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Tiny solutions for big health problems Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nanomedicine 17/07/25, 10:52 Last updated: Published: 17/01/24, 00:07 Tiny solutions for big health problems As the landscape of the healthcare field expands, new advances are coming forth, and one such area of interest is nanomedicine. Existing on a miniature scale called nanometres, nanomedicine and technology provide a revolutionary solution to many modern-day problems faced by the scientific community. Through this article, we’ll aim to explore what exactly nanomedicine is, its importance, its use in medicine, as well as its limitations and future prospects. The nanoscale When mentioning nanomedicine or nanotechnology, we refer to materials and particles existing on the nanoscale. This lies between 1-100 nanometres. For reference, human hair is 80,000-100,000 nanometres wide, so comparatively, the technology is much smaller. Although the technology may seem small, its impact is far too significant to be discredited. Due to their smaller size, the nanoparticles hold several advantages, making them useful in biomedicine, these include providing greater surface area for molecular interactions in the body, and they are much easier to manipulate, allowing for greater control and precision in terms of diagnostics and medicine delivery (Figure 1). Cancer drug delivery systems Nanotechnology in the field of medicine is being widely used and tested with regards to its application as a drug delivery system. More recently, it’s being investigated for its increased precision in delivering anti-cancer drugs to patients. Nanotechnology enables precise drug delivery through the construction of nanoscale infrastructures called nanoparticles. These can be filled with anti-cancer drug treatments, and their outer structure can be further designed to include elements which target folate receptors, such as folic acid (B9 vitamin), thus increasing their affinity for specific receptors in the body. Folate receptors tend to be overexpressed on the surface of many cancers, including pancreas, breast, and lung. So, by increasing selectivity and targeting only the cells which overexpress these receptors, the nanoparticles can deliver chemotherapy drugs with increased precision. This increased accuracy results in decreased cellular toxicity to surrounding non-cancerous tissues whilst also reducing side effects. In current experiments, lipid nanoparticles loaded with the anti-cancer drug edelfosine were tested on mice with mantle cell cancer. Lipid nanoparticles offer several advantages as a drug delivery system, including biocompatibility, greater physical stability, increased tolerability, and controlled release of the encapsulated drug. Lipid nanoparticles are also advantageous for their ability to be size specific to a tumour. In the study, in vivo experimentation using mice that contained mantle cell lymphoma was used, and they were administered 30mg/kg of the encapsulated drug. After administering the edelfosine loaded nanoparticles every 4 days, it was found that the process of metastasis had been removed; this means that cancer cells could not spread to other parts of the body. Additionally, it was also found that because of the way the nanoparticles were absorbed into the lymphatic system, they could accumulate in the thoracic duct providing precise and slow release of the drug over time, thus preventing metastasis (Figure 2). Imaging and diagnostics Another area of use for nanotechnology includes imaging and diagnostics. This area of expertise is regarded as theranostics, which involves using nanoparticles as detectors to help locate the area of the body affected by a disease, such as the location of a tumour, and aid in diagnosing illnesses. With regards to diagnostics, nanoparticles can also help identify what stage of the disease is being observed as well as enable us to garner more information to form a concrete treatment programme for the patient, thus providing a personalised touch to their care. Nanomaterials can be used to engineer different types of nanoparticles, which can enhance contrast on CT and MRI scans so that diseases can be detected more easily by being more visible when compared to traditional scans. In collaboration with Belcher et al., Bardhan worked to collectively develop different formulations of polymers that would be most effective in imagining and detecting cancers earlier. In the figure below, a nanoparticle made of a core shell was used for imaging. It comprises a yellow polymer with a red fluorescent dye to increase imagining contrast of the area and a blue lanthanide nanoparticle. When the lanthanide particles are excited by a light source, fluorescence in the near infrared range (NIR-II) is emitted, allowing for clear contrast and imaging. This can be seen in the figure below. From the colours involved, the tumour being imaged could be investigated more thoroughly in how it was distributed and learn more about its microenvironment in a mouse affected by ovarian cancer (Figure 3). Nanobots In recent times, new investment in the form of nanorobots has been made apparent. Nanorobots are nanoelectromechanical systems whose size is very similar to human organelles and cells, so there are a variety of ways they could be helpful