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Testing cancerous tumours Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A new tool to diagnose: liquid biopsies 08/07/25, 16:15 Last updated: Published: 15/01/24, 23:48 Testing cancerous tumours Liquid biopsies are an example of integrating next-generation sequencing to diagnose and study tumours using only blood or other fluid samples rather than solid tissue. These biopsies are significant in modern medicine, particularly in treating cancer, as they enable the earlier detection of cancers in a less invasive manner. In this article, I aim to explore liquid biopsies, their role in disease detection and issues which arise from their usage. A liquid biopsy is a test which detects cancerous tumours from the pieces of tumour that break off and circulate in the bloodstream. A liquid biopsy involves a simple blood test and analysis in the lab with a machine that separates blood cells from the plasma, allowing a pathologist to examine the fluid and look for biomarkers. These include circulating tumour cells (CTC) or circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA). CTCs are cancer cells that disseminate from a tumour and travelling in the bloodstream, whereas ctDNA is a DNA fragment from the tumour circulating in the blood. See Figure 1 for a diagram summarising this process in more detail. Finding these biomarkers shows evidence of a malignant tumour, possibly revealing its stage of development and potential metastases. Oncologists use this information to form the basis of cancer prognosis. Furthermore, genetic data from these tests provides information on suitable and effective treatments specific to the patient. In particular, the suitability for targeted therapies, which target specific genes or proteins within the cancer. Furthermore, it can monitor how well a treatment is working by seeing if the tumour has stopped growing after treatment. Finally, it can be used to predict and help prevent recurrence of cancer or progression of cancer by detecting minimal residual disease (where a small number of cancer cells remain in the body after treatment). Liquid biopsies are perhaps better and more advantageous than normal biopsies, as the method is quicker without requiring surgical intervention. In addition, liquid biopsies provide a more comprehensive tissue profile by taking tumour heterogeneity into account. This includes revealing more information about genetic variations, monitoring clonal evolution, assessing treatment resistance, and aiding in the customisation of targeted therapies. This means a more comprehensive view is provided compared to tissue biopsies, which do not represent the entire genetic diversity of a tumour. Liquid biopsies excel in overcoming these limitations by providing a systematic and dynamic assessment of the entire tumour’s genetic diversity. Unlike tissue biopsies, which may miss subclones, liquid biopsies offer a more comprehensive understanding of the overall tumour, making them a valuable tool for precision oncology. The process is also minimally invasive and only causes minimal pain. While liquid biopsies offer a less invasive means of monitoring diseases, their sensitivity and specificity in detecting biomarkers, such as circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) or circulating tumour cells (CTCs), might vary, leading to potential false positives or negatives. Additionally, the quantity and quality of biomarkers present in bodily fluids can fluctuate, impacting the reliability of liquid biopsy results for consistent monitoring. Furthermore, the associated cost of analysing liquid biopsy samples and the technology required for accurate detection can pose financial constraints for widespread implementation in healthcare systems. See Figure 2 which summarises the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Currently, there are a few liquid biopsy tests approved by the FDA to detect cancer within a patient. One example is the “Guardant 360 CDx”, approved for use in people with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Another example is the “Foundation One liquid CDx”, which is approved for use in people with a range of cancers such as NSCLC, prostate, ovarian and breast cancer. However, more research is needed to clinically evaluate the efficacy of liquid biopsies when compared to tissue biopsies. Nevertheless, liquid biopsies show a positive prospect for cancer diagnosis. Furthermore, liquid biopsies have also been used outside of cancer, such as in cardiovascular conditions such as myocardial infarction. In myocardial infarction, specific miRNA signatures released during myocardial necrosis provide accurate early detection of myocardial infarction. Further highlighting the multilevel potential of liquid biopsies. One of the main ethical concerns surrounding liquid biopsies involves the revealing of sensitive genetic information about a patient, encompassing medical history, and genetic identity, and potentially impacting familial relationships and legal affairs. This raises critical issues regarding privacy, consent, and the secure storage of such sensitive data. Additionally, challenges surrounding standardisation, cost-effectiveness, and the establishment of robust regulatory frameworks for the handling and storage of this genetic information further underscore the ethical complexities and necessity for stringent protocols in the implementation and management of liquid biopsy technologies. To conclude, it is clear that liquid biopsies have a lot of potential in diagnosing patients and, therefore, treating patients by aiding clinical decisions made by healthcare professionals. It has proven to be useful not just in diagnosing cancer but also in cardiovascular conditions such as myocardial infarction. The process has the potential to improve future patient outcomes. However, for this to happen, issues such as costs and ethics must be addressed so that liquid biopsies can be utilised more effectively in clinical practice. Written by Harene Elayathamby