Healthy heart, healthy mind Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How does physical health affect mental health? Last updated: 16/10/25, 11:20 Published: 30/01/25, 08:00 Healthy heart, healthy mind Introduction Over the last decade, maintaining good mental health has become an increasing global priority. More people are committing time to self-care meditation, and other cognitive practices. We have also seen a rise in people taking care of their physical health through exercise and clean eating. This is fantastic – people are making time for one of the most important aspects of life, their health! But with the fast-paced nature of modern lifestyles, it is hard to devote separate time each week to purely mental and physical wellbeing. What if there were ways we could enhance both physical and mental wellbeing at the same time? Are both forms of health completely distinct from one another, or could a change in one have an effect on the other? If you’re looking for ways to improve your self-care efficiency, this may be the article for you! Healthy heart, healthy mind Physical health is a lot easier to define, on account of it being largely visible. Mental health on the other hand lacks much of a concrete definition. What is widely agreed is that emotions and feelings play a large part in making up our mental health. Emotions are largely determined by how we feel about our current internal and external environment, meaning bad bodily signs (as part of our internal environment) will have a negative effect on our overall mood. This is why being ill puts us in such a bad mood – even a blocked nose can annoy us by affecting how we do everyday activities. Poor fitness levels are likely no different – not being the most physically capable and finding everyday physical tasks challenging will likely have an effect on your mood and your confidence. Recent studies have backed up this idea, namely that signs of bodily inflammation are associated with increased risk of depression and negative mood. The role of neurotransmitters So being physically fit is associated with having better mental health, but does that mean exercise itself is mentally health as well, or is it just the effect of exercise that makes us happy? In other words, we seem to enjoy the result, but do we enjoy the process too? Studies have found that exercise increases dopamine levels in the brain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger in the brain) that signals reward and motivation, similar to when we earn something for the work we put in ( Figure 1 ). Exercise is therefore seen as rewarding to the brain. There is also a lot of evidence suggesting exercise increases serotonin levels in both rats and humans. Serotonin is also a neurotransmitter, associated with directly enhancing mood and even having anti-depressant effects. Experiments in rats even suggest that increases in serotonin can decrease anxiety levels. Now, this does not mean exercise alone can cure anxiety disorder or depression, but could it be a useful variable in a clinical setting? Clinical uses Studies in depressive patients suggest that, yes, exercise does lead to better mental and physical health in patients with depression. This pairs well with another common finding that depressed patients are very rarely willing to complete difficult tasks for reward. So even on an extreme clinical scale, mental ill-health can have very damning consequences on maintaining good physical health. On the other hand, simple activities such as light jogs or walks may be the key to reversing negative spirals and getting on the right track towards recovery ( Figure 2 ). Conclusion and what we can do So far we have pretty solid evidence that mental health can impact physical health and vice versa, both negatively and positively. Going back to the introductory question, yes! We can find activities that improve both our physical and mental health. The trick is to find exercises that we find enjoyable and rewarding. On the clinical side, this could mean that physical exercise may be as effective at remitting depressive symptoms as antidepressants, likely with a lot fewer side effects. With that said, stay active and have fun, it helps more than you think! Written by Ramim Rahman Related articles: Environmental factors in exercise / Stress and neurodegeneration / Personal training / Mental health awareness REFERENCES Nord, C. (2024) The balanced brain . Cambridge: Penguin Random House. Osimo, E.F. et al. (2020) ‘Inflammatory markers in depression: A meta-analysis of mean differences and variability in 5,166 patients and 5,083 controls’, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, pp. 901–909. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.02.010. Basso, J.C. and Suzuki, W.A. (2017) ‘The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: A Review’, Brain Plasticity , 2(2), pp. 127–152. doi:10.3233/bpl-160040. [figure 1] DiCarlo, G.E. and Wallace, M.T. (2022) ‘Modeling dopamine dysfunction in autism spectrum disorder: From invertebrates to vertebrates’, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 133, p. 104494. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.12.017. [figure 2] Donvito, T. (2020) Cognitive behavioral therapy for arthritis: Does it work? what’s it like?, CreakyJoints. Available at: https://creakyjoints.org/living-with-arthritis/mental-health/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-for-arthritis/ (Accessed: 06 December 2024) Project Gallery

Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does insomnia run in families? Here's what genetics tells us Last updated: 10/07/25, 19:25 Published: 10/07/25, 19:11 Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side Have you ever noticed restless nights affecting more than one relative? Maybe your sister tosses and turns, or your brother wakes up before dawn, wide awake and anxious. It might feel like poor sleep is passed down from parents to kids, and science suggests that feeling isn’t just in your head. In one study, nearly 40% of people with insomnia had a close family member with it, compared to 29% of those without; making them 1.57 times more likely to share the struggle. So is that inherited, or just a string of bad luck? Here’s what science has to say. Your DNA can affect sleep Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side. If someone in your family, say a parent, sibling or even a grandparent, struggles night after night, you’re more likely to face similar problems. That doesn’t guarantee you’ll wake up at 3 a.m. every night, but it does raise your baseline risk: studies estimate that around one-third of insomnia liability is genetic. In practical terms, inheriting certain gene variants can make the brain’s sleep-promoting signals weaker or the wake-promoting signals stronger. Think of those genes as nudging you toward more restless nights rather than pushing you entirely into insomnia. So if genes only lay the groundwork, what else determines whether someone actually stays awake counting sheep? That’s where life’s daily stresses come into play. How genes shape your sleep Scientists have identified a handful of genes that guide our body’s natural clock. Our circadian rhythm influences how deeply and how long we sleep. For instance, variants in the PER3 or CLOCK genes can shift your internal timing. This makes it harder to feel sleepy at a conventional hour. Picture the circadian clock as an orchestra conductor: if the conductor’s timing fluctuates, the entire performance, your sleep cycle, can fall out of sync. Other inherited factors affect the brain’s “volume knobs” for alertness. Certain gene differences can heighten sensitivity to minor disturbances; like a creaky floorboard or an ambulance siren, so that you jitter awake even when there’s no real threat. Over time, those tiny awakenings add up, preventing you from reaching the deep, restorative stages of sleep. Yet, these genes don’t act in isolation. The brain remains remarkably adaptable through epigenetic changes; chemical tags that turn genes on or off. Experiences such as stress, illness, or a drastically changed schedule can strengthen or weaken those genetic susceptibilities. Sleep isn’t just genetic; here’s why Even if you inherit gene variants linked to insomnia, your environment and habits often decide the end result. High-pressure jobs, financial worries, or family conflicts can ignite sleep troubles in someone without a family history of insomnia. Conversely, someone with a strong genetic vulnerability might sleep soundly if life stays relatively stress-free and routines remain consistent. Everyday choices, like scrolling through social media until the last minute, drinking coffee late afternoon, or keeping wildly shifting bedtimes, further fuel the problem. For example, evening exposure to bright screens suppresses melatonin, the hormone that signals your brain it’s time to sleep. That means even if your “insomnia genes” are mild, you’re still creating obstacles to a good night’s rest. On the other hand, regular exercise (aim for at least 30 minutes most days), a balanced diet, and a calm, screen-free wind-down routine signal the brain that it’s safe to switch off. Over months, those good habits can overwrite the nudge from your genes, steering you towards deep, uninterrupted rest. Can you change your genetic destiny? Knowing that insomnia has a genetic component can feel validating. It clarifies that tossing and turning isn’t simply an unexplained routine. That awareness reduces shame and makes it easier to adopt practical solutions. If you suspect poor sleep runs in your family, watch for early warning signs: difficulty falling asleep, waking often, or waking too early. Catching these patterns early means you can experiment with sleep hygiene tweaks before the problem becomes chronic. Actionable steps include setting a consistent bedtime, dimming lights an hour before sleep, avoiding caffeine after mid-afternoon, and practising relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation. If these changes don’t help, cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) targets both the thoughts and behaviours that perpetuate sleeplessness, effectively retraining the brain’s response to the bedroom. Those inherited sleep tendencies might suggest insomnia is written in your DNA; but by keeping a consistent bedtime, cutting down on late-night screens and being kind to yourself, you can rewrite that genetic script and finally enjoy the deep rest you’ve earned. Written by Rand Alanazi Related articles: Does anxiety run in families? / Link between sleep and memory loss / The chronotypes REFERENCES Beaulieu-Bonneau S, LeBlanc M, Mérette C, Dauvilliers Y, Morin CM. Family History of Insomnia in a Population-Based Sample. Sleep. 2007 Dec;30(12):1739–45. Pacheco D. Is Insomnia Genetic? [Internet]. Sleep Foundation. 2021. Available from: https://www.sleepfoundation.org/insomnia/is-insomnia-genetic PER3 [Internet]. Wikipedia. 2023. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PER3 Dashti HS, Jones SE, Wood AR, Lane JM, van Hees VT, Wang H, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies genetic loci for self-reported habitual sleep duration supported by accelerometer-derived estimates. Nature Communications [Internet]. 2019 Mar 7;10(1):1–12. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-08917-4 Halperin D. Environmental noise and sleep disturbances: A threat to health? Sleep Science [Internet]. 2014 Dec;7(4):209–12. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1984006314000601 www.ushealthconnect.com H. Unraveling the Impact of Environmental Factors on Sleep Quality and Parkinson Disease [Internet]. Practicalneurology.com . 2025. Available from: https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/unraveling-the-impact-of-environmental-factors-on-sleep-quality-and-parkinson-disease/32197/ Levenson JC, Kay DB, Buysse DJ. The Pathophysiology of Insomnia. Chest [Internet]. 2015 Apr;147(4):1179–92. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4388122/ Spielman AJ, Caruso LS, Glovinsky PB. A Behavioral Perspective on Insomnia Treatment. Psychiatric Clinics of North America [Internet]. 1987 Dec 1;10(4):541–53. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193953X1830532X the I. amBX [Internet]. amBX. 2020 [cited 2025 Jun 6]. Available from: https://www.ambx.com/news/what-is-the-natural-circadian-rhythm Hassell K, Reiter RJ, Robertson NJ. MELATONIN AND ITS ROLE IN NEURODEVELOPMENT DURING THE PERINATAL PERIOD: A REVIEW. Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review. 2013 May 1;24(2):76–107. Wang J, Liu J, Xie H, Gao X. Effects of Work Stress and Period3 Gene Polymorphism and Their Interaction on Sleep Quality of Non-Manual Workers in Xinjiang, China: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jun 3;19(11):6843–3. Project Gallery

Understanding the problem and solutions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The rising threat of antibiotic resistance 14/07/25, 16:00 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 13:47 Understanding the problem and solutions An overview and history of antibiotics Antibiotics are medicines that treat and prevent bacterial infections (such as skin infections, respiratory infections and more). Antibiotic resistance is the process of infection-causing bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. As the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated, antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich discovered the first antibiotic, Salvarsan, used to treat syphilis at the time. His idea was to create anti-infective medication, and Salvarsan was successful. The golden age of antibiotic discovery began with the accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He noticed that mould had contaminated one of the petri dishes of Staphylococcus bacteria. He observed that bacteria around the mould were dying and realised that the mould, Penicillium notatum , was causing the bacteria to die. In 1940, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated penicillin and began clinical trials, showing that it effectively treated infectious animals. Penicillin was then used to treat patients by 1943 in the United States. Overall, the discovery and use of antibiotics in the 21st century was a significant scientific discovery, extending people’s lives by around 20 years. Factors contributing to antibiotic resistance Increasing levels of antibiotic resistance could mean routine surgeries and cancer treatments (which can weaken the body’s ability to respond to infections) might become too risky, and minor illnesses and injuries could become more challenging to treat. There are various factors contributing to this, including overusing and misusing antibiotics and low investment in new antibiotic research. Antibiotics are overused and misused due to misunderstanding when and how to use them. As a result, antibiotics may be used for viral infections, and an entire course may not be completed if patients start to feel better. Some patients may also use antibiotics not prescribed to them, such as those of family and friends. Moreover, there has not been enough investment to fund the research of novel antibiotics. This has resulted in a shortage of antibiotics available to treat infections that have become resistant. Therefore, more investment and research are needed to prevent antibiotic resistance from becoming a public health crisis. Combatting antibiotic resistance One of the most effective ways to combat antibiotic resistance is through raising public awareness. Children and adults can learn about when and how to use antibiotics safely. Several resources are available to help individuals and members of the public to do this. Some resources are linked below: 1. The WHO has provided a factsheet with essential information on antibiotic resistance. 2. The Antibiotic Guardian website is a platform with information and resources to help combat antibiotic resistance. It is a UK-wide campaign to improve and reduce antibiotic prescribing and use. Visit the website to learn more, and commit to a pledge to play your part in helping to solve this problem. 3. Public Health England has created resources to support Antibiotic Guardian. 4. The E-bug peer-education package is a platform that aims to educate individuals and provide them with tools to educate others. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Anti-fungal resistance / Why bacteria are essential to human survival Project Gallery

Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Cities designed to track the heavens: Chaco Canyon, New Mexico 06/03/25, 12:25 Last updated: Published: 02/07/24, 11:22 Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito This is Article 1 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article: The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids . In the desert of New Mexico are the remains of a major center of ancestral Puebloan culture. Within the Chaco Canyon region, several places of incredible architecture and complex cultural life have been identified, called Great Houses. It is suggested that over 150 Great Houses were constructed between the 9th and 12th centuries and connected by intricate road systems. Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito, which showcase the incredible architectural feats of the culture. Interestingly, scholars have deduced that the Great Houses were not only built to support the forming society, but the details of construction were specific for another reason: astronomy. Often, the structures were oriented according to at least one of three following ways: The south-southeast direction : Researchers suggest that the south-southeast orientation originates from a Snake Myth, which describes the use of a staff and the stars to facilitate migration in the southeast direction. Aligned with the cardinal directions : A great example of this is Pueblo Alto. Built in the 11th century, its main wall aligned within 5° of the EW latitude. Hungo Pavi is less than 5° offset from true NS. Built at horizon calendrical stations: Calendrical stations are often natural structures that, when viewed at a particular location, the sun can be seen in a memorable relation to it. For example, Figure 1 shows the sun between two prominent rock formations. Imagine this occurred only once per year. The event would mark the same day and thus would denote the annual occasion. Many of the ancestral Puebloan Great Houses are understood to have been built near such calendrical stations that operate for different events like the solstices. Although the ancestral Puebloan culture may not have used physics and astronomy as we do now, it was built into the fundamentals of their society, and central to their community. Written by Amber Elinsky REFERENCES & RESOURCES “History and Culture: The Center of Chalcoan Culture.” Chaco Culture, National Park Service . Accessed May 2024. https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm . Munro, Andrew M., and J. McKim Malville. “Ancestors and the Sun: Astronomy, Architecture and Culture at Chaco Canyon.” Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, no. S278 (2011): 255–64. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743921311012683 . Images from nps.gov Project Gallery

The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beyond the bump: unravelling traumatic brain injuries 30/03/26, 18:08 Last updated: Published: 15/10/24, 12:32 The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most serious and complex injuries sustained by the human body, often with profound and long-term effects on an individual’s physical, emotional, behavioural and cognitive abilities. What is a traumatic brain injury? A TBI results from an external force which causes structural and physical damage to the brain. The primary injury refers to the immediate damage to the brain tissue which is caused directly by the event. Whereas secondary injuries result from the cascade of cellular and molecular processes triggered by the initial injury and develop from hours to weeks following the initial TBI. Typically, the injury can be penetrating, where an object pierces the skull and damages the brain, or non-penetrating which occurs when the external force is large enough to shake the brain within the skull causing coup- contrecoup damage. Diagnosis and severity The severity of a TBI is classified as either mild (aka concussion), moderate, or severe, using a variety of indices. Whilst more than 75% of TBIs are mild, even these individuals can suffer long-term consequences from post-concussion syndrome. Here are two commonly used measures to initially classify severity: The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is an initial neurological examination which assesses severity based on the patient’s ability to open their eyes, move, and respond verbally. It is a strong indicator of whether an injury is mild (GCS 13-15), moderate (GCS 9-12) or severe (≤8). Following the injury and any period of unconsciousness, when a patient has trouble with their memory and is confused, they are said to have post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). This is another measure of injury severity and lasts up to 30 minutes in mild TBI, between 30 minutes and 24 hours in moderate TBI, and over 24 hours in severe TBI. Imaging tests including CT scans and MRIs are used to detect brain bleeds, swelling or any other damage. These tests are essential upon arrival to the hospital, especially in moderate and severe cases to understand the full extent of the injury. Leading causes of TBI Common causes of TBI are a result of: Falls (most common in young children and older adults) Vehicle collisions (road traffic accidents- RTAs) Inter-personal violence Sports injuries Explosive blasts Interestingly, the rate of TBI is 1.5 times more common in men than women. General symptoms The symptoms and outcome of a TBI depend on the severity and location of the injury. They differ from person to person based on a range of factors which include pre-injury sociodemographic vulnerabilities including age, sex and level of education, as well as premorbid mental illnesses. There are also post-injury factors such as access to rehabilitation and psychosocial support which influence recovery. Due to this, nobody will have the same experience of a TBI, however there are some effects which are more common than others which are described: Mild TBI: Physical symptoms: headaches, dizziness, nausea, and blurred vision. Cognitive symptoms: confusion, trouble concentrating, difficulty with memory or disorientation. Emotional symptoms: mood swings, irritability, depression or anxiety. Moderate-to-severe TBI: Behavioural symptoms: aggression, personality change, disinhibition, impulsiveness. Cognitive symptoms: difficulties with attention and concentration, decision making, memory, executive dysfunction, information processing, motivation, language, reasoning, self-awareness. Physical symptoms: headaches, seizures, speech problems, fatigue, weakness or paralysis. Many of these symptoms are ‘hidden’ and can often impact functional outcomes for an individual, such as their capacity for employment and daily living (i.e. washing, cooking, cleaning etc.). The long-term effects of TBI can vary, with some returning to normal functioning. However, others might experience lifelong disabilities and require adjustments in their daily lives. For more information and support, there are some great resources on the Headway website, a leading charity which supports individuals after brain injury. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Related articles: Why brain injuries affect adults and children differently / Neuroimaging / Different types of seizures Project Gallery

Molecular gastronomy Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring food at a molecular level 05/06/26, 21:25 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 15:46 Molecular gastronomy Imagine taking a bite of your favourite dish, not just savouring the flavours, but peering into the very essence of its existence. That's the realm of molecular gastronomy, a fascinating exploration of food through the lens of science. This article takes you on a journey at the microscopic level of what fuels the human body. The foundation of all food lies in macromolecules, large molecules formed from the intricate assembly of smaller ones. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are the main players, each with unique structures and roles. Carbohydrates: These sugary giants, like starches and sugars, provide our bodies with energy. Imagine them as long chains of sugar molecules linked together, like beads on a necklace. Proteins: The workhorses of the cellular world, proteins are responsible for countless functions. They're built from amino acids, each with a distinct side chain, creating a diverse and essential cast of characters. Lipids: Fats and oils, these slippery molecules store energy and form cell membranes. Think of them as greasy chains with attached rings, like chubby tadpoles swimming in oil. The symphony of cooking and the final dance Applying heat, pressure, and chemical reactions, chefs become culinary alchemists at the molecular level. Water, the universal solvent, facilitates the movement and interaction of these molecules. As we cook, proteins unfold and rearrange, starches break into sugars, and fats melt and release flavours. Maillard Reaction: This browning phenomenon, responsible for the delicious crust and crunch on your food, arises from the dance between sugars and amino acids. Imagine them waltzing and exchanging partners, creating new flavorful molecules that paint your food with golden hues. Emulsification: Oil and water don't mix, but lecithin, a molecule found in egg yolks, acts as a matchmaker. It bridges the gap between these unlikely partners, allowing for the creation of creamy sauces and fluffy cakes. Think of lecithin as a tiny cupid, shooting arrows of attraction between oil and water droplets. Saponification: Techniques like spherification use alginate and calcium to create edible spheres filled with liquid, transforming into playful pearls that burst with flavor in your mouth. A world of potential Understanding food at the molecular level unlocks a treasure trove of possibilities. It can help us create healthier, more sustainable food choices, develop personalized nutrition plans, and even combat food-borne illnesses. By peering into the microscopic world of our meals, we gain a deeper appreciation for the magic that happens on our plates, bite after delicious bite. So next time you savor a meal, remember the intricate dance of molecules that brought it to life. From the building blocks of carbohydrates to the symphony of cooking, food is a story written in the language of chemistry, waiting to be deciphered and enjoyed. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Emotional chemistry on a molecular level / Food prices and malnutrition / Vitamins / Junk food advertising References and further readings: Chapter 2: Protein structure . (2019, July 10). Chemistry. https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch450-and-ch451-biochemistry-d efining-life-at-the-molecular-level/chapter-2-protein-structure/ Gan, J., Siegel, J. B., & German, J. B. (2019). Molecular annotation of food - Towards personalized diet and precision health. Trends in Food Science & Technology , 91 , 675–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.016 Grant, P. (2020, August 4). Sugar, fiber, starch: What’s A carbohydrate? — Pamela Grant, L.Ac , NTP. Pamela Grant, L.Ac , NTP . https://pamela-grant.com/blog-ss/sugar-fiber-starch Helmenstine, A. (2022, October 25). Examples of carbohydrates . Science Notes and Projects. https://sciencenotes.org/examples-of-carbohydrates/ Project Gallery

Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Latent space transformations 21/08/25, 16:53 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 17:42 Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Getting machines to understand the information we want to give it is quite the task. Especially, given the level of complexity of the information we give it. For example, when trying to process an image for classification algorithms, how does the algorithm recognise the paws of a dog or the curvature of a boat? We need to simplify the information for simpler processing and manipulation. Similar to how you would take summarised notes in a lecture instead of copying everything. While information is lost, the key features are kept. That is where the term “ latent space ” comes in. What are latent spaces? In the realm of mathematics, various types of spaces play crucial roles. One such space is the linear space, which encompasses the number line—a fundamental construct. Then there's Euclidean space, a broader category that encompasses 2D, 3D, and higher-dimensional spaces. However, as the number of dimensions increases, the mathematical intricacies become exceedingly complex, often pushing the limits of computational feasibility. In a latent space transformation, we essentially reduce the dimensions of the space in which the data exists and create an abstract representation of the key features in a lower dimension space. This has a host of benefits with the main one being a reduction in the compute power needed to process the data. It’s an example of data compression and a direct instance of dimension reduction with neither being new concepts. Example: auto-encoders Auto-encoders are a type of neural network. They consist of an encoder-to-decoder architecture (see image with caption). The transformation allows us to process and store the input data more efficiently. In addition, once trained, auto-encoders can sample data from the latent space to generate new data points also called data generation of a synthetic nature. Other applications of latent space Now that we can store our information more effectively for computers to understand, there are a host of applications for the technique you might want to be aware of: - Natural Language Processing: Latent space models have been used in natural language processing for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. - Audio Processing: Latent space models have been used for music analysis, speech recognition, and audio processing. - Computer Vision: This we have partially discussed already. - Anomaly Detection: Latent space models can be used to recognise security failures in cybersecurity, or potentially fraud in the financial system. The applications of data reduction would be endless but those are just few applications in technology right now. Written by Temi Abbass Related articles: Markov chains / Evolution of AI / Study on brain metastasis Project Gallery

When deciding on the treatment of diseases, experts must gain as much relevant information as they can about that disease, before acting on an informed decision. When cancer is suspected, it might be that the decision for future treatment and prognosis be heavily weighted on the results of biopsies Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Cancer biomarker and evolution Last updated: 27/02/25 Published: 30/01/23 Development of Novel Biomarkers by Studying Cancer Evolution What does cancer evolution mean to cancer diagnosis and prognosis? How does studying it provide a better outlook on cancer precision medicine? =================== When deciding on the treatment of diseases, experts must gain as much relevant information as they can about that disease, before acting on an informed decision. When cancer is suspected, it might be that the decision for future treatment and prognosis be heavily weighted on the results of biopsies. After all, this is the standard for diagnosing many cancers. It takes one needle to take “information” that is used to predict patients’ outcomes and their respective treatment options, in other words, a test that might just predict their future. Cancer is an evolving disease. There have been many studies over the decades that demonstrate solid cancers’ singular-cell origins. Other studies show how cancer may evolve from a single cell to a mass of cells through Darwinian or branched evolution. This also implies that many things that apply to other evolutionary phenomena also apply to evolving cancer lines: mutation, genetic drift, selection and their selection pressures. In the end, what originated from one cell turns out to be a tumour with a unique genetic landscape, made up of numerous cancer subpopulations, each with its own unique genotypic and phenotypic profile and each of these subpopulations of cancerous cells evolving on its own. This phenomenon is more commonly referred to as intratumor heterogeneity (ITH). What all of this means to biopsies, is that when a single-site needle biopsy is done, it might not give an accurate representation of the whole tumour. The tumour itself, depending on its stage of development may be quite uniform with minimal ITH, however, it may also, in the eyes of a geneticist, look like a mosaic with multiple different “populations” of cancerous cells. Say, for example, the biopsy is aimed to target certain biomarkers (e.g. single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)) or other “landmarks” such as satellites, the biopsy will only view whatever the needle so happened to have sampled. In other words, sampling could have made it look like a mosaic is red, even though the majority of the mosaic at the time is blue, but it seemed red for we only found red during the biopsy. Additionally, this mosaic is changing, new colours may emerge just like new lines arise within the same tumour. ITH introduces what is known as sampling bias, where samples taken from biopsies only provide an overview or snapshot of the tumour at its state and only pick up on one piece of the actively evolving puzzle, potentially missing many details, in this case, biomarkers from other