in healthcare, such as in the field of surgery. Traditionally, surgical tools can be limited to work on a small scale. However, with nanorobots, it can be possible to access areas unreachable to surgical tools and catheters whilst also reducing recovery time and infection risk, as well as granting greater control and accuracy over the surgery. In a study conducted by Chen et al. (2020), the researchers manipulated magnetotactic bacterial microrobots to kill a bacteria known as Staphylococcus aureus enabled by magnetic fields to target them. Using a microfluidic chip, the microrobots were guided to the target site and then were programmed to attach themselves to the bacteria. Once connected, the viability of the bacteria was reduced due to the swinging magnetic fields generated by the device. Although this research is promising, further research must be conducted to understand the compatibility of these nanotechnologies with the human body and any implications they may have in side effects (Figure 4). Challenges and safety concerns From the evidence explored above, it is evident that nanotechnology holds much promise in the field of healthcare. However, they are not without their challenges and resignations when introducing their use to human bodies. The human body is incredibly complex, and therefore the complete biocompatibility of nanoparticles, particularly nanobots, is currently under-researched and under reviewed. To extensively use them, it is vital first to understand how safe they are and their efficacy in treatment and diagnosis. Below is a summary of some of the advantages and disadvantages of these nanotechnologies (Figure 5). The future of nanotechnology in biomedicine In conclusion, nanotechnology indicates an extensive and optimistic field at the forefront of changing medical care from diagnosis to treatment. It has the potential to answer many pressing questions in healthcare including decreasing cytotoxicity via a precise drug delivery system, increased accuracy in diagnosis, and possibly becoming a novel tool in surgery. Although it is imperative for there to be new and evolved techniques to increase the quality of care for patients, it is vital not to rush and to be thorough in our approach. This involves undergoing further research, including conducting clinical trials when investigating the use of nanotechnology inside the human body; this will test for tissue compatibility, side effects, efficacy, and even dosage when using nanoparticles for drug delivery. In summary, the transformative role of nanomedicine is undeniable. It offers a path to a more personalised and precise healthcare system, allowing researchers to reshape treatment, diagnosis, and patient well-being, though its limitations are yet to be overcome. Written by Irha Khalid Related articles: Nanoparticles: the future of diabetes treatment? / Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Nanoparticles and plant disease / Nanogels / Nanocarriers Project Gallery

The web of geopolitics surrounding the Rohingyas, and how this impacts their health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Addressing the health landscape of Bangladesh’s Rohingya community Last updated: 16/10/25, 10:19 Published: 18/09/25, 07:00 The web of geopolitics surrounding the Rohingyas, and how this impacts their health This is article no. 6 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir. Next article: A deep, critical reflection . Introduction Welcome to the sixth article of the Global Health Injustices Series, a collaboration with Nasif Mahmood . This article focuses on the ongoing injustices and health issues affecting the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. This community leads a vulnerable life and suffering that it is becoming one of the most significant South Asian crises in the 21st century. Due to Bangladesh's inadequate resources and geopolitical situation, the overall health and well-being of the country and the migratory population are severely hampered. A brief history of Bangladesh and the Rohingya population Bangladesh's history is intricate and has been influenced by many cultures. After India was divided in 1947, the area, previously part of ancient Bengal, was ruled by the British and became East Pakistan. Demands for autonomy resulted from tensions between West and East Pakistan. The Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, culminating in these tensions, led to the country's independence. Bangladesh has made great strides in education, health, and economic growth since gaining its autonomy, despite facing economic hardship, political turmoil, and natural disasters. Rohingya, the Muslim ethnic minority from the state of Rakhine, were denied citizenship by the Myanmar Government, leaving them homeless. They endured years of persecution, discrimination, and violence. In 2017, an inhuman, violent crackdown by the military of the Myanmar government forced over 70,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh. Over 1 million refugees live in Bangladesh, primarily in the Cox Bazar area. A lot of refugees cause overcrowding situations, and limited resources lead to a high rate of nutritional problems and spread of disease, specifically infectious diseases and mental health disorders in the refugee camp. Connecting geopolitics and health: impacts on the