read up on insights on astro-archaelogy, uncover the concept of building physics, and look at transformers. Physics Articles The properties and nature of matter, and energy. Read up on insights on astro-archaelogy, uncover the concept of building physics, and look at transformers. You may also like: Maths, Technology , Engineering Chaco Canyon, New Mexico Cities designed to track the heavens. Article #1 in a series on astro-archaelogy The Anthropic Principle Science or God? This theory is explained by physics Building Physics The field of study of how buildings interact with the environment to design comfortable and energy-efficient structures The pyramids of Giza, Egypt The astronomical symbolism of these great structures. Article #2 in a series on astro-archaelogy Lonar Lake The astro-geography of this structure in India Basics of transformers An overview on conventional transformers, and Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law The celestial blueprint of time The astronomical important of the structures at Stonehenge, UK. Article #3 in a series on astro-archaelogy Light How is light one of the biggest mysteries in physics? Looking at the Observer Effect and more Creatio ex Nihilo The intersection of physics and religion Previous

Investigating the different mechanisms that can lead to high blood pressure Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What really happens inside the body during high blood pressure Last updated: 08/10/26, 18:55 Published: 08/10/26, 08:00 Investigating the different mechanisms that can lead to high blood pressure Introduction Hypertension is often described in simple terms - a number on a screen or a diagnosis made in clinical practice. Yet behind these readings lies a complex network of underlying biological processes. Long before complications arise, subtle changes in the kidneys, blood vessels, and hormonal systems begin to disrupt the body’s ability to regulate blood pressure. Understanding these mechanisms reveals how hypertension develops and why it remains one of the most pressing challenges in modern health. Cardiac output and peripheral resistance Blood pressure is maintained through a balance between cardiac output and peripheral resistance. Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped per minute, and peripheral resistance is the resistance to blood flow in the peripheral vasculature. In most individuals with hypertension, cardiac output remains relatively normal. Instead, the problem lies with increased resistance in circulation. This resistance is primarily controlled by small blood vessels known as arterioles, which have muscular walls that can constrict or relax to regulate blood flow. Contraction of these muscles is driven partly by increased intracellular calcium, which causes the vessels to narrow and increases resistance. Excess sodium intake further contributes by increasing fluid volume and making blood vessels more likely to constrict ( Figure 1 ). Over time, persistent vasoconstriction can lead to structural changes in the vessel walls, causing them to thicken and become less flexible. Hormones such as angiotensin contribute to this process, resulting in a sustained and often irreversible increase in peripheral resistance. Renin-angiotensin system One of the most important hormonal systems involved in blood pressure regulation is the renin-angiotensin system. This system is activated when the body senses a drop in blood flow, reduced salt intake, or increased sympathetic activity. In response, the kidneys release renin, an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I ( Figure 2 ). Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II in the lungs. Angiotensin II plays a central role in raising blood pressure and stimulates the release of the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal gland, which promotes sodium and water retention in the kidneys. Together, these effects increase both vascular resistance and blood volume, leading to a rise in blood pressure. People with high blood pressure do not always have low renin levels. Some have normal renin levels because the kidneys are not strongly activated to change renin release. In contrast, others have high renin levels because reduced blood flow to parts of the kidney stimulates renin release. In some cases, this can be due to underlying kidney or hormonal diseases. Autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system (ANS) also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by controlling how wide or narrow blood vessels are. During stress or physical activity, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), one division of the autonomic nervous system, is activated, causing the release of noradrenaline and adrenaline. These hormones increase heart rate and cause blood vessels to narrow (vasoconstriction), resulting in an increase in blood pressure. Although this response is important for short-term blood pressure regulation, it is not the main cause of chronic hypertension. However, overactivity of the SNS can contribute to persistently high blood pressure. Their role still remains significant, as drugs that reduce sympathetic activity are effective in lowering blood pressure. For example, adrenergic drugs such as beta-blockers act as sympatholytics by blocking the effects of noradrenaline at adrenergic receptors in the heart and blood vessels, reducing heart rate and how strongly the heart pumps, which decreases blood pressure. This highlights the contribution of the autonomic nervous system to hypertension. Endothelium dysfunction The endothelium, the inner lining of the blood vessels, is another key regulator of vascular function. In hypertension, the endothelium becomes dysfunctional, both contributing to and resulting from high blood pressure. Factors such as smoking, diabetes, and high cholesterol can contribute to this process. A key feature of endothelial dysfunction is reduced production of nitric oxide, a molecule that promotes vasodilation. With less nitric oxide available, blood vessels are less able to dilate, which increases resistance and sustains high blood pressure. Oxidative stress further worsens this process by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage the endothelium and reduce the availability of nitric oxide, creating a cycle that reinforces hypertension. ROS are generated as by-products of mitochondrial metabolism, and their levels increase under conditions of inflammation and metabolic stress. Insulin resistance Insulin resistance is also strongly associated with hypertension. It contributes through several mechanisms, including increased sympathetic activity, sodium retention, and structural changes in blood vessels. Importantly, insulin normally promotes vasodilation, but in individuals with hypertension, this effect is impaired, leading to increased vascular resistance. Genetic and lifestyle factors In addition to these physiological mechanisms, genetic and environmental factors play a significant role in the development of hypertension, including lifestyle influences such as diet, physical activity, electrolyte imbalance and obesity. Conclusion Overall, hypertension is a multifactorial condition that arises from the interaction of vascular, renal and hormonal systems, influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental factors. These interconnected processes create a cycle that sustains and progressively worsens elevated blood pressure over time, highlighting the complexity of its pathophysiology. Written by Michelle Amoah Related articles: Hypertension / Cardiac regeneration REFERENCES Adua, E. (2022). Decoding the mechanism of hypertension through multiomics profiling. Journal of Human Hypertension, 37(4), 253–264. Beevers, G., Lip, G. Y. H., and O’Brien, E. (2001). The pathophysiology of hypertension. BMJ, 322(7291), 912.1-916. Hayat, M. A. (2015). Introduction to Autophagy. In Autophagy: Cancer, Other Pathologies, Inflammation, Immunity, Infection, and Aging (pp. 1–53). Elsevier. Klabunde, R.E. (2024). Centrally Acting Sympatholytics. CV Pharmacology. Available at: https://cvpharmacology.com/vasodilator/central-acting . Accessed 4th July, 2026. Nadar, S. (2015). Pathophysiology of hypertension. In Hypertension (pp. 9–14). Oxford University Press. Nepali, P., Suresh, S., Pikale, G., Jhaveri, S., Avanthika, C.,Bansal, M., Islam, R., and Chanpura, A. (2022). Hypertension and the Role of Dietary Fiber. Current Problems in Cardiology, 47(7), 101203. Sahay, M., and Sahay, R. (2012). Low renin hypertension. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 16(5), 728. Project Gallery

This requires a strategy accounting for different factors, as well as other wider determinants of health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Addressing Health Inequalities Last updated: 03/05/26, 18:09 Published: 02/04/26, 08:00 This requires a strategy accounting for different factors, as well as other wider determinants of health This is the fourth and final article in a series on health inequalities. Previous article: Ethnic health equalities. Welcome to the final article in a series of articles about health inequalities. This article will look more in detail at how to address health inequalities. Introduction Health inequalities are systematic and avoidable differences in health outcomes. They carry heavy human and economic costs, including over £31bn in lost productivity annually. Previous articles in this series explored how factors like geography, income, and ethnicity drive these disparities. However, addressing healthcare inequalities requires a strategy accounting for these factors, as well as other wider determinants of health. The impact of the environment Scientists have published research which found that environmental factors, including smoking, physical activity, and socioeconomic status, have a greater impact on a person’s health and premature death compared to their genes. They analysed data from the UK Biobank, a dataset of biological, health and lifestyle information. Their analysis showed that environmental exposure explains 17% of the variation in risk of death, while genetic predisposition explains less than 2%. Of the 25 factors that were analysed, smoking was linked to 21 diseases, followed by 19 diseases for socioeconomic factors like household income, home ownership, and employment status. While genetics still dominates for specific conditions like dementia and breast cancer, these findings emphasise that the vast majority of health outcomes are determined by our environment rather than our biology. Therefore, to address health inequalities, targeted strategies and collaborative methods like co-design need to be used to ensure interventions meet the genuine needs of the most vulnerable communities. Core20PLUS5 The NHS’s Core20PLUS5 is one of these targeted strategies, defining a target population (the “Core20PLUS”) and identifying 5 areas of healthcare that require improvement. For both groups (adults, children and young people), the target population is the same: CORE20 refers to the most deprived 20% of the population identified by the national Index of Multiple Deprivation, while the PLUS population includes those who experience health inequalities the most, such as ethnic minority groups, individuals with a learning disability, autistic individuals, and individuals with multiple long-term health conditions. The differences between the strategy for adults and that for children and young people are in the 5 areas of healthcare requiring improvement. As seen in Figure 1 , for adults, the 5 areas are continuity and improvement of maternity care (specifically for women from Black, Asian and ethnic minority groups and from the most deprived groups), improved services for individuals with severe mental illness, improved services for those with chronic respiratory disease, early cancer diagnosis, and improved management of hypertension. Smoking cessation is another area of focus that covers all the 5 priorities. For children and young people, the 5 areas of healthcare improvement are specific to this population: asthma care, diabetes care, epilepsy care, oral health, and mental health, as seen in Figure 2 . Co-design for addressing health inequalities Another method to address health inequalities is through co-design, which is a participatory methodology where stakeholders, including service users (e.g., patients, their carers, etc) and providers (healthcare professionals and other staff), collaborate to jointly create and refine services, products, or solutions. A diagram of three key factors needed in co-design can be seen in Figure 3 . This joint approach helps to ensure that interventions align with the genuine needs and preferences of the people who will be using that service, and the findings that providers see coming up frequently from comments by service users. Co-design can be used to address health inequalities by co-producing strategies with people from those communities and backgrounds. For example, individuals from ethnic minority groups can participate, so researchers can genuinely understand and try to address racism's impact on health. This is supported by research published in the BMJ , where co-design with service users and providers from ethnic minority groups found that more culturally appropriate mental healthcare was needed, and that there needed to be more open discussions about the impacts of ethnicity, culture and racism in mental health. In the context of Figure 3 , this study involved “committed” ethnic minority groups with the “capability” of sharing their lived experience with researchers. This shows how co-design can be used as a tool that allows others to share their experiences for the benefit of themselves and others. Conclusion There needs to be a cross-government strategy that aligns current policy, funding, and practice around health equity. Because these inequalities are systematic and avoidable failures, they require a holistic approach that moves beyond clinical care to address the PLUS populations who experience the greatest disadvantage. Trust in the healthcare system has been eroded among ethnic minority groups due to repeated negative experiences, cultural insensitivity, and discriminatory treatment. To rebuild it, lived experiences need to be accounted for, and solutions need to be co-designed. Furthermore, determinants of good health, like stable housing, fair pay, and high-quality education, must be provided to the people most affected by health inequalities. These inequalities must be addressed to ensure everyone has the ability and opportunity to have a long and healthy life. Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: Reflection on global health injustices Project Gallery

And its chemical effects Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exposing medication to extreme heat 09/07/25, 15:09 Last updated: Published: 08/10/23, 17:18 And its chemical effects Introduction The majority of us look forward to when summer is just around the corner. It is a time for parents to start planning days off to be able to go on holiday with their kids to relax from their studies and enjoy sunsets at the beach. But for people who take medication, whether this just be a week-long course of antibiotics or for long-term conditions, summer may also be a chance for some negligence to occur. Specifically, alongside making sure you have applied SPF to protect your skin from the sun’s rays, you should also protect your medicine as well. This applies to both oral and non-oral drugs. Experts at The Montreal Children’s Hospital say that “many prescription drugs are very sensitive to changes in temperature and humidity”; in this article, we will therefore discuss the effect of extreme heat on drugs from a medicinal chemistry perspective. Factors affecting drug activity due to heat Certain drugs may begin to degrade before their expiry date if not stored appropriately. This affects the efficacy, which is the maximum biological response that is achievable with a certain drug. A dose-response curve can be plotted (see Figure 1 ) to show the relationship between the two variables; the label Emax refers to the efficacy. During hot weather, the structure of the drug can change and therefore unable to bind to its target, causing a lowered and shifted Emax to be seen. Simply put, the medication will not relieve your symptoms as effectively. Another physiochemical property of a drug that can be altered in the heat is the potency. Many people confuse this term with efficacy, but potency refers to the concentration of a drug required to achieve 50% of its maximum therapeutic effect i.e., half the Emax. Potency is therefore also known as EC50, which abbreviates for ‘half maximal effective concentration’. The lower the concentration needed, the more potent your drug is. Like reduced efficacy, the drug’s potency will also decrease in the heat due to altered chemical structure. For drugs like antibiotics, it is crucial to note that if potency is reduced significantly, it could risk infection spreading to other parts of the body as the medication will not fight off bacteria as well as it should. Potentially dangerous! Finally, drug absorption is when a drug moves into the bloodstream after being administered. The chemical structure of the drug and the environment in which it is present hugely affects this; for example, if a lipophilic (‘fat loving’) drug is also present in a lipophilic surrounding, fast absorption is seen as they work well with each other. As you have probably guessed, high temperatures outside of the body can reduce drug absorption due to the above factors mentioned, as the drug is not in its optimal structure to be absorbed effectively. Examples of medicine that are heat sensitive Here is a list of some medicines that require extra care to prevent the above: 1) Nitroglycerin – used to treat chest pains for those with cardiovascular disease. It is especially sensitive to heat or light as it degrades very fast. Dr. Sarah Westberg, a professor at The University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, says you should follow the storage instructions and replace them regularly. 2) Some antibiotics – research has shown that ampicillin, erythromycin, and furosemide show a reduction in activity in the heat, although this was found after storing them for a year in a car with a temperature exceeding 25 degrees Celsius. Other antibiotics such as cefoxitin are shown to have some “stability in warmer climates”. 3) Levothyroxine – used to treat an underactive thyroid, also known as hypothyroidism. This drug should be stored between 15 to 30 degrees Celsius, although even 30 is quite high so the lower the temperature the better. Interestingly, levothyroxine isn’t heat sensitive itself, it is the fact that the body becomes sensitive to the drug and may make a person feel strange in the heat. 4) Metoprolol succinate – used to treat high blood pressure, also known as hypertension, and heart failure in emergencies . The ideal storage conditions for this drug are 15 to 30 degrees Celsius, like Levothyroxine. Key things to look out for with your medicine in the heat Below are the 2 main things you should be checking for before taking your medicine in the summer: 1) Change in colour – Light can initiate all sorts of reactions, such as oxidation. If, for example, your medicine that is normally white has now changed into a different colour, this suggests that a reaction has taken place within your drug and will not be effective when administered. 2) Change in texture – Similar to change in colour, if a normally solid, oral tablet has become soft then this also suggests that the medication will not be as effective when consumed. How you can prevent your medicine from degrading To make sure you do not contribute to wasting medicine, you should do the following: 1) Check storage information – for any medication that you take, this will let you know how to store them correctly. 2) Travel with care – do not pack prescription drugs into your luggage, as it will almost always become very warm due to the surrounding environment. Instead, carry your medicine with you with the labels still on. 3) Do not leave medicine in any vehicle – everyday vehicles such as cars tend to get warm after a period , which can affect the colour and texture of your medicine. 4) Careful deliveries – for those who have their medicine delivered to them, you can request for your local pharmacy to deliver your medicine in temperature-controlled packages. Summary As discussed, chemicals in the majority of over-the-counter prescription drugs are heat sensitive and should therefore be handled with care, to prevent degradation of the drug. Changes in colour and texture are signs of degradation, which result in loss of efficacy, absorption, and potency. However, many other pharmacological factors interfere, so scientists especially involved in drug synthesis should (or continue to) take great precautions with the manufacturing process. Drugs are costly to make and require a lot of time, so the takeaway is to store them correctly! You should contact your pharmacist if you are still unsure about your prescription(s). Written by Harsimran Kaur Sarai Project Gallery

​Dive into the latest biological research! Read about animal testing and ethics, discover how moving houses can affect your health in gentrification, and learn how specific organisms can survive in the extreme cold- along with public health news. Biology Articles Dive into the latest biological research! Read about animal testing and ethics, discover how moving houses can affect your health in gentrification, and learn how specific organisms can survive in the extreme cold- - along with public health news. You may also like: Cancer , Ecology , Genetics , Immunology , Neuroscience , Zoology , and Medicine Animal testing and ethics A breakdown on the practices and procedures Gentrification in the context of health How does moving houses impact your well-being? Cryptosporidium crisis Investigating the outbreak in Devon, UK in May 2024 Survival secrets of the Arctic springtail How do springtails (Collembola) survive the extreme cold? An introduction to stem cells Cells that can differentiate into any other type of cell. Article #1 in a series on stem cells. Monkey see, monkey clone An outline of recent discoveries in cloning research Are we doing enough to fight anti-fungal resistance? Preventing fungal infections in the body The chronotypes Demystifying the body clock Last updated: Mesenchymal stem cells Cells that can differentiate into connective and lymphatic tissues, and blood vessels. Article #2 in a series on stem cells. Discovery of channel-blocking nanoparticles A solution to plant diseases The effects of nanoparticles on (gut) health Looking at the nanoparticle silicon dioxide Yemen- a neglected humanitarian crisis Impacts of war and arms trade on health. Article #3 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Health gaps in conflicted Kashmir Impact of war and conflict on health. Article #5 in the Global Health Injustices Series. A deep, critical reflection How colonialism, geopolitics and health are interwoven. Article #7 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Previous The interplay of hormones and the microbiome A look at how hormones can affect the gut Health and well-being of Palestinians Impact of war on health. Article #1 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Civil war in Sudan Impact of war on health. Article #2 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Circadian rhythms and nutrition How nutrition timing plays a part in circadian rhythms Syria and Lebanon's diverging yet connected struggles Health challenges stemming from war. Article #4 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Health in Bangladesh's Rohingya community Health challenges stemming from oppression. Article #6 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Next

Global warming can lead to higher transmission rates of dengue fever Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The impacts of global warming on dengue fever Last updated: 08/10/25, 17:42 Published: 19/06/25, 08:00 Global warming can lead to higher transmission rates of dengue fever Introduction Dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by two mosquitoes: Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus . These mosquitoes are called ‘vectors’. Symptoms of dengue fever include a sudden high fever and severe headaches, making it hard to diagnose. Transmission suitability is endemic, meaning the virus spreads where the conditions are suitable for the vectors to survive and reproduce for 10-12 months. This disease is endemic in the tropics, including much of Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Africa, Northern South America, Brazil, South and Southeast Asia, and parts of Northern Australia. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has stated that it is “the most important mosquito-borne viral disease in the world”. Dengue fever does not currently have a vaccine. There are many areas of transmission, and dengue fever impacts communities worse if they have weaker health systems. Severe dengue can be fatal, especially in children, who have a weaker immune system. Due to climate change and increasing temperatures, more areas will be habitable for the vectors in the future. This could lead to higher transmission rates of dengue fever. Researchers used a modelling approach using different datasets to make projections of the impact of changing temperatures and predict the future spread of dengue fever. They specifically looked at locations and months suitable for dengue transmission if conditions were suitable for both vectors. Method The researchers used temperature data from the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperatures dataset for the present day (2001-2020). They also used projected temperature data for 2050 based on the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) projections for the socio-economic pathway (SSP) 1-2.6 scenario and SSP5-8.5 scenario, as used in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sixth Assessment Report. The SSP1-2.6 scenario is the best-case scenario and assumes international policy agreements and emissions reductions will be followed, limiting the average global temperature to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. The SSP5-8.5 scenario is the “business as usual” scenario and assumes that continued fossil fuel use and development will occur. Researchers used the most recent climate projections from the CMIP6, which gave an up-to-date, holistic view of the impact of potential differences between climate change trajectories on vulnerable populations. This information can be used to support climate change mitigation strategies and disease prevention and control. Thermal limits for the mosquito vectors used in this study were 19.9 - 29.4 °C for Aedes aegypti and 21.3 - 34 °C for Aedes albopictus , since the vectors can only survive and reproduce within these temperatures. Modelling the thermal limits of both vectors, instead of just one, made the analysis more comprehensive. The researchers also applied an aridity mask using the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which excluded areas too dry for mosquito survival and reproduction. They then applied the thermal limits and aridity mask to the climate data to predict areas with suitable conditions for the vectors and estimate the number of months suitable for transmission. Using aridity masks (previously only done with malaria) enhanced the model's accuracy because moisture is an important factor for mosquito breeding. Results Figure 1 shows that under the SSP1-2.6 (best-case) scenario, there will be new suitability for dengue transmission in temperate regions by 2050, lasting about 1 to 2 months. In addition, northwestern South America could see increases of up to 5 months of new suitability, and Eastern Africa up to 6 months of new suitability. In addition, eastern and southern Central America, central and northwestern South America, northern Australia, and parts of Southeast Asia are also becoming suitable for year-round transmission. Figure 2 shows that under the SSP5-8.5 (“business as usual”) scenario, areas will become suitable for year-round transmission in similar locations as under the SSP1-2.6 scenario by 2050. Dengue transmission suitability could increase by up to 6 months in Eastern Africa, and up to 10 months in parts of northwestern South America. Areas as far north as the Arctic Circle also have new suitability under this scenario. This demonstrates that climate change could result in the expansion of areas and the length of time during which dengue fever transmission is possible. Evaluation It’s essential to also acknowledge the study's limitations. For example, the model did not account for other variables impacting disease transmission, such as mosquito adaptation and extreme weather. The potential adaptation of mosquitoes and parasites to changing environmental conditions could alter transmission dynamics. In addition, extreme weather events, such as heavy rain, could eliminate breeding sites. Furthermore, the method of using modelling and projections is unreliable, because many things could change between now and 2050. For example, there could be temperature fluctuations, or temperatures could fall between SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5, rather than being fixed in either scenario. This could affect the reliability of predicting future dengue fever transmission suitability. The study also did not include aridity projections under climate change scenarios. As future projections of NDVI are not currently available, NDVI values for 2020 were held constant for the 2050 projections. There will likely be changes in aridity by 2050, which will affect mosquito reproduction and dengue transmission. Nevertheless, this study's results are still important because they suggest that with increasing climate change, dengue fever transmission could increase, which would be a public health issue. Further listening and reading If you would like to know more about dengue fever, consider listening to this short 5-minute podcast from the World Health Organisation. If you would like to know more about the impacts of climate change on health, consider listening to this podcast , also from the World Health Organisation. If you would like to know more about the impacts of climate change on neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), consider reading the full open-access paper mentioned in this article . Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Potential vaccine for malaria / Correlation between HDI and mortality rate / Healthcare challenges during civil war in Sudan / Rising temperatures impacts Project Gallery

A collaboration with the Mesothelioma Center (Asbestos.com), USA Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast Cancer and Asbestos 30/03/26, 18:06 Last updated: Published: 06/06/23, 11:03 A collaboration with the Mesothelioma Center (Asbestos.com), USA Breast cancer is a prevalent disease characterised by abnormal cell growth in the breast. There are various types of breast cancer, including invasive ductal carcinoma, invasive lobular carcinoma, Paget's disease, medullary mucinous carcinoma, and inflammatory breast cancer. In 2022, approximately 287,850 new cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed, making it the most commonly diagnosed cancer in women. Natural risk factors for breast cancer include gender, age, race, early onset of menstruation, family history, and genetics. Environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and metals, may also contribute to the risk of developing breast cancer. Some studies have suggested a possible connection between asbestos exposure and breast cancer. While the link between asbestos and other health conditions like mesothelioma cancer is well-established, the exact relationship between asbestos and breast cancer remains unclear. Statistical significance refers to the level of confidence in the results of a study or experiment. In the context of studies investigating the correlation between asbestos exposure and breast cancer, Dr Debra David points out that many studies fail to establish a conclusive link due to a lack of statistical significance. Certain factors can increase the risk of developing breast cancer, known as "partial risk factors." Some of these factors can be controlled by individuals, such as alcohol consumption. However, many other partial risk factors are not within an individual's control without compromising their overall health. For example, receiving radiation therapy to the chest or making decisions regarding childbirth can be deeply personal choices that impact breast cancer risk. Examples of partial risk factors include consuming more than two alcoholic drinks per day, having children after the age of 30, not having children, not breastfeeding, using the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) to prevent miscarriage, recent use of birth control pills, receiving hormone replacement therapy (HRT), undergoing radiation therapy to the chest area, and exposure to toxic substances or carcinogens. According to the American Cancer Society, approximately 5 to 10% of breast cancer cases can be directly attributed to inherited gene mutations. However, many other factors, such as exposure to carcinogens, may be beyond a cancer patient's control. Summary written by the Mesothelioma Center ( Asbestos.com ) For more information, visit their website , and also read important facts breast cancer and mesothelioma survival rate . For further information, particularly the legal consequences, check out the Lanier Law Firm, which has more specific information . Asbestos was widely used throughout the military, and while we now understand the severe health risks it poses, the damage has unfortunately already been done for many veterans. To raise awareness and help veterans understand their risks, we’ve put together a guide that outlines 20 ways asbestos was used in the military . Project Gallery