tumour subpopulations. To solve the issues of ITH, scientists participating in the TRACERx research consortium are employing unique methods to sample tumours in an approach to cancer evolution. The research involved using multiregional sampling and RNA sequencing to sample tumours from patients with non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) at different timestamps, i.e. during the various stages of cancer development, metastasis and relapse. By using this approach, the team managed to document better how cancer evolves and how the genomic landscape and tumour architecture changes over time. Furthermore, they succeeded in honing genes that are uniformly conserved and expressed throughout the tumour, even after the effects of ITH. The research looked over 20,000 expressed genes and found 1,080 genes that despite cancer evolution and ITH, are relatively conserved and clonally expressed, relatively unaffected by sampling bias. Furthermore, using machine learning, 23 genes (from the 1,080) were found to be predictive of patient outcomes. Meaning, this novel set of genes or “biomarkers” may be used as a basis for prognosis and to predict mortality in NSCLC. This novel biomarker is named ORACLE or Outcome Risk Associated Clonal Lung Expression signature and scientists are hopeful that it may be used to determine the relative aggressiveness of lung cancers, whilst maintaining a robust function unaffected by ITH. By targeting ORACLE, it mattered less where the biopsy needle is placed on the tumour, as these genes are found clonally. In terms of its effectiveness, a trial shows that having high scores of ORACLE signatures is associated with an increased risk of death within five years of diagnosis. In addition, other trials show that by targeting ORACLE, scientists were able to identify patients with a substantial risk of poor clinical outcomes. Overall, research on the application of ORACLE has shown satisfactory results in predicting patient outcomes and is found to be relatively resistant to the confounding effects of ITH. In summary, we have seen what cancer evolution may cause, and how it shadows the effectiveness of conventional biopsies and biomarkers due to sampling bias in ITH. We also find the research by the TRACERx Consortium and how they aim to study the effects of cancer evolution and ITH, finding a set of genes that are found and expressed throughout the tumour, yet still provide a favourable measure to patient outcomes. Whilst these topics are still under active research, it is clear, how studying cancer evolution and changing the approach to biopsies and biomarker designs can improve the overall quality of diagnosis and cancer prognosis. After all, finding what is wrong is as important as fixing the problem. We hope that similar biomarkers may be developed in the future, applicable to many other types of cancers. Written by Stephanus Steven Related articles: Thyroid cancer / Arginine and tumour growth / NGAL- a marker for kidney damage REFERENCES Biswas, D. et al. (2019) “A clonal expression biomarker associates with lung cancer mortality,” Nature Medicine, 25(10), pp. 1540–1548. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0595-z. Header image: Lung cancer cells. Anne Weston, Francis Crick Institute. Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)

How chemistry ensures nuclear safety standards Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Silent Protectors 04/07/25, 13:58 Last updated: Published: 30/01/24, 20:12 How chemistry ensures nuclear safety standards Nuclear safety is vital in ensuring the correct procedures and policies are in place whilst handling radioactive waste/ materials. This article will go into the crucial role that chemistry plays in upholding and enhancing nuclear safety standards, highlighting its multifaceted contributions to the protection of both people and the environment. Chemical Analysis in Radioactive Material Detection The use of many analytical tools in chemistry allows us to detect radioactive material and quantify these materials. The most popular techniques used are chromatography, spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy in chemically identifying these materials. We can use these techniques to early identify any hazardous implications of the materials and in warning symbols. Radiation Dosimetry and Health Protection Dosimetry is the scientific radiation dose determined by calculations and multiple measurements. The different techniques used to make these values are different types of chemical dosimeters are used such as solid, aqueous, and gases but the most important among all are aqueous dosimeters. Beyond this, it contributes to the creation of protective materials and gear, safeguarding the health of workers in nuclear environments. These advancements exemplify safety on a personal level. Chemical Processes in Nuclear Fuel Cycles Chemistry ensures the sustainable use of nuclear energy, maximises fuel efficiency, and reduces nuclear waste. The future of nuclear power could be cleaner and more efficient with the help of innovations in this field. The main stages are uranium mining and processing, enrichment of uranium, nuclear reactor fuel fabrication and innovations in fuel cycle chemistry. Understanding and optimising these chemical processes within the nuclear fuel cycle is paramount for ensuring the sustainability, safety, and efficiency of nuclear energy production. Chemistry continues to be a driving force in advancing these processes, contributing to the responsible harnessing of the atom for the benefit of society. Regulatory Compliance and Standards International and national standards for nuclear