Rohingya population The Rohingya crisis is more than just a humanitarian issue; it is a tangled web of geopolitical challenges. The Myanmar government’s ongoing refusal to grant citizenship and fundamental rights to the Rohingya people not only deepens their suffering but also fuels instability in the region. They have not taken the necessary steps to ensure their safety, leaving the crisis unresolved. As refugees continue to pour into neighbouring countries, tensions have escalated, placing a heavy burden on host nations like Bangladesh. This crisis worsens existing socio-economic problems and stretches resources thin in areas struggling to care for their citizens. The international community has responded in various ways; some countries are pushing for tougher sanctions against Myanmar, while others are focused on delivering aid to those affected. However, the underlying issues driving this crisis will unlikely be resolved without a coordinated and sustained political effort ( Table 1, Figure 1 ). Addressing them can lead to improved outcomes for the Rohinyga population. On top of that, the health challenges faced by the Rohingya people go beyond just infectious diseases. The lack of access to essential health services has not only worsened physical health problems but has also led to a growing mental health crisis. Many Rohingya individuals are grappling with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression stemming from their traumatic experiences of violence, loss, trauma, isolation, and forced displacement. Yet, mental health services in the refugee camps are severely lacking. A study showed that the prevalence of emotional and behavioural disorders is high among forcefully migrated refugee children, because of traumatic exposure like the unexpected death of parents, forceful displacement, and the witnessing of family violence and abuse. The stigma surrounding mental health in many cultures, including in the Rohingya community, creates additional hurdles for those seeking help. Enhancing access to mental health support is crucial, not just for the immediate well-being of the refugees, but also for their long-term healing and successful integration into the societies that host them. Moreover, providing humanitarian aid and hosting such a large population in Bangladesh is becoming difficult. The national and international NGOs maintain healthcare for the Rohingya population. However, the funding shortage and inadequate infrastructure hinder the provision of adequate medical services. For this reason, the refugee camps have reported significant outbreaks of diphtheria, cholera, and COVID-19. Given the challenges, developing innovative solutions and working collaboratively on a global or regional scale is needed. By empowering local health workers and training them to offer basic healthcare and mental health support, to close the service delivery gaps. Additionally, building partnerships among NGOs, governments, and international organisations can help ensure that resources are allocated more effectively and that comprehensive health programs are created to meet the unique needs of the Rohingya population. It's crucial to engage the community; by listening to the voices and experiences of the Rohingya, we can develop interventions that truly respect their dignity and cultural context. Additionally, raising global awareness about the struggles faced by the Rohingya can lead to stronger advocacy efforts. Involving the media, educational institutions, and civil society can foster a deeper understanding of the interconnected issues of geopolitics and health. Initiatives that share personal stories and experiences can rally public support and drive meaningful change. Ultimately, tackling the Rohingya crisis calls for a multifaceted approach that blends immediate humanitarian aid with long-term strategies aimed at ending their statelessness and ensuring their rights as human beings are upheld and protected. Recommendations from NGOs National NGOs: Several national NGOs play an essential role in supporting the healthcare needs of the Rohingya population: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), one of the world's largest NGOs, provides comprehensive health care services, including maternal and child health, immunisation programmes, disease prevention initiatives, and arranges many health campaigns for refugees. Gonoshasthaya Kendra established a field hospital and free clinic in the Cox Bazar area near the refugee camp, focusing on primary health care and emergency medical support. International NGOs MedGlobal, an international NGO, responds to this global crisis by delivering medical assistance within the refugee camp. Support hospitals and clinics for affected refugees between 2017 and 2019. This organisation's volunteers contributed over 17,000 hours of aid, assisting more than 80,000 individuals. Medair is another international NGO offering health and nutritional support to the Rohingya refugees. Migrant Offshore Aid focuses on sea rescue operations and delivering medical aid and assistance to surfers. Together, these national and international organisations make meaningful contributions to the healthcare needs of the Rohingya population, handling both immediate medical concerns and long-term health support in a challenging environment. Their collaborative efforts