References: professional, C.C. medical Liquid biopsy: What it is & procedure details , Cleveland Clinic . Available at: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/23992-liquid-biopsy (Accessed: 19 December 2023). A tale of two biopsies: Liquid biopsy vs tissue biopsy (no date) Biochain Institute Inc. Available at: https://www.biochain.com/blog/a-tale-of-two-biopsies-liquid-biopsy-vs-tissue-biopsy/ (Accessed: 19 December 2023). Adhit, K.K. et al. (2023) ‘Liquid biopsy: An evolving paradigm for non-invasive disease diagnosis and monitoring in medicine’, Cureus [Preprint]. doi:10.7759/cureus.50176. Mannelli, C. (2019) ‘Tissue vs liquid biopsies for cancer detection: Ethical issues’, Journal of Bioethical Inquiry , 16(4), pp. 551–557. doi:10.1007/s11673-019-09944-y. Figures: Journey of a liquid biopsy (no date) Diagnostics . Available at: https://diagnostics.roche.com/global/en/article-listing/infographic-journey-of-a-liquid-biopsy.html (Accessed: 19 December 2023). A tale of two biopsies: Liquid biopsy vs tissue biopsy (no date) Biochain Institute Inc. Available at: https://www.biochain.com/blog/a-tale-of-two-biopsies-liquid-biopsy-vs-tissue-biopsy/ (Accessed: 19 December 2023) Project Gallery

Pisaster ochraceus (also known as ‘ochre stars’) is a keystone species and common starfish found in the Pacific Ocean and are very interesting species to research on. They are found mainly in Alaska and Baja California. Their size range from 15 to 36cm in diameter come in different ranges of colours eg: red, yellow, orange and purple. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Designing an experiment on sea stars Last updated: 17/11/24 Published: 25/03/23 Title: How do light and dark rocky surfaces affect the relative fitness of the orange and purple ochre stars? Pisaster ochraceus (also known as ‘ochre stars’) is a keystone species and common starfish found in the Pacific Ocean and are very interesting species to research on. They are found mainly in Alaska and Baja California. Their size range from 15 to 36cm in diameter come in different ranges of colours eg: red, yellow, orange and purple. They are mainly found near rocky shores and found under rocks and in crevices in the low and intertidal zones and they often cluster together. They are simple organisms, they do not have brain or ganglia and around its mouth there is a nerve ring which connects with 5 radial nerves. The population of Pisaster ochraceus that are orange are 6- 28%, whilst majority are purple and researchers have seen that mainly genetic traits cause these species to have different colours whilst they develop. There have also been experiments that examined how colour changes across the geographic range. Figure 1: Image of purple and orange ochre stars The aim of the experiment would be to see how either light or dark rocky surfaces affect the relative fitness of the orange and purple ochre stars, meaning their offspring. The relative fitness shows how much fitness there is in a genotype compared to the maximum fitness. Before starting this experiment, a risk assessment has to be done to make sure it is safe and increases hazard awareness when the experiment is being done. The likelihood, severity and risk has to be looked into during the assessment and how to reduce the risk. One example is, doing the experiment by the shores can be risky due to wind waves and tides and so appropriate footwear has to be worn and the weather should be looked into before going to do this experiment. There are going to be control variables such as: season, quadrat area, number of samples calculated and same equipment being used throughout the whole day so validity would be affected. The uncontrolled variables would be: temperature, pH of seawater and predators that consume Pisaster ochraceus . In order to see how the Pisaster ochraceus are affected, 10 - 15 sites should be chosen and a quadrat can be used (10 metres by 10 metres) on each site and running parallel by using a tape measure on darker rocky surfaces and then after on lighter rocky surfaces. This will be useful as you can see the distribution. Place 15 quadrats randomly over each area in every site to work out the abundance. Within each quadrat, orange and purple Pisaster ochraceus are counted separately to illustrate the set of results with the different colours and the rocky surfaces on a table of results. After collecting the results, this should be shown on a set of tables and then placed on a stratified bar graph showing all the sites, the colour of the starfish (on the x- axis) and results of relative fitness(on the y-axis) showing a good visualisation of the experiment. A paired t-test should be done as we want to see the difference between two variables which are the light and dark rocky surfaces for the same sample which is the colour of the starfish through their means. It should then be concluded by seeing which morph has a higher relative fitness and conclude to see if there is an effect. If the p-value is lesser or equal to the significance value, then the hypothesis should be rejected if the p-value is higher than the significance value the hypothesis should be accepted. Figure 2: Purple and orange ochre stars on rocky surfaces Carrying out an experiment in a natural environment is an advantage as this can be reflected on real life therefore having higher ecological validity. However, doing this experiment can have some disadvantages, even though this is cost-effective and done in a natural environment, we do not know how reliable these results will be because the collection of results can have some inaccuracy. Also, it also has to be understood that many other biotic and abiotic factors can affect this experiment. As it is done in the natural environment there will be issues with Pisaster ochraceus being predated by sea otters or even seagulls which can have an effect on results and also making it less generalisable. Air temperature and water temperature can also have an effect on these species as well and it cannot be controlled which can