safety are underpinned by chemical principles. Chemistry not only ensures compliance with these standards but also drives initiatives to exceed regulatory requirements, setting new benchmarks for safety in the nuclear industry. The government website has a document full of policies in place to ensure all standards are met universally. In conclusion, the silent protectors remain vigilant, their contributions often unseen but undeniably crucial. Chemistry's enduring commitment to nuclear safety ensures that as we unlock the vast potential of nuclear energy, we do so with a profound sense of responsibility, guided by the silent but unwavering hand of chemical expertise. In this symbiotic relationship, chemistry and nuclear energy coalesce to forge a path towards a safer, cleaner, and more sustainable future. Written by Anam Ahmed Related articles: Nuclear fusion / Nuclear medicine / Advances in mass spectrometry Project Gallery

The newest pillar of chemical research Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Not all chemists wear white coats: computational organic chemistry Last updated: 01/02/26, 20:04 Published: 05/02/26, 08:00 The newest pillar of chemical research Introduction 'Not all chemists wear white coats,' aptly describes the newest pillar of chemical research. Coined by the Royal Society of Chemistry, computational modelling has become an essential tool across all areas of traditional chemistry. As artifical intelligence (AI) and machine learning become increasingly prevalent in research, the future of chemistry may unfold computationally before ever touching a test tube. Given the breadth of the field, this article will focus specifically on computational advancements in organic chemistry. Analytical Chemistry Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a quantum computational method that models molecules based upon the distribution of their electron density. It can be utilised by organic chemists to determine the stereochemistry of a product by modelling Vibrational Circular Dichroism spectra (VCD). VCD is a spectroscopic technique which measures the difference in absorption of left versus right-handed circularly polarised light by chiral molecules. By using DFT to compute the VCD spectra of each enantiomer, chemists can compare them to experimental spectra. A match between the compound and the experimental spectrum indicates an accurate assignment of the molecule’s stereochemistry. See Figure 1 . Predicting molecular conformation While the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog naming system allows chemists to describe the 3D arrangement of a molecule, computational analysis can help predict which molecular shape is preferred in practice. Molecular Mechanics (MM) is a computational method that treats molecules using classical physics, modelling atoms and bonds as ‘balls’ connected by ‘strings’. A force field is used to calculate the potential energy of a molecule, accounting for bond stretching, angle bending, bond rotation, van der Waals interactions and electrostatic forces. A simple example of how this method supports organic chemistry is the determination of the most stable conformation of butane. By rotating the central C-C bond through 360°, the energy of each conformation can be plotted against the dihedral angle. This analysis shows that the anti-conformation is the most stable, as the two methyl groups are positioned 180° apart to minimise steric strain. See Figure 2 . Drug discovery Computational chemistry has also transformed drug discovery by enabling chemists to simulating how potential drug compounds will bind to their target active site. In the past, drug development has often relied on synthesising a large number of candidates and testing each experimentally to see which worked. Today, advances in computational chemistry, combined with X-ray crystallographic data, allows both a drug candidate and its protein binding site to be modelled before any lab work begins. This helps researchers save both time and resources. Known as structural based drug design, this approach commonly relies on hybrid computational methods, particularly Quantum Mechanics/ Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM). In this case, the chemically active regions, such as the drug molecule and protein active site are treated using QM while the rest of the proteins is treated using MM. By combining these techniques, a balance is struck between computational accuracy and calculation time, especially important for larger molecules. See Figure 3. Conclusion In conclusion, computational chemistry is an essential tool for interpreting experimental results and generating new scientific insight. While this article has focused on its role in supporting organic chemistry research, the reach of computational chemistry extends far beyond this field. From modelling batteries and solid state materials to organometallic catalysis, computational chemistry is now firmly embedded in modern chemical research. Written by Antony Lee Related articles: Quantum- chemistry , computing REFERENCES The Royal Society of Chemistry - https://edu.rsc.org/resources/not-all-chemists-wear- white-coats/1654.article (Accessed January 2026) Y.L. Zeng, X.Q. Huang, C.R. Huang, H. Zhang, F. Wang, Z.X. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 10730-10735 Chemistry LibreTexts https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_%28Mor sch_et_al.%29/03%3A_Organic_Compounds_Alkanes_and_Their_Stereochemistry/3.07% 3A_Conformations_of_Other_Alkanes (Accessed January 2026) Ecole des Bio-Industries - https://www.ebi-edu.com/en/coup-de-coeur-research-9/ (Accessed January 2026) Project Gallery