help ensure that essential services reach those in critical need, facilitating better health outcomes for refugees. Although they address the healthcare needs of the Rohingya, several challenges can limit their effectiveness. For example, coordination issues may lead to overlapping efforts or service gaps, resulting in inequitable and unequal healthcare access. Also, limited resources and funding can slow extensive long-term support, leaving specific medical needs unaddressed. Additionally, the intricate political and social conditions restrict these organisations' capacity to operate effectively, impacting immediate care and sustainable health initiatives for the Rohingya population. Moving forward, it is crucial for host countries to: finance extra healthcare facilities in refugee camps to enhance access and reduce diseases, launch culturally appropriate mental health initiatives with locally trained workers to decrease stigma and provide community-based support, integrate nutrition programmes to address different forms of malnutrition in vulnerable communities and encourage further international support to maintain health initiatives among the Rohingya population. Conclusion The Rohingya crisis is an example of global health injustice exacerbated by geopolitical and humanitarian challenges. At the same time, Bangladesh is trying to provide temporary shelter for the refugees to minimise the crisis. However, this crisis also requires international cooperation, policy support, and increased funding. Solving this issue is essential for global public health and human rights. Notably, finding sustainable solutions will help the Rohingya people recover and thrive, and enhance stability and security in the region. Their future goes beyond humanitarian aid; it is about upholding inclusion, justice, and respect for human dignity, which should guide all efforts to link geopolitics with health outcomes. To truly tackle the health issues faced by the Rohingya community, we need to take a comprehensive approach that looks at the political, social, and economic factors at play. By adopting such all-encompassing systems, we can work towards a brighter and fairer future for the Rohingya community and other vulnerable groups around the globe who are facing similar challenges. The next article will be the final one reflecting on everything discussed in this series. Written by Nasif Mahmood and Sam Jarada Related articles: Health and well-being in- Palestine , Kashmir / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health REFERENCES Tinker HR. History of Bangladesh | Events, People, Dates, & Facts [Internet]. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023 [cited 2025 Jul 15]. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Bangladesh Rahman MM, Bhuiyan MR, Ali MZ, Rahman MS, Hossain MA. Insecurity feelings and mental health status of Rohingya orphan children in BangladeshResearchGate; 2021 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348521935_Insecurity_Feelings_and_Mental_Health_Status_of_Rohingya_Orphan_Children_in_Bangladesh UNHCR. Rohingya refugee crisis – Bangladesh. 2023. https://www.unhcr.org International Crisis Group (ICG). The health crisis in Rohingya refugee camps. 2022. https://www.crisisgroup.org Tay AK, Riley A, Islam R, Welton-Mitchell C, Duchesne B, Waters V, et al. The culture, mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of Rohingya refugees: a systematic review. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences [Internet]. 2019 Apr 22 [cited 2025 Sep 10];28(5):489–94. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6998923/ Human Rights Watch. The plight of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. 2023. https://www.hrw.org . Nivedita Sudheer, Banerjee D. The Rohingya refugees: a conceptual framework of their psychosocial adversities, cultural idioms of distress and social suffering. Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Sep 10];8. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/global-mental-health/article/rohingya-refugees-a-conceptual-framework-of-their-psychosocial-adversities-cultural-idioms-of-distress-and-social-suffering/F4D229807D4ED7667EA16195FDF5C787 World Health Organization (WHO). Health challenges in Rohingya refugee camps. 2022. https://www.who.int Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). Medical response in Rohingya refugee settlements. 2022. https://www.msf.org Project Gallery

Brush up on your mathematical knowledge with informative articles ranging from statistics and topology, to latent space transformations and Markov chain models. Maths Articles Brush up on your mathematical knowledge with informative articles ranging from statistics and topology, to latent space transformations and Markov chain models. You may also like: Economics , Physics , Engineering and Technology Unlocking the power of statistics What statistics are and its importance Latent spac e transformations Their hidden power in machine learning Topology In action Teaching maths How we can apply maths in our lives How to excel in maths A useful resource for students studying the subject Cognitive decision-making The maths involved Cross-curricular maths The game of life The maths behind trading A comprehensive guide to the Relative Strength Index (RSI) Markov chain models Named after the Russian mathematician, Andrei Markov, who had first studied them Proving causation Investigating why correlation doesn't necessarily mean causation, via Randomised Controlled Trials and Instrumental Variables