create issues on results. Also, by using a quadrat, it can be prone to human errors (miscounting or overcounting) and having randomly spaced quadrats, can miss out individual species therefore showing under-representative estimates and results in the populations of the Pisaster ochraceus . More repeats would have to be done throughout the years to collect more accurate results and also be tested by other variables such as temperature, wave exposure and even pH of seawater to see if this also affects relative fitness of Pisaster ochraceus with different colouration. It is important to think about the ethical considerations as it is a natural area and these species organisms live there and it should not be damaged before, during and after the experiment. The creatures must be respected as well as the environment they live in. With many equipment being used, it is vital not to interfere with the organisms, create litter or disturb the habitat as it will be unethical. In conclusion, this experiment is effective as it is done in a natural environment at different sites but it will be time consuming due to changes in weather and working out the abundance over all the sites for a long period of time. By doing the paired t-test, a difference in the two means can be seen and create smaller effects on error from the samples. Written by Jeevana Thavarajah Related articles: An experiment on castor oil / on pendulums REFERENCES The Biological Bulletin. 2022. Color Polymorphism and Genetic Structure in the Sea Star Pisaster ochraceus | The Biological Bulletin: Vol 211, No 3. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022]. Animal Diversity Web. 2022. Pisaster ochraceus. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022]. Sanctuarysimon.org. 2022. SIMoN :: Species Database. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022]. Rgs.org. 2022. Royal Geographical Society - Fieldwork in schools. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022].

Deconstructing allergies: mechanisms, treatments, and prevention Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Allergies 08/07/25, 16:24 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 14:27 Deconstructing allergies: mechanisms, treatments, and prevention Modern populations have witnessed a dramatic surge in the number of people grappling with allergies, a condition that can lead to a myriad of health issues such as eczema, asthma, hives, and, in severe cases, anaphylaxis. For those who are allergic, these substances can trigger life-threatening reactions due to their abnormal immune response. Common allergens include antibiotics like penicillin, as well as animals, insects, dust, and various foods. The need for strict dietary restrictions and the constant fear of accidental encounters with allergens often plague patients and their families. Negligent business practices and mislabelled food have even led to multiple reported deaths, underscoring the gravity of allergies and their alarming rise in prevalence. The primary reason for the global increase in allergies is believed to be the lack of exposure to microorganisms during early childhood. The human microbiome, a collection of microorganisms that live in and on our bodies, is a key player in our immune system. The rise in sanitation practices is thought to reduce the diversity of the microbiome, potentially affecting immune function. This lack of exposure to infections may cause the immune system to overreact to normally harmless substances like allergens. Furthermore, there is speculation about the impact of vitamin D deficiency, which is becoming more common due to increased indoor time. Vitamin D is known to support a healthy immune response, and its deficiency could worsen allergic reactions. Immune response Allergic responses occur when specific proteins within an allergen are encountered, triggering an immune response that is typically used to fight infections. The allergen's proteins bind to complementary antigens on macrophage cells, causing these cells to engulf the foreign substance. Peptide fragments from the allergen are then presented on the cell surface via major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs), activating receptors on T helper cells. These activated T cells stimulate B cells to produce immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies against the allergen. This sensitizes the immune system to the allergen, making the individual hypersensitive. Upon re-exposure to the allergen, IgE antibodies bind to allergen peptides, activating receptors on mast cells and triggering the release of histamines into the bloodstream. Histamines cause vasodilation and increase vascular permeability, leading to inflammation and erythema. In milder cases, patients may experience itching, hives, and runny nose; however, in severe allergic reactions, intense swelling can cause airway constriction, potentially leading to respiratory compromise or even cessation. At this critical point, conventional antihistamine therapy may not be enough, necessitating the immediate use of an EpiPen to alleviate symptoms and prevent further deterioration. EpiPens administer a dose of epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, directly into the bloodstream when an individual experiences anaphylactic shock. Anaphylactic shock is typically characterised by breathing difficulties. The primary function of the EpiPen is to relax the muscles in the airway, facilitating easier breathing. Additionally, they counteract the decrease in blood pressure associated with anaphylaxis by narrowing the blood vessels, which helps prevent symptoms such as weakness or fainting. EpiPens are the primary treatment for severe allergic reactions leading to anaphylaxis and have been proven effective. However, the reliance on EpiPens underscores the necessity for additional preventative measures for individuals with allergies before a reaction occurs. Preventative treatment Young individuals may have a genetic predisposition to developing allergies, a condition referred to as atopy. Many atopic individuals develop multiple hypersensitivities during childhood, but some may outgrow these allergies by adulthood. However, for high-risk atopic children, preventive measures may offer a promising solution to reduce the risk of developing severe allergies. Clinical trials conducted on atopic infants explored the concept of immunotherapy treatments, involving continuous exposure to small doses of peanut allergens to prevent the onset of a full-blown allergy. Initially, skin prick tests for peanut allergens were performed, and only children exhibiting negative or mild reactions were selected for the trial. Those with severe reactions were excluded due to the high risk of anaphylactic shock with continued exposure. The remaining participants were randomly assigned to either consume peanuts or follow a peanut-free diet. Monitoring these infants as they aged revealed that continuous exposure to peanuts reduced the prevalence of peanut allergies by the age of 5. Specifically, only 3% of atopic children exposed to peanuts developed an allergy compared to 17% of those in the peanut-free group. The rise in severe allergies poses a growing concern for global health. Once an atopic individual develops an allergy, mitigating their hypersensitivity can be challenging. Current approaches often involve waiting for children to outgrow their allergies, overlooking the ongoing challenges faced by adults who remain highly sensitive to allergens. Implementing preventive measures, such as early exposure through immunotherapy, could enhance the quality of life for future generations and prevent sudden deaths in at-risk individuals. In conclusion, a dramatic surge in the prevalence of allergies in modern populations requires more attention from researchers and health care providers. Living with allergies can bring many complexities into someone’s life even before they potentially have a serious reaction. Currently treatments are focused on post-reaction emergency care, however preventative strategies are still a pressing need. With cases of allergies predicted to rise further, research into this global health issue will become increasingly important. There are already promising results from early trials of immunotherapy treatments, and with further research and implementation these treatments could improve the quality of life of future generations. Written by Charlotte Jones Related article: Mechanisms of pathogen evasion Project Gallery

Using the new technology AI to develop drugs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Artificial Intelligence in Drug Research and Discovery 09/07/25, 10:56 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 10:20 Using the new technology AI to develop drugs Drug research has been transformed by artificial intelligence (AI), which has become a game-changing technology in several industries. Only a small portion of potential drugs make it to the market after the lengthy and expensive traditional drug discovery process. A drug's discovery and development can take over ten years and cost an average of US$2.8 billion. Even then, nine out of 10 medicinal compounds fall short of passing regulatory approval and Phase II clinical trials. The use of AI in this process, however, has the potential to greatly improve effectiveness, accuracy, and success rates. Given that AI can help with rational drug design, support decision-making, identify the best course of treatment for a patient, including personalised medicines, manage the clinical data generated, and use it for future drug development, it is reasonable to assume that it will play a role in the development of pharmaceutical products from the laboratory bench to bedside table. There are several ways in which AI is currently being used to enhance the drug discovery process. One of the primary applications is virtual screening ( Figure 2 ), which involves using machine learning algorithms to analyse large libraries of chemical compounds and predict which ones are likely to be effective against a specific disease target. This can significantly reduce the time and cost required for drug discovery by narrowing down the number of compounds that need to be tested in the lab. Another way AI is being used in drug discovery is through generative models, which use deep learning algorithms to design molecules that are optimised for specific therapeutic targets. This approach can be used to design molecules that are effective against a specific target while also minimising toxicity or other undesirable properties. Data analysis is another area where AI can be applied in drug discovery. By analysing large datasets of biological and chemical information, AI can help researchers identify patterns and relationships that may be relevant to drug discovery. For example, AI can be used to analyse genomic data to identify potential drug targets or to analyse drug-drug interactions to identify potential safety issues. However, one of the main challenges is the need for high-quality data, as AI models rely on large amounts of data to make accurate predictions. Additionally, there is a risk that AI models may miss important insights or make incorrect predictions if the data used to train them is biased or incomplete. Nevertheless, the continued development of AI and its amazing tools seeks to lessen the difficulties experienced by pharmaceutical firms, impacting both the medication development process and the full lifecycle of the product, which may account for the rise in the number of start-ups in this industry. The importance of automation will increase as a result of using the most up-to-date AI-based technologies, which will not only shorten the time needed for products to reach the market but also enhance product quality, increase overall production process safety, and make better use of available resources while also being cost-effective. In conclusion, the use of AI in drug discovery has the potential to revolutionize the field and significantly improve the success rate of potential drug candidates. Despite the challenges and limitations, the continued research and development of AI in drug discovery will undoubtedly lead to faster, cheaper, and more accurate drug development. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: A breakthrough procedure in efficient drug discovery / AI in medicinal chemistry / AI advancing genetic disease diagnosis Project Gallery

Food deserts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How rising food prices contribute to malnutrition 09/07/25, 14:18 Last updated: Published: 18/08/23, 20:13 Food deserts Introduction Over the past year, there have been news articles explaining how food has become more expensive along with people choosing between heating their homes and paying for groceries. According to the Office for National Statistics, the yearly cost of food and non-alcoholic drink has risen to 19.1% within one year till March 2023. There are various reasons for the food price increase; some of them include Brexit, lack of agricultural productivity and weakening of the British pound. Therefore, the spending habits of the general population have shifted towards ultra-processed foods (UPFs) as they tend to be cheaper compared to minimally processed food (MPFs). Yet, UPFs are really unhealthy with a cohort study discovering that there was an increase in mortality by 18% with each additional serving. For people living in food swamps and deserts, this is a harsh reality for them and there have to be policies to properly address this. The difference between food deserts and swamps Food deserts are places where populations have limited access to healthy and affordable food (i.e. MPFs); there are factors that contribute to this phenomenon such as having lower income or geographic location whereby there is a long distance to the nearest market. However, the increase in food prices as illustrated above can even be a part of the problem. In contrast, there are food swamps, which are areas containing more businesses that sell foods lacking nutritional value, so UPFs as opposed to MPFs. This also relates to the cost of groceries because certain populations living in food swamps are likely to purchase UPFs because they are in closer proximity than MPFs, besides being cheaper. Both situations can contribute not only to obesity, but other forms of malnutrition which will be explored below. Malnutrition To suffer from malnutrition means that there is an imbalance of nutrients and can be categorised based on undernutrition or overnutrition along with disparity in macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Additionally, there are countries experiencing specific forms of malnutrition such as undernutrition in comparison to others due to ongoing warfare, lack of nutritional education and/or living in poverty. The impact of malnutrition on organs in Figure 1 happens because there is deficiency in certain macronutrients and/or micronutrients, which are essential in the structure and functioning of the body. Another consequence of malnutrition is weight loss because there is depletion of fat and muscle mass in the body, leading to impaired muscle function. Food deserts/ swamps and malnutrition Going back to food deserts/swamps, their impact on malnutrition can be drastic. For example, a review focusing on food insecurity (disrupted food intake/eating patterns due to low income or supplementary resources), suggested a link between malnutrition and food insecurity along with a possible association between malnutrition and gut microbiome being negatively altered, though more research is needed. Another review looking at food insecurity in both US adults and children discovered that in a food-insecure adult’s diet, they had less vegetables, fruits and dairy leading to reduced vitamins A and B6, calcium, magnesium and zinc. How do both reviews relate to food swamps/deserts? Well, populations who are food-insecure may be likely to live in areas where there is a lack of access to healthy foods (i.e. food swamps/ deserts). Conclusion Taking into account everything discussed in this article, it seems that governments in countries where food swamps/deserts are prevalent need to address this issue through effective policies. Otherwise, there could be a future where there is an increase in chronic diseases like malnutrition. There is even potential susceptibility to infectious diseases due to malfunctioning organs stemming from malnutrition. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Food at the molecular level / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery

The evolutionary theory VS the empathy-altruism theory Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Explaining Altruism 20/06/24, 10:39 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 13:58 The evolutionary theory VS the empathy-altruism theory Altruism is the behaviour of helping others without a reward or even at a cost to the individual who performs it. For instance, volunteering in a soup kitchen to help feed those in need. This article aims to explain altruistic behaviour using the evolutionary and the empathy-altruism theories. The evolutionary theory, originally proposed by Darwin, is based upon three pillars: variation of genes within a species, heritability of those variations to the next generations and differential fitness, also known as survival and reproduction. Evolutionary theory suggests that the degree of relatedness – the extent to which the person being helped carries copies of the altruist's genes – and reproductive value – the extent to which the relative can pass on their genes down to future generations – are the two determining factors in an individual’s decision on whether to help someone in need. Burnstein et al. (1994) conducted a study presenting participants with hypothetical situations involving altruism, in which they manipulated the degree of relatedness, health of the target and the context in which help was needed. They found that in both life-or-death and everyday situations individuals were more likely to help close kin than distant kin and strangers. Additionally, in everyday situations, participants helped ill people more. However, in life-or-death situations, they tended to help healthy people more, proposedly due to their higher reproductive value. Therefore, these findings indicate that altruistic behaviour depends on the degree of relatedness between the individual helping and the individual being helped, and the latter individual’s reproductive value. The empathy-altruism theory is based on the notion that pure altruism can only occur due to empathy – the ability to identify with and experience another person’s emotional state. The empathy-altruism theory suggests that if the altruistic person does not feel empathy, help would only be given if it is in the individual’s interest, also known as the social exchange view. However, the theory suggests that if the altruistic person does feel empathy, help would be given regardless of self-interest and even when costs outweigh the rewards. Toi & Batson (1982) conducted a study in which they manipulated two factors: the empathy felt by participants towards the hypothetical victim by giving them different prompts and the cost of helping the victim by telling the participants whether they will ever come in contact with the victim again. The researchers found that the participants with induced empathy were likely to engage in altruistic behaviour regardless of personal cost and were motivated by an altruistic concern for the victim’s welfare, whilst the individuals in the low empathy condition were more likely to help the victim if the personal costs of seeing the victim again were high. Therefore, the empathy-altruism model has empirical support and is suitable for explaining individual differences in altruistic behaviour. The evolutionary and empathy-altruism theories both suggest that personal gains can motivate altruistic behaviour. In the evolutionary theory, those gains consist of passing the altruist’s genes down to the next generations. In the empathy-altruism theory those gains are the personal interests and cost when the altruist does not feel empathy towards the target. However, the empathy-altruism theory also proposes that when the individual feels empathy towards the target, personal gains are irrelevant to their decision on whether to help them. Therefore, the theories propose two different perspectives on the individual differences in altruism. Whilst the evolutionary theory has significant explanatory value for altruism, there is evidence that emotional closeness is a mediating factor for altruism in kin. Korchmaros & Kenny (2001) found that among genetically related individuals, the tendency to display altruism was affected by their emotional closeness with the specific relative being helped. Therefore, the degree of relatedness alone cannot fully explain the individual differences in altruistic behaviour, and the empathy-altruism theory might be a more suitable explanation because the level of empathy felt by altruists increases with the levels of closeness the individual feels towards the target. Additionally, the evolutionary theory suggests that people rarely help strangers in need, which is overly reductionist and incorrect. Worldwide, many volunteers help people they are unfamiliar with. The empathy-altruism theory is more holistic and, therefore, might be a more appropriate theory for altruism, as many studies have found that empathy can be experienced towards complete strangers. Moreover, even if empathy is not experienced, the empathy-altruism theory explains altruism towards strangers through the social exchange view. Consequently, the empathy-altruism theory explains a wider range of behaviours and individual differences in altruistic behaviour than the evolutionary theory. Therefore, while both theories provide wide descriptions of individual differences in altruism, I think that the empathy-altruism theory provides a more comprehensive explanation for individual differences in altruism than the evolutionary theory. The empathy-altruism model accounts for not only the role of emotional closeness and empathy in motivating altruism towards kin, but also why people help strangers by highlighting how empathy can induce altruistic acts even without genetic relatedness or reproductive value incentives. By encompassing a wider range of situational and psychological factors influencing our decisions to help others, the empathy-altruism theory represents a more complete account of the complex phenomenon of altruism. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related article: The endowment effect REFERENCES Baker R. L. (2008). The social work dictionary . Washington, DC: NASW Press. Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Slingsby, J. K., Harrell, K. L., Peekna, H. M., & Todd, R. M. (1991). Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of personality and social psychology , 61 (3), 413. Burnstein, E., Crandall, C., & Kitayama, S. (1994). Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal of personality and social psychology , 67 (5), 773. Grynberg, D., & Konrath, S. (2020). The closer you feel, the more you care: Positive associations between closeness, pain intensity rating, empathic concern and personal distress to someone in pain. Acta Psychologica , 210 , 103175. Kerr, B., Godfrey-Smith, P., & Feldman, M. W. (2004). What is altruism?. Trends in ecology & evolution, 19( 3), 135-140. Korchmaros, J. D., & Kenny, D. A. (2001). Emotional closeness as a mediator of the effect of genetic relatedness on altruism. Psychological science , 12 (3), 262-265. Rodrigues, A. M., & Gardner, A. (2022). Reproductive value and the evolution of altruism. Trends in ecology & evolution , 37 (4), 346-358. Toi, M., & Batson, C. D. (1982). More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of personality and social psychology , 43 (2), 281. Project Gallery

Properties of space Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Topology in action 17/02/25, 14:51 Last updated: Published: 29/09/23, 20:09 Properties of space Let’s say I put a sphere in front of you. I’m sure you could go through and tell me the basic facts and formulas surrounding it, many if which containing Pi. And even better, if you were a bit more fluent in maths, you could go further and start telling me about the geometry of the shape, say how the gradient had to disappear at a certain point or an assortment of many other things. But if we dive a little deeper into pure maths, it starts getting a little more complicated. When labels like Hausdorff get casually thrown about (meaning you can always separate two distinct points with an open boundary, which you certainly can do on a sphere!) it can really build up and become quite hard, especially if someone then puts in front of you two spheres stuck together. This is where the study of topology comes in and starts helping out, allowing us to start to categorise certain spaces without having to worry about all the small details that could catch you out. Topology is certainly found in the purer side of maths, generally seen as one of the more abstract modules to be taking at undergraduate level (as seen by the exam scores). But thinking of it just as some far away concept disconnected with the rest of the world would be foolish. Thinking back to what I said before about gradient fields on a sphere, this is more commonly known in maths as the “Hairy Ball Theorem” named as such as if you had a ball of hair, you wouldn’t be able to smooth it all out without a cow’s lick. And in mathematical terms it means that a continuous vector field has to disappear at a certain point. And maybe not readily apparent but this comes up in loads of places, the most obvious of which is that two points on the Earth will always have the exact temperature! But moving to Biology we see a lot more applications, even as early as in A-level study. Just thinking about how a protein will fold is all to do with the topological properties of them. DNA is a bit more complex understandably, with more base pairs it becomes incredibly flexible, able to bend into many shapes, but like topological spaces this flexible has limits. It doesn’t pass through itself nor tear, so it allows us to start applying our theorems to it. A key one of these is Knot theory, which of course is the study of knots. Knots in maths are defined as having no open ends and being complex, which helpfully is exactly like DNA! As you hopefully know, its coiled form has no open ends, and in order to untangle it we have to go through the process of cutting at double points. The amount of times this is needed to untangle is called the 'unknotting number' in topology and this mathematical modelling of the process allows biologists to move away from the microscope and still get a more accurate look on what’s happening. Written by Tom Murphy Related article: Quantum chemistry Project Gallery

A basic outline Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An introduction to stem cells and their transformative potential 09/07/25, 10:48 Last updated: Published: 06/09/24, 11:28 A basic outline This is Article 1 in a three-part series on stem cells. Next article: The role of mesenchymal stem cells . Welcome to the first article in a series of three articles about stem cells, where I will introduce stem cells and how they differentiate. Stem cells are a remarkable type of cells that can become other types. They are divided into two main categories: adult stem cells (ASCs) and pluripotent stem cells. ASCs can differentiate into cells of specific tissues and organs. Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into all cells in the human body and can further be split into embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). ASCs are also known as non-embryonic or somatic stem cells, referring to cells that come from non-reproductive cells, not egg or sperm cells. Some examples of ASCs include mesenchymal cells, epithelial cells and skin cells. These cells are mainly used to replace and repair dead or damaged tissues and organs damaged by disease, injury or ageing. They may stay non-dividing (quiescent) but promptly differentiate in different cell types when needed. ESCs do not come from fertilised eggs but rather from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst. A blastocyst is a group of dividing cells originating from a fertilised egg 3-5 days after fertilisation. After scientists have received informed consent, the cells are fertilised in vitro, outside a living organism, such as in a laboratory. iPSCs are created in a laboratory by mixing ASCs and ESCs. Scientists generate them by transcription-factor transduction, a type of nuclear reprogramming. Nuclear reprogramming and stem cell differentiation Nuclear reprogramming is when the nucleus of a cell is introduced into the cytoplasm of a new cell. The transfer results in changes in gene expression. In 2010, scientists Shinya Yamanaka and Helen M. Blau published a review of three alternative approaches in nuclear reprogramming to restore a cell's pluripotent state: nuclear transfer, cell fusion and transcription-factor transduction. Nuclear transfer involves moving the nucleus from a specialised cell into an egg cell with no nucleus. This can be done with oocytes or fertilised eggs during specific cell cycle phases. The reprogramming factors in the egg cell activate genes in the transferred nucleus, causing the nucleus to express genes typical of embryonic stem cells. Through this process, a specialised cell can adopt the characteristics of embryonic stem cells and potentially develop into any cell type in the body. Cell fusion is when two different cells merge to form a single hybrid cell. During cell fusion, the membranes of the two cells join, allowing their contents to mix. This merging of cells can lead to combining genetic material and cellular components from both cells. Transcription-factor transduction involves introducing specific genes called transcription factors ( Oct4 , Sox2 , Klf4 and c- Myc ) into adult cells to reprogram them into iPSCs. Conclusion Stem cells have a huge potential in medicine and research due to the different types having different functions. While the process of nuclear reprogramming does pose some challenges, such as the difficulty in ensuring that reprogrammed cells are safe and don't develop into tumours, ultimately, a better understanding of the mechanisms behind this process will allow scientists to leverage the potential of these cells, allowing them to be used in regenerative medicine. Watch out for the next article in the series, where I will discuss the role of stem cells in regenerative medicine! Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Vertebral stem cells and tumour metastasis / iPSCs and organoids Project Gallery

When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why bacteria are essential for human survival Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 13/04/23 When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. One reason for this is due to the critical role bacteria play in inducing the immune system against pathogenic threats. Upon viral infection, the interferon (IFN) defence system is initiated where the synthesis of antiviral cytokines is upregulated. Evidence suggests bacteria in the gut are capable of modulating the IFN system. They work by inducing macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells to express type 1 IFN, which in turn primes natural killer cells and prepares cytotoxic CD8+ T cells for action. Erttmann et al (2022) demonstrate that a depletion of the gut microbiota diminishes the cell signalling pathways modulated by these commensal bacteria. This causes a reduction in type 1 IFN production, and thus an impairment in the activation of NK and CD8+ T cells. As a result, the body becomes more susceptible to attack by viral infections and less able to defend itself. This highlights just how vital the role bacteria in our microbiome play in providing us with innate immunity against viral pathogens and protecting our health. This also brings attention to our use of antibiotics, and the potential negative effects they may have on the commensal bacteria residing in our body. Erttmann et al (2022) further showed that mice treated with a variety of antibiotics exhibited a major reduction in gut microbiota diversity, thus severely comprising their ability to fight off viral infections. Research like this is important in informing doctors to be sensible in their administration of antibiotics, as well as informing patients to not self-medicate and unnecessarily ingest antibiotics. Ultimately, the commensal bacteria living in our bodies play essential roles in protecting human health, and it is, therefore, vital we take the necessary steps to also protect these remarkable microorganisms in return. Written by Bisma Butt Related article: The rising threat of antibiotic resistance REFERENCES Erttmann, S.F., Swacha, P., Aung, K.M., Brindefalk, B., Jiang, H., Härtlova, A., Uhlin, B.E., Wai, S.N. and Gekara, N.O., 2022. The gut microbiota prime systemic antiviral immunity via the cGAS-STING-IFN-I axis. Immunity, 55(5), pp.847-861. Ganal, S.C., Sanos, S.L., Kallfass, C., Oberle, K., Johner, C., Kirschning, C., Lienenklaus, S., Weiss, S., Staeheli, P., Aichele, P. and Diefenbach, A., 2012. Priming of natural killer cells by nonmucosal mononuclear phagocytes requires instructive signals from commensal microbiota. Immunity, 37(1), pp.171-186.

Chemistry is such a diverse science branching into many industries and its understanding is fundamental in unlocking solutions to overcome diseases, viruses and infections. The science has a central application in the pharmaceutical drug manufacturing process. In medicine, Chemistry helps understand diseases and medical samples through the various analytical and instrumental methods – which in turn aids medical research and the development and discovery of drugs. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The role of chemistry in medicine Last updated: 17/11/24 Published: 13/04/23 Chemistry is such a diverse science branching into many industries and its understanding is fundamental in unlocking solutions to overcome diseases, viruses and infections. The science has a central application in the pharmaceutical drug manufacturing process. In medicine, chemistry helps understand diseases and medical samples through the various analytical and instrumental methods – which in turn aids medical research and the development and discovery of drugs. Chemical synthesis has allowed scientists to synthesise new compounds which can be used to treat a range of diseases and medical conditions. The study and knowledge of chemistry is very essential for professionals involved in the healthcare sector including doctors and nurses. The fact is that it cannot be denied that chemistry plays a dominant role in the day-to-day life of a healthcare professional. With the help of chemistry alongside biochemistry and biology, diseases and disorders can be easily diagnosed. The knowledge of chemistry has allowed for the understanding of the science behind pregnancy tests and COVID-19 PCR tests using UV-VIS Spectroscopy. Chemistry also plays a key role in the development of new medical technologies, such as diagnostic tools and imaging equipment. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) relies on principles of chemistry and is an application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), an analytical tool for chemists found in laboratories. The technique uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of organs and body tissues. The scan uses contrast agents using elements iron and gadolinium to enhance the clarity of images. Overall, chemistry is an essential discipline for advancing our understanding of health and disease, and for developing new treatments and technologies to improve human health. Interesting fact: vaccines for rabies and anthrax were discovered by Louis Pasteur – a famous chemist. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: AI in medicinal chemistry / The role of chemistry in space