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How diseases start and spread, the body’s defence system, vaccines, policies, and public opinion: unravel the maze of infection and immunity with these articles. Immunology Articles How diseases start and spread, the body’s defence system, vaccines, policies, and public opinion: unravel the maze of infection and immunity with these articles. You may also like: Biology , Medicine , Neuroscience , Chemistry COVID-19 misconceptions Common misconceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic Glossary of COVID-19 terms Key terms used during the COVID-19 pandemic A vaccine for malaria? A new hope for a vaccine for malaria The world vs. the next pandemic Can we see it coming? What steps do we need to take? Are pandemics becoming more severe? Arguments for and against Natural substances And how they can tackle infectious diseases A treatment for HIV? Can the CRISPR-Cas9 system be used as a potential treatment? The mast cell Key cells in the immune system Origins of COVID -19 How COVID-19 caused a pandemic Mechanisms of pathogen invasion How pathogens avoid detection by the immune system Astronauts in space How does little gravity affect the immune system? Ageing and immunity Ageing and its association with immune decline The impacts of global warming on dengue fever Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) Is the immune system 'selfish'? 'Selfish' genes from a Dawkins perspective, and the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

For centuries, we have been burning fossil fuels, polluting our oceans and participating in deforestation without a second thought. We have managed to understand the consequences this has had on our planet and have started to make movement in the right direction; but is it too late? Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Geoengineering: what is it and will it actually work? Last updated: 14/11/24 Published: 02/04/23 For centuries, we have been burning fossil fuels, polluting our oceans and participating in deforestation without a second thought. We have managed to understand the consequences this has had on our planet and have started to make movement in the right direction; but is it too late? In the past 50 years, we have warmed the planet at a rate of approximately 0.1°C per decade. It doesn’t sound like much but the effect this has is astronomical; increased drought, adverse weather conditions and a rising sea level to name a few of the consequences. People are aware of the damage we have caused, and there is thankfully a switching attitude towards our environment with the increased usage of renewable energies and technologies such as electric cars. The problem arises from the rate of this societal switch. It isn’t fast enough. We haven’t quite understood how to stop our reliance on farming animals, carbon dioxide emissions and polluting transport. What if we could disrupt the natural mechanisms of our planet, just as we did to cause this problem in the first place? Scientists have started to consider some dystopian sounding scenarios that are classed as ‘geoengineering’ techniques. There are two main branches of geoengineering: solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal. Solar radiation management is the more alien of the two categories, involving sending large mirrors into space that reflect sunlight or enhancing the natural ability of clouds to block radiation, called albedo enhancement. Greenhouse gas removal is more commonly heard of, and involves reducing the proportion of harmful gases, mainly carbon dioxide, in our atmosphere. This can be as simple as planting more trees to do this naturally, or having point source removal of carbon dioxide in factories, which means that the gases never enter the atmosphere. A difficult yet promising idea is the removal of carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere using a material that absorbs it directly, which could not only reduce the amount in the atmosphere, but could return us to anthropogenic atmosphere composition. The idea is interesting; to disrupt the naturally occurring processes with human intervention, which buys time for us to develop better renewable energy resources, biodegradable materials and a better attitude towards saving our planet. Theoretically, it seems reasonable however the concern is that with these techniques, we may continue to treat the environment with a lack of respect, since we would be creating a false sense of security. Furthermore, the technologies are large scale therefore we may not be able to model and test them sufficiently before implementation. They may not be successful or safe. The ideal scenario is to not need geoengineering, however we need to act fast to avoid its necessity. Written by Megan Martin Related article: How nuclear fusion holds the key to tackling climate change

How it's used Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link AI in medicinal chemistry 08/07/25, 16:18 Last updated: Published: 07/07/23, 20:47 How it's used We are always surrounded by medicine, whether this be through, for example, the cabinet in your house containing prescription drugs or walking by a pharmacy during the day. It is no secret that medical drugs are essential - they both mitigate the symptoms of disease and even prevent further future illness. However, whilst ingesting a tablet is easy for most, it seems to be that we can sometimes forget the vigorous amount of scientific research that goes into successfully synthesising a new drug, i.e. the core of medicinal chemistry. This process typically takes up to an astounding 10 years or more, but with new artificial intelligence (AI) emerging it is thought to be that this number will lower. What exactly is artificial intelligence? It can broadly be defined as the ability to produce human intelligence through the use of machinery such as computers or software. Based on this, one may question why AI is needed if we can just simply communicate ideas through writing, speaking and so on. The answer is increased efficiency – one example of man made neurones is discussed on the website Interesting Engineering, which are able to produce impulses up to one billion times per second. Fascinatingly, this is quicker than humans, so it could also be argued that AI is actually better than us! There are many phases of the drug development process, from early pre-clinical research to post-market surveillance. When a drug is administered, the body uses enzymes such as mainly those from the CYP family to break the compound down into smaller structures, through a process known as metabolism. Drug metabolism can create toxic molecules that are able to covalently bind to proteins in the body causing serious illness, but also molecules that can be harmlessly excreted through faeces or urine. Of course, chemists can look for sites of metabolism by studying the angles and positions of atoms, however AI is able to do this much quicker and with higher accuracy. SuperCYPsPred is an example of a free online web application that can predict if a drug may be a CYP enzyme inhibitor in pre-clinical drug discovery, as the software is able to identify five of such inhibitors. Through this, we can understand how a drug’s metabolic pathway may differ and investigate further early on, allowing scientists to make structural changes before proceeding onto the next phase of development. Through this, millions of pounds can be saved from marketing an unsuccessful drug as well as decrease the chances of causing injury to the public. AI is also able to use machine learning (ML) to carry out tasks. ML is when machinery processes a large data set and identifies complex patterns to problem solve. From this then comes deep learning (DL), which allows this ML to be applied in different fields. For example, DeepCE is a “novel deep learning computer model” that helps predict changes in gene expression with certain drugs. It is able to do this by using the following two sources: DrugBank which contains data for 11,000 safely approved drugs and the L1000 dataset that has information on over 1 million perturbed organ tissue gene expressions. From this, researchers were able to obtain 10 drug candidates for the treatment of COVID-19 infection, in which 2 have been successfully marketed. Based on the above, it is clear that AI holds a lot of power in speeding up the drug discovery and development process. With the technology sector advancing in general as well, we are looking at a future where AI will become even more dominant in the pharmaceutical research industry. Whilst AI can predict several drug properties, it is also important to remember that we physically cannot predict every single thing out there – we can only try our best, which AI is aiding. Written by Harsimran Kaur Related articles: AI in drug discovery / A breakthrough procedure in efficient drug discovery / Role of chemistry in medicine Project Gallery

Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Survival Secrets of the Arctic Springtail 04/07/25, 12:59 Last updated: Published: 21/09/24, 16:09 Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Introduction Approximately 450 million years ago, during the Ordovician period, the Earth was characterised by a hot and humid globe. The sea was teeming with life, with early squids, eel-like fish, and sea worms hunting smaller animals. However, there was no sign of movement above ground as the animals had not yet crawled ashore. This period of warmth created ideal living conditions for wildlife, but it was about to change dramatically. Shortly after, the land masses began to freeze, and an ice cap started to spread. The once warm and accommodating waters turned cold and inhospitable, leading to the second-worst mass extinction in the history of the planet. Many species succumbed to the harsh conditions, but one animal survived - the springtail. The springtail, a small insect-like animal, had developed a special strategy to combat the cold. Its cells started producing proteins that could protect them from freezing. This discovery challenges the previous belief that animals did not develop antifreeze proteins until much later. Research from Aarhus University has shown that the springtail might have been the first animal to develop such proteins. Applications in the Food Industry Since then, scientists have found antifreeze proteins in various animals, plants, and microorganisms. These proteins have also found applications in different industries. One of the industries utilising antifreeze proteins is the food industry, especially in producing frozen foods. Frozen foods often suffer from changes in taste and texture due to the formation of ice crystals. However, by incorporating antifreeze proteins, these undesirable effects can be prevented. Industrial yeast cell cultures have been engineered to produce antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes. These proteins can then be added to different foods, including ice cream, to improve texture and prevent the formation of ice crystals. Exploring Arctic Fish Aside from their contribution to the food industry, springtails have also fascinated scientists due to their ability to survive in extremely cold regions. The discovery of antifreeze proteins explained how arctic fish could swim in icy seawater. The proteins prevent ice from forming in the cells and blood of the fish, allowing them to survive in freezing conditions. Martin Holmstrup, a researcher at Aarhus University, oversees colonies of springtails in his laboratory. These small animals require minimal space and can be easily maintained in Petri dishes with a base of moist plaster and a feed of dry yeast. Researchers have determined that springtails developed these proteins long before other animals by studying the DNA sequences responsible for building antifreeze proteins. The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails opens up possibilities for various applications, including in the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, which can affect the taste and texture of frozen foods. The genes responsible for their production have been copied into industrial yeast cell cultures to utilise these proteins. This allows the yeast to produce the antifreeze proteins, which can then be added to different foods. One example is the use of these proteins in ice cream, where they help create a delightful texture and allow the ice cream to be thawed and refrozen without compromising its quality. Conclusion The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails has revolutionised various industries, particularly the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, improving the taste and texture of frozen foods. Incorporating antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes into yeast cell cultures can produce and add these proteins to different foods, such as ice cream, ensuring a delightful texture and the ability to thaw and refreeze without compromising quality. This remarkable adaptation of springtails has provided insight into their survival in extremely cold regions and opened up possibilities for further applications of antifreeze proteins in various fields. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: p53 protein / Zinc finger proteins / Emperor penguins, kings of ice Project Gallery

A potential gene therapy Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Antisense oligonucleotide gene therapy for treating Huntington's disease 27/09/25, 11:03 Last updated: Published: 25/02/24, 14:38 A potential gene therapy Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease caused by a CAG extension in exon 1 of the huntingtin gene. An extended polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein is developed due to the expanded alleles, resulting in intracellular signalling defects. Antisense Oligonucleotide (ASO) gene therapy is currently being pioneered to treat HD. In this therapy, oligonucleotides are inserted into cells and bind to the target huntingtin mRNA. Thus, inhibiting the formation of the huntingtin protein by either physically blocking the translation of mRNA (figure 1) or by utilising RNase H to degrade the mRNA. Previous ASO gene therapy experiments conducted on R6/2 mice that express the human huntingtin gene have been successful. In HD research, the R6/2 mouse model is commonly used to replicate HD symptoms and is therefore useful for testing potential treatments. The transgenic R6/2 mouse has an N-terminally mutant Huntingtin gene with a CAG repeat expansion within exon 1. In this successful experiment, scientists treated one group of R6/2 mice with the ASO treatment that suppresses the production of human huntingtin mRNA, and saline solution was administered to the control group of mice. This experiment aimed to confirm if ASO therapy improves the survival rate in the R6/2 mice. The results showed that human huntingtin mRNA levels of the mice treated with ASO therapy were lower than the control group. Furthermore, the mice treated with ASO therapy had a higher percentage of survival and lived longer (21 weeks), in comparison to the control group mice that survived until 19 weeks. Thus, it could be concluded that if less human huntingtin mRNA was present in the ASO group, then less human huntingtin mRNA would be translated, and so there would be less synthesis of the huntingtin protein, in contrast to the control group. The results of this study are enormously informative in understanding how gene therapy can be used in the future to treat other neurological diseases. However, before ASO therapy is approved for clinical use, further trials will need to be conducted in humans to verify the same successful outcomes as the R6/2 mice. If approved, then the symptoms of HD, including dystonia could be safely controlled with ASO therapy. Furthermore, scientists need to consider that an increased survival rate of only an additional two weeks, as shown in the experiment does not always correlate to an increased quality of life for the patient. Therefore, it needs to be established if the benefits of ASO gene therapy will outweigh the risks associated with it. Furthermore, the drug PBT2, which influences copper interactions between abnormal proteins, is currently being studied as a potential treatment option for HD. Some studies have inferred that the aggregation of mutant huntingtin proteins could be due to interactions with metals, including copper. Therefore, this drug is designed to chelate metals and consequently, decrease abnormal protein aggregations in the body. This treatment has been shown to improve motor tasks and increase the lifespan in R6/2 mice. However, as this treatment has a lot of shortcomings, further studies need to be conducted over a large period of time to confirm a successful outcome of this drug on HD patients. Written by Maria Z Kahloon Related article: Overview of Huntington's disease REFERENCES Kordasiewicz HB, Stanek LM, Wancewicz EV, Mazur C, McAlonis MM, Pytel KA, et al. Sustained therapeutic reversal of Huntington’s disease by transient repression of huntingtin synthesis. Neuron. 2012;74(6):1031–44. Valcárcel-Ocete L, Alkorta-Aranburu G, Iriondo M, Fullaondo A, García-Barcina M, Fernández-García JM, et al. Exploring genetic factors involved in Huntington disease age of onset: E2F2 as a new potential modifier gene. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0131573. Liou S. Antisense gene therapy [Internet]. Stanford.edu . 2010 [cited 2021 Aug 6]. Available from: https://hopes.stanford.edu/antisense-gene-therapy/ Huntington's disease research study in R6/2 MOUSE model: Charles River [Internet]. Charles River Labs. [cited 2021 Aug 26]. Available from: https://www.criver.com/products-services/discovery-services/pharmacology-studies/neuroscience-models-assays/huntingtons-disease-studies/r62-mouse?region=3696 Frank S. Treatment of Huntington's disease. Neurotherapeutics : the journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics. Springer US; 2014;11(1):153-160. Potkin KT, Potkin SG. New directions in therapeutics for HUNTINGTON DISEASE. Future neurology. 2018;13(2):101-121. Project Gallery

Differences in brain structure Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Brief neuroanatomy of autism 09/07/25, 13:29 Last updated: Published: 26/12/23, 20:38 Differences in brain structure Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition present in both children and adults worldwide. The core symptoms include difficulties understanding social interaction and communication, and restrictive or repetitive behaviours such as strict routines and stimming. When the term autism was first coined in the 20th century, it was thought of as a disease. However, it is now described as a cognitive difference rather than a disease; that is, the brains of autistic individuals – along with people diagnosed with dyslexia, dyspraxia, or attention deficit hyperactive disorder – are not defective, but simply wired differently. The exact cause or mechanism for autism has not been determined; the symptoms are thought to be brought about by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Currently, autism disorders are diagnosed solely by observing behaviours, without measuring the brain directly. However, behaviours may be seen as the observable consequence of brain activity. So, what is it about their brains that might make autistic individuals behave differently to neurotypicals? Total brain volume Back before sophisticated imaging techniques were in use, psychiatrics had already observed the head size of autistic infants was often larger than that of other children. Later studies provided more evidence that most children who would go on to be diagnosed had a normal-sized head at birth, but an abnormally large circumference by the time they had turned 2 to 4 years old. Interestingly, increase in head size has been found to be correlated with the onset of main symptoms of autism. However, after childhood, growth appears to slow down, and autistic teenagers and adults present brain sizes comparable to those of neurotypicals. The amygdala As well transient increase of total brain volume, the size and volume of several brain structures in particular seems to differ between individuals with and without autism. Most studies have found that the amygdala, a small area in the centre of the brain that mediates emotions such as fear, appears enlarged in autistic children. The amygdala is a particularly interesting structure to study in autism, as individuals often have difficulty interpreting and regulating emotions and social interactions. Its increased size seems to persist at least until early adolescence. However, studies in adolescents and adults tend to show that the enlargement slows down, and in some cases is even reversed so that the number of amygdala neurons may be lower than normal in autistic adults. The cerebellum Another brain structure that tends to present abnormalities in autism is the cerebellum. Sitting at the back of the head near the spinal cord, it is known to mediate fine motor control and proprioception. Yet, recent literature suggests it may also play an important role in some higher other cognitive functions, including language and social cognition. Specifically, it may be involved in our ability to imagine hypothetical scenarios and to abstract information from social interactions. In other words, it may help us recognise similarities and patterns in past social interactions that we can apply to understand a current situation. This ability is poor in autism; indeed, some investigations have found the volume of the cerebellum may be smaller in autistic individuals, although research is not conclusive. Nevertheless, most research agrees that the number of Purkinje cells is markedly lower in people with autism. Purkinje cells are a type of neuron found exclusively in the cerebellum, able to integrate large amounts of input information into a coherent signal. They are also the only source of output for the cerebellum; they are responsible for connecting the structure with other parts of the brain such as the cortex and subcortical structures. These connections eventually bring about a specific function, including motor control and cognition. Therefore, a low number of Purkinje cells may cause underconnectivity between the cerebellum and other areas, which might be the reason for functions such as social cognition being impaired in autism. Written by Julia Ruiz Rua Related article: Epilepsy Project Gallery

Evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of gentrification in the context of health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How does moving houses impact your health and well-being? 09/07/25, 14:17 Last updated: Published: 13/07/24, 11:02 Evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of gentrification in the context of health Introduction According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Another way to define health is an individual being in a condition of equilibrium within themselves and the surrounding environment, which includes their social interactions and other factors. Reflecting on historical views of health, ancient Indian and Chinese medicine and society in Ancient Greece thought of health as harmony between a person and their environment, which underlines the cohesion between the soul and body; this is similar to the WHO’s definition of health. Considering these ideas, one key determinant of health is gentrification (see Figure 1 ). It was first defined in 1964 by British sociologist Ruth Glass, who witnessed the dilapidated houses in the London Borough of Islington being taken over and renovated by middle-class proprietors. The broader consequences of gentrification include enhanced living conditions for the residents, differences in ownership prerequisites, increased prices of land and houses, and transformations in the social class structure. Also, these changes cause lower-income inhabitants to be pushed out or go to poorer neighbourhoods, and the conditions in these neighbourhoods, which can include racial separation, lead to inequities and discrepancies in health. For example, a systematic review discovered that elderly and Black residents were affected more by gentrification compared to younger and White citizens; this highlights the importance of support and interventions for specific populations during urban renewal. Given the knowledge provided above, this article will delve further into the advantages and disadvantages of gentrification in the context of health outcomes. Advantages of gentrification Gentrification does have its benefits. Firstly, it is positively linked with collective efficacy, which is about enhancing social cohesion within neighbourhoods and maintaining etiquette; this has health benefits for residents, like decreased rates of obesity, sexually transmitted diseases, and all-cause mortality. Another advantage of gentrification is the possibility of economic growth because as more affluent tenants move into specific neighbourhoods, they can bring companies, assets, and an increased demand for local goods and services, creating more jobs in the area for residents. Additionally, gentrification can be attributed to decreased crime rates in newly developed areas because the inflow of wealthier citizens often conveys a more substantial sense of community and investment in regional security standards. Therefore, this revitalised feeling of safety can make these neighbourhoods more appealing to existing and new inhabitants, which leads to further economic development. Moreover, reducing crime can improve health outcomes by reducing stress and anxiety levels among residents, for example. As a result, the community's general well-being can develop, leading to healthier lifestyle choices and more lively neighbourhoods. Furthermore, the longer a person lives in a gentrifying neighbourhood, the better their self-reported health, which does not differ by race or ethnicity, as observed in Los Angeles. Disadvantages of gentrification However, it is also essential to mention the drawbacks of gentrification, which are more numerous. In a qualitative study involving elderly participants, for example, one of them stated that, “The cost of living increases, but the money that people get by the end of the month is the same, this concerning those … even retired people, and people receiving the minimum wage, the minimum wage increases x every year, isn’t it? But it is not enough”. Elderly residents in Barcelona faced comparable challenges of residential displacement between 2011 and 2017 due to younger adults with higher incomes and those pursuing university education moving into the city. These cases spotlight how gentrification can raise the cost of living without an associated boost in earnings, making it problematic for people with lower incomes or vulnerable individuals to live in these areas. Likewise, a census from gentrified neighbourhoods in Pittsburgh showed that participants more typically conveyed negative health changes and reduced resources. Additionally, one study examined qualitative data from 14 cities in Europe and North America and commonly noticed that gentrification negatively affects the health of historically marginalised communities. These include threats to housing and monetary protection, socio-cultural expulsion, loss of services and conveniences, and raised chances of criminal behaviour and compromised public security. This can be equally observed during green gentrification, where longtime historically marginalised inhabitants feel excluded from green or natural spaces, and are less likely to use them compared to newer residents. To mitigate these negative impacts of gentrification, inclusive urban renewal guidelines should be drafted that consider vulnerable populations to boost health benefits through physical and social improvements. The first step would be to provide residents with enough information and establish trust between them and the local authorities because any inequality in providing social options dramatically affects people’s health-related behaviours. Intriguingly, gentrification has been shown to increase the opportunity for exposure to tick-borne pathogens by populations staying in place, displacement within urban areas, and suburban removal. This increases tick-borne disease risk, which poses a health hazard to impacted residents ( Figure 2 ). As for mental health, research has indicated that residing in gentrified areas is linked to greater levels of anxiety and depression in older adults and children. Additionally, one study found young people encountered spatial disconnection and affective exclusion due to gentrification and felt disoriented by the quickness of transition. Therefore, all of these problems associated with gentrification reveal that it can harm public health and well-being, aggravating disparities and creating feelings of isolation and aloneness in impacted communities. Conclusion Gentrification is a complicated and controversial approach that has noteworthy consequences for the health of neighbourhoods. Its advantages include enhanced infrastructure and boosted economic prospects, potentially leading to fairer access to healthcare services and improved health outcomes for residents. However, gentrification often leads to removal and the loss of affordable housing, which can harm the health of vulnerable populations. Therefore, it is vital for policymakers and stakeholders to carefully evaluate the likely health effects of gentrification and enforce alleviation strategies to safeguard the well-being of all citizens (see Table 1 ). Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: A perspective on well-being / Life under occupation REFERENCES WHO. Health and Well-Being. Who.int . 2015. Available from: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/major-themes/health-and-well-being Sartorius N. The meanings of health and its promotion. Croatian Medical Journal. 2006;47(4):662–4. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080455/ Krahn GL, Robinson A, Murray AJ, Havercamp SM, Havercamp S, Andridge R, et al. It’s time to Reconsider How We Define Health: Perspective from disability and chronic condition. Disability and Health Journal. 2021 Jun;14(4):101129. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1936657421000753 Svalastog AL, Donev D, Jahren Kristoffersen N, Gajović S. Concepts and Definitions of Health and health-related Values in the Knowledge Landscapes of the Digital Society. Croatian Medical Journal. 2017 Dec;58(6):431–5. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5778676/ Foryś I. Gentrification on the Example of Suburban Parts of the Szczecin Urban Agglomeration. remav. 2013 Sep 1;21(3):5–14. Uribe-Toril J, Ruiz-Real J, de Pablo Valenciano J. Gentrification as an Emerging Source of Environmental Research. Sustainability. 2018 Dec 19;10(12):4847. Schnake-Mahl AS, Jahn JL, Subramanian SV, Waters MC, Arcaya M. Gentrification, Neighborhood Change, and Population Health: a Systematic Review. Journal of Urban Health. 2020 Jan 14;97(1):1–25. Project Gallery

Insight into the different stages Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A deep dive into ovarian cancer 03/07/25, 10:24 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 14:41 Insight into the different stages Introduction Ovarian cancer occurs when abnormal cells in the ovary begin to grow and divide uncontrollably ; this may lead to tumour formation. According to Cancer Research UK , there are around 7,500 new cases of ovarian cancer each year - that is around 21 a day. This makes ovarian cancer the 6th most common cancer in females in the UK, as it makes up around 4% of all cancer cases. Nevertheless, a total of around 11% of all ovarian cancer cases are thought to be preventable. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of ovarian cancer including the risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Diagnostics At present, there is no screening test specific for ovarian cancer. Hence, this often leads to late-stage diagnosis, which results in death or high rates of recurrence within ten years of initial diagnosis, should remission be reached. Initial diagnostic testing includes transvaginal ultrasonography and serum cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) level testing. Transvaginal Ultrasonography This type of imaging is used to assess the overall architecture and vascularity of the ovaries as well as to differentiate cystic from solid masses and detect ascites (a collection of fluid within abdominal spaces). The sensitivity (a tests ability to correctly identify if an individual has a disease) and specificity (a tests ability to correct identify individuals who do not have a disease) for distinguishing malignant lesions using this type of imaging is 86% - 94%. Blood Testing Complete blood count, as well as liver function tests, calcium, and serum biomarkers, are often obtained if ovarian cancer is suspected. CA 125 is the most commonly tested biomarker. However, its usefulness in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer depends on the stage of the disease at the time of testing. CA 125 is elevated in around 80% of epithelial ovarian cancers overall. However, it is only elevated in around 50% of early-stage epithelial ovarian cancers. This biomarker may also rise in conditions such as fibroids and endometriosis. Other biomarkers involved include human epididymis protein 4 (HE4), a glycoprotein expressed in about 1/3rd of ovarian cancers that lack elevated CA125. Biomarkers for non-epithelial cancers include inhibin A/B for sex-cord stromal tumours and serum α-fetoprotein and quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin for germ cell tumours. Staging Ovarian cancer is often categorised using the FIGO (1 – 4 staging) system, named after the International Federation of Gynaecological Oncologists. Stage 1 Stage one ovarian cancer means that the cancer is only located in the ovaries and is further divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 1A : the cancer is entirely confined within a singular ovary Stage 1B : the cancer is entirely confined within both ovaries Stage 1C is split into 3 subgroups: Stage 1C1 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures during a surgical procedure Stage 1C2 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures before a surgical procedure or there is evidence of cancer on the surface of the ovary Stage 1C3 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and cancer cells are detected in the fluid collected from the abdominal cavity during surgery These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 1 at the end of the text. Stage 2 Stage 2 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the ovaries and is growing within the pelvis. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website the two groups are. Stage 2A : the cancer has extended its growth into either the fallopian tubes or the womb Stage 2B : the cancer has infiltrated surrounding tissues within the pelvic region such as the bladder or the bowel These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 2 at the end of the text. Stage 3 Stage 3 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the pelvis into the abdominal cavity or lymph nodes. It is divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 3A is divided into two subgroups: Stage 3A1 : the cancer has infiltrated lymph nodes in the rear of the abdomen Stage 3A2 : there are cancer cells detected in tissue samples taken from the peritoneum, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3B : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure up to 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3C : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure over 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 at the end of the text. Stage 4 Stage 4 ovarian cancer means the cancer has metastatic and has spread to organs some distance away from the ovaries. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website, the two groups are: Stage 4A : the cancer has induced a build-up of fluid in the pleura Stage 4B : the cancer has infiltrated various locations throughout the body including the interior of the liver or spleen, lymph nodes outside the abdominal region and any other organ within the body These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6 at the end of the text. Types of Ovarian Cancers There are three known types of ovarian cancer: epithelial, germ cell ovarian tumours and sex cord-stromal tumours. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common type of cancer. According to Cancer Research UK , about 90% of all ovarian tumours are epithelial. In this type of ovarian cancer, cancer starts in the surface layer covering the ovary. There are four stages of epithelial ovarian cancer - stages 1 to 4. Type Summary High-grade serous tumours ● 90% of all tumour tumours ● 10-year mortality rate of roughly 70% Low-grade serous tumours ● 10% of all tumour types ● Diagnosed at a younger age; better prognosis than high-grade serous tumours Endometrioid carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● Good prognosis; mostly diagnosed at an early stage and are low-grade Clear cell carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● 10% of epithelial ovarian cancers; rare form ● Often diagnosed in early stages. Late diagnosis has a poor prognosis. Mucinous carcinoma ● Least common form of epithelial ovarian cancer ● Origins linked with metastasis from gastrointestinal tract Table 1. Types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Germ Cell Ovarian Cancers Germ cell ovarian tumours are rare as they make up only 3% of ovarian cancer cases. They have a younger age of diagnosis with the average age being between 10 and 30 years old. Germ cell ovarian tumours can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous) Sex Cord-Stromal Tumours Sex cord-stromal tumours (SCSTs) are rare tumours of the ovary that originate in tissues that support the ovaries, known as the stroma or the sex cords. SCSTs account for around 5% of all ovarian cancer cases and are often diagnosed early. There are three main groups of SCSTs: Pure stromal tumours such as fibromas and thecomas. These are mainly benign. Pure sex cord tumours such as adult and juvenile granulosa cell tumours. These are the most common types of SCSTs and are malignant. Mixed sex cord-stromal tumours such as Sertoli-Leydig cell tumours. These can be either malignant or benign. Symptoms Historically, the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer are non-specific and vague. The most common presenting symptoms in women are: Swelling or bloating of the abdomen Feel full quickly when eating Unexplained weight loss Pelvic and or abdominal pain or discomfort Unexplained fatigue A frequent need to urinate Changes in bowel habits or IBS symptoms The most common presenting symptom in children and adolescents is persistent abdominal pain. However, precocious puberty, irregular periods or hirsutism (excessive hair growth) may also be present. Due to the non-specific nature of these symptoms, many women will not get them checked by a doctor. It is still vitally important for a person to get any non-typical symptoms checked out by a doctor. Early diagnosis will lead to better outcomes. Treatment There are a variety of different treatment options for ovarian cancer. The treatment an individual undergoes is dependent on the size and location of the cancer as well as if it is metastatic. Debulking Surgery Debulking is a type of cytoreductive surgery that aims to remove as much cancer as possible if it has spread to areas within the pelvis and abdomen. This type of surgery is a mainstay of ovarian cancer treatment as most cases are more advanced in staging when initially diagnosed. Generally, debulking surgery is used on cancer that has spread widely throughout the abdomen and its goal is to do ‘optimal cytoreduction’, meaning no visible cancer is left behind or, if removing all visible disease is not possible, lesions less than 1cm in size are left. Hysterectomy For most women, a hysterectomy is the first-line treatment for ovarian cancer. The surgery removes the womb (including the cervix) as well as both ovaries and fallopian tubes and is known as a total abdominal hysterectomy (TAH) and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO) . This procedure is further illustrated by Figure 7 at the end of the text. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer drugs to destroy cancer. These drugs circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream. In the treatment of ovarian cancer, chemotherapy can be given before, during or after surgery. The most commonly used drugs are carboplatin and paclitaxel. However, these are not the only options. Chemotherapy is typically used in the treatment of ovarian cancer if the cancer is: ● Stage 1C or above ● Stage 1A or 1B but is high grade ● Has come back (recurrence) Medication Route of administration Stage treated Duration Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and cisplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Dose-dense paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Carboplatin and liposomal doxorubicin Intravenous II, III, IV 28 days Bevacizumab with paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Table 2. Commonly used chemotherapy drugs for ovarian cancer Radiotherapy Radiotherapy involves the use of high-energy X-rays to destroy ovarian cancer cells. It is not the main treatment of ovarian cancer and is often used to try and shrink the size of tumours or to reduce the symptoms of advanced ovarian cancer. This is known as palliative radiotherapy . Targeted Therapies Cancer-targeting drugs change how a cell works by acting on cellular processes or by modifying cell signalling. They stimulate the body to attack or control cancer cell growth. These drugs are a form of palliative treatment. The two most common drugs are olaparib and bevacizumab. Olparib Olaparib (Lynparza) belongs to a drug type known as cancer growth blockers. It acts on PARP (poly ADP-ribose polymerase); a protein that helps damaged cells repair and regenerate themselves. Olaparib inhibits PARP from working. Bevacizumab Bevacizumab (Avastin) belongs to a drug type known as anti-angiogenesis treatments. It targets VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) proteins. VEGFs aid in cancer cell growth as they help cancers develop their blood supplies, meaning they can become self-sufficient. Bevacizumab blocks VEGF proteins from working, which cuts off the blood supply that feeds the cancer, ultimately starving it and preventing its growth. Risk Factors Modifiable Nonmodifiable Smoking BRCA1 and/ord BRCA2 mutation carrier Hormone Replacement Therapy (particularly for more than five years) Family predisposition/history Obesity Lynch syndrome Endometriosis Uninterrupted ovulation cycles Ethnicity/race Table 3. Ovarian cancer risk factors Genetic Syndromes Familial genetic syndromes are the strongest known risk factor for the development of ovarian cancers, as they account for around 10% - 12% of all cases. Table 4 which is taken from the paper ‘Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer’ by Doubeni et al (2016) illustrates genetic syndromes known to have an increased risk of ovarian cancer. Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome (HBOC) Mutations of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are primarily associated with a genetic risk of developing ovarian cancer and can increase the risk from 1.6% to 40% ( BRCA1 ) and 1.6% to 18% ( BRCA2 ). This syndrome should be considered if a woman has close blood relative with a diagnosis of ovarian or breast cancer by the age of 50. Lynch Syndrome Although less common, Lynch syndrome is also linked to the development of ovarian cancer as it is involved in 2% - 3% of cases. Lynch syndrome is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder in which there is a mutation that increases the risk for certain cancers, specifically colorectal cancer, as well as increases the risk for other malignancies. Ovulation Ovulation is directly linked to the risk of ovarian cancer. Studies have shown that the more ovulatory cycles a woman has, the higher her risk of developing ovarian cancer. This may be due to the pro-inflammatory response from the distal fallopian tube during ovulation, which is known to promote malignant ovarian tendencies. Assuming this is true, factors that interrupt or prevent ovulation, such as contraception, early onset menses, pregnancy, breastfeeding and early menopause, could decrease a woman’s risk of developing ovarian cancer. Endometriosis Endometriosis, a disease in which tissue similar to the uterine lining grows outside the uterus, is known to be linked to some types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Endometriosis-associated epithelial ovarian cancers tend to develop in younger women and have an overall better prognosis. -- Where to seek help if affected by this article... F or support and more information regarding ovarian cancer: Macmillan Cancer Research If you or somebody you know have been affected by this article, help is always available: Mind and Samaritans -- Written by Lily Manns Related articles: A breakthrough drug discovery process in cancer treatment / Immune signals and metastasis / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Reference guide Cancer Research. Ovarian Cancer Statistics: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/statistics-by-cancer-type/ovarian-c ancer Cancer Research. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/types/epithelial-ovarian-cancers/ep ithelial Cancer Research. Stages and grades of ovarian cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/stages-grades Elsevier. Ovarian Cancer: An integrated review: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749208119300129?via%3Dihub American Family Physician. Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2016/0601/p937.html Cancer Research. Treatment for Ovarian Cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/treatment Project Gallery

An overview Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Crab Nebula 14/02/25, 13:44 Last updated: Published: 23/03/24, 17:45 An overview Of the 270 known supernova remnants, the Crab Nebula is one of the more well known in popular science, originating from a violent supernova explosion first discovered by Chinese astronomer Wang Yei-te in July of 1054 AD. Yei-te reported the appearance of a “guest star” so bright that it was visible during the day for three weeks, and at night for 22 months. In 1731, English astronomer John Bevis rediscovered the object, which was then observed by Charles Messier in 1758 prompting the nebula’s lesser-known name, Messier 1. Located approximately 6,500 light years from Earth, the nebula cannot be seen with the naked eye but observations in different wavelengths gives rise to the beautiful colored images often published. The Crab Nebula is the result of a violent explosion process that signals what astronomers call “star death.” This occurs when the star runs out of fuel for the fusion process in its core that produces an outward pressure counteracting the constant inward pressure of the star’s outer shells. With the loss of outward pressure, these layers suddenly collapse inwards and produce an explosion astrophysicists call a supernova. Following the explosion, the original star, named SN1054 in this case, collapsed into a rapidly spinning neutron star, also known as a pulsar, which is generally roughly the size of Manhattan, New York. The pulsar is situated at the center of the nebula and ejects two beams of radiation that, while the pulsar rotates, makes it appear as if the object is pulsing 30 times per second. Studies of the Crab Nebula were primarily conducted by the Hubble Space Telescope. Hubble spent three months capturing 24 images that were assembled into a colorful mosaic resembling not what is visible with human eyes, but rather a kind of paint-by-number image where each color mapped to a particular element. Traces of hydrogen, neutral oxygen, doubly ionized oxygen, and sulfur have been detected across multiple wavelengths as the remains span an expanding six to eleven light-year-wide remnant of the supernova event. It was not until 1942 that the Crab Nebula was officially found to be related to the recorded supernova explosion of 1054. This establishment was jointly provided by Professor J. J. L. Duyvendak of Leiden University as well as astronomers N. U. Mayall and J. Oort. Due to its long history of rediscovery and inherent beauty, the Crab Nebula remains as one of the most studied celestial objects today and continues to provide valuable insight into astrophysical processes. Written by Amber Elinsky REFERENCES Hester, J. Jeff. “The Crab Nebula: An Astrophysical Chimera,” Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 46 (2008): 127-155. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110608 . Hester, J. and A. Loll. “Messier 1 (The Crab Nebula),” NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/science/explore-the-night-sky/hubble-messier-catalog/messier-1/ . Image ref.: European Space Agency; Space Australia; dreamstime. Mayall, N. U., and J. H. Oort. “FURTHER DATA BEARING ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE CRAB NEBULA WITH THE SUPERNOVA OF 1054 A. D. PART II. THE ASTRONOMICAL ASPECTS.” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 54, no. 318 (1942): 95–104. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40670293 Project Gallery

In particular the novel zeolitic 2-methylimidazole framework (ZIF-8) MOF has received attention for drug delivery. ZIF-8 is composed of Zn2+ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, making a highly crystalline structure. ZIF-8 MOFs are able to deliver  cancer drugs like doxorubicin to tumorous environments as it possesses a pH-sensitive degradation property. ZIF-8’s framework will only degrade in pH 5.0-5.5 which is a cancerous pH environment, and will not degrade in normal human body pH 7.4 Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How metal organic frameworks are used to deliver cancer drugs in the body Last updated: 14/11/24 Published: 20/04/23 Metal ions and organic ligands are able to connect to form metallic organic frameworks on a nanoscale (Nano-MOFs) for cancer drug delivery. Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are promising nanocarriers for the encapsulation of cancer drugs for drug delivery in the body. Cancer affects people globally with chemotherapy remaining the most frequent treatment approach. However, chemotherapy is non-specific, being cytotoxic to patients’ normal DNA cells causing severe side effects. Nanoscale Metal Organic Frameworks (Nano-MOFs) are highly effective for encapsulating cancer drugs for controlled drug delivery, acting as capsules that deliver cancer drugs to only tumorous environments. MOFs are composed of metal ions linked by organic ligands creating a permanent porous network. MOFs are able to form one-, two-, or three-dimensional structures building a coordination network with cross-links. When synthesized MOFs are crystalline compound and can sometimes be observed as a cubic structure when observed on a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image. In particular the novel zeolitic 2-methylimidazole framework (ZIF-8) MOF has received attention for drug delivery. ZIF-8 is composed of Zn2+ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, making a highly crystalline structure. ZIF-8 MOFs are able to deliver cancer drugs like doxorubicin to tumorous environments as it possesses a pH-sensitive degradation property. ZIF-8’s framework will only degrade in pH 5.0-5.5 which is a cancerous pH environment, and will not degrade in normal human body pH 7.4 conditions. This increases therapeutic efficacy for the patients having less systemic side effects, an aspect that nanomedicine has been extensively researching. As chemotherapy will damage health DNA cells as well as cancer cells, MOFs will only target cancer cells. Additionally the ZIF-8 MOF has a high porosity property due to the MOFs structures that is able to uptake doxorubicin successfully. Zn2+ is used in the medical field having a low toxicity and good biocompatibility. Overall MOFs and metal-organic molecules are important for the advancement of nanotechnology and nanomedicine. MOFs are highly beneficial for cancer research being a less toxic treatment method for patients. ZIF-8 MOFs are a way forward for biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies that research treatments that are more tolerable for patients. Such research shows the diversity of chemistry as the uses of metals and organic molecules are able to expand to medicine. Written by Alice Davey Related article: Anti-cancer metal compounds