Why the fuss over a couple of km/s/Mpc? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hubble Tension 09/07/25, 14:20 Last updated: Published: 25/11/23, 11:10 Why the fuss over a couple of km/s/Mpc? You have probably heard that the universe is expanding, and perhaps even that this expansion is accelerating. A consequent observation of this is that distant objects such as galaxies appear to recede from Earth faster if they are further away. Here is a helpful analogy: imagine a loaf of raisin bread that is rising as it is baked. A pair of raisins on opposite sides of the loaf will move away from one another at a greater rate than a pair of raisins near the center. The more dough (universe) there is between a pair of raisins (galaxies), the faster they recede from one another. See Figure 1 . This phenomenon is encapsulated in Hubble’s Law, which relates specifically to the recessional velocity due to the expansion of space. Hubble’s Law is given by the equation v = H0 D . Where: v is the recessional velocity D is the distance to the receding object H0 is the Hubble constant It is worth noting that distant objects will often have velocities of their own due to gravitational forces - so-called ‘peculiar velocities’. In order to clarify the meaning of the title of this article, we must explore the unit in which the Hubble constant H0 is most often quoted: km/s/Mpc. This describes the speed (in kilometers per second) at which a distant object, such as a galaxy, is receding for every megaparsec of distance that galaxy is from Earth. Edwin Hubble is the name most often associated with this cosmological paradigm shift; however, physicists Alexander Friedmann and Georges Lemaître worked independently on the notion of an expanding universe, deriving similar results before Hubble verified them experimentally in 1929 at the Mount Wilson Observatory, California. What is the Hubble Tension? Hopefully the above discussion of units and raisin bread convinced you that the Hubble constant H0 is linked to the expansion rate of the universe. The larger H0 is, the faster galaxies are receding at a given distance, thus indicating a more quickly expanding universe. Therefore, cosmologists wish to accurately measure H0 in order to draw conclusions about the age and size of the universe. The Hubble Tension arises from the contradicting measurements of H0 obtained from different experiments. See Figure 2 of Edwin Hubble. CMB measurement One of these experiments uses the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), which can be thought of as an afterglow of light from near the time of the Big Bang. The wavelength of this light has expanded with the universe ever since the period of recombination - which I mentioned in my previous article on the DESI instrument. Our current best model of the universe, called ΛCDM, can describe how the universe evolved from a hot, dense state to the universe we see today, subject to a specifically balanced energy budget between ordinary matter, dark matter, and dark energy. From fitting this ΛCDM model to CMB data from missions such as ESA’s Planck Mission, one can derive a value for the expansion rate of the universe, i.e., a value for H0 . The Planck Mission measured temperature variations (anisotropies) across the CMB with unprecedented angular resolution and sensitivity. The most recent estimate for the Hubble constant using this method gave H0 = 67.4 ± 0.5 km/s/Mpc . Local Distance Ladder measurement Another technique to determine the value of H0 uses the distance-redshift relation. This is a wholly observational approach. It relies on the fact that the faster an object recedes from Earth, the more the light from that object is shifted towards longer wavelengths (redshifted). Hubble’s Law relates this recessional velocity to a distance; therefore, one can expect a similar relation between distance and redshift. A ‘ladder’ is invoked since astronomers wish to use objects that are visible from a vast range of distances; the rungs of the ladder represent greater and greater distances to the astronomical light source. Each rung of the ladder contains a different kind of ‘standard candle’, which are sources with reliable, well-constrained luminosities that translate to an accurate distance from Earth. I encourage you to look into these different types; some examples are Cepheid variables, Type Ia Supernovae, and RR Lyrae variables. When this method was employed using the Hubble Space Telescope and SH0ES (Supernova H0 for the Equation of State), a value of H0 = 73.04 ± 1.04 km/s/Mpc was obtained. The disagreement Clearly, these two values for the Hubble constant do not agree, nor do their uncertainty ranges overlap. Figure 3 shows some of the 21st-century measurements of H0 ; an excellent illustration of how the uncertainty has decreased for both methods, therefore making their disagreement more statistically significant. Many sources of scientific engagement with the public cite this disagreement as the ‘Crisis in Cosmology!’. In the author’s opinion, this is unnecessarily hyperbolic and plays on the human instinct to pick a side between two opposing viewpoints. In fact, new methods to measure H0 have been implemented using the tip of the Red-Giant branch (TRGB) as a standard candle, which demonstrate closer agreement with the value derived from the CMB. Some cosmologists believe that eventually this Hubble Tension will dissipate as our calibration of astronomical distances improves with the next generation of telescopes. Constraining the value of the Hubble constant is by no means low-hanging fruit for cosmologists, nor is the field in crisis. To see the progress we have made, one has to look back in time to 1929 when Edwin Hubble’s first estimate using a trend line and 46 galaxies gave H0 = 500 km/s/Mpc ! We must remain hopeful that the future holds a consistent approximation for the expansion rate and, with it, the age of our universe. Written by Joseph Brennan Project Gallery

Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101 29/04/25, 16:10 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 11:32 Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Epilepsy is a condition that affects millions of people worldwide, often causing unprovoked seizures due to irregular brain activity. But what exactly happens in the brain when someone has epilepsy? It is important to establish that not everyone with seizures has epilepsy. While epilepsy can start at any age, it often begins in childhood, or in people over the age of 60. Epilepsy can be due to genetic factors - 1 in 3 people with epilepsy have family history- or brain damage from causes like stroke, infection, severe head injury or a brain tumour. However, around half of epilepsy cases have an unknown cause. Now, imagine your brain as a big city with lots of lights. Each light represents a part of your brain that controls things like movement, feelings, and thoughts. Epilepsy is like when the lights in the city start flickering or shut completely. There are three main types of epilepsy, and each affects the lights in different ways: 1) Generalized epilepsy: when all the lights in the city flicker or go out at once, affecting the whole brain. There are two main kinds: Generalized Motor (Grand Mal) Seizures: Imagine the lights in the city going wild, making everything shake. This is like the shaking or jerking movements during myoclonic or tonic-clonic seizures. Generalized Non-Motor (Absence) Seizures: Picture the lights suddenly pausing, making everything freeze. During these seizures, a person might stare into space or make small, repeated movements, like lip-smacking. 2) Focal epilepsy: when only the lights in one part of the city flicker or go out. This means only one part of the brain is affected: Focal Aware Seizures: The lights flicker, but people in that part of the city know what’s happening. The person stays aware during the seizure. Focal Impaired Awareness Seizures: The lights flicker, and people lose track of what’s going on. The person might not remember the seizure. Focal Motor Seizures: Some lights flicker, causing strange movements, like twitching, rubbing hands, or walking around. Focal Non-Motor Seizures: The lights stay on, but everything feels strange, like sudden change in mood or temperature. The person might feel odd sensations without moving in unusual ways. 3) ‘Unknown’ epilepsy: ‘Unknown’ epilepsy is like a power outage where no one knows where it happened because the person was alone or asleep during the seizure. Doctors might later figure out if it's more like generalized or focal epilepsy. Some people can even have both types. But how do doctors find out if someone has epilepsy? A range of tests could be used to look at the brain’s activity and structure, including: Electroencephalogram (EEG): detects abnormal electrical activities in the brain using electrodes. This procedure can be utilised in Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG), a more invasive method where the electrodes are placed directly on or within the brain to locate the abnormal electrical activities more precisely. Computerized Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): form images of the brain to detect abnormal brain structures such as brain scarring, tumours or damage that may cause seizures. Blood tests: test for genetic or metabolic disorders, or health conditions such as anaemia, infections or diabetes that can trigger seizures. Magnetoencephalogram (MEG): measures magnetic signals generated by nerve cells to identify the specific area where seizures are starting, to diagnose focal epilepsy. Positron emission tomography (PET): detects biochemical changes in the brain, detecting regions of the brain with lower-than-normal metabolism linked to seizures. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): identifies seizure focus by measuring changes in blood flow in the brain during or between seizures, using a tracer injected into the patient. The seizure focus in this scan is seen by an increase in blood flow to that region. So, how does epilepsy affect the brain? For most people, especially those with infrequent or primarily generalised seizures, cognitive issues are less likely compared to those with focal seizures, particularly in the temporal lobe. The following cognitive functions can be affected: Memory : seizures can disrupt the hippocampus in the temporal lobe, responsible for storing and receiving new information. This can lead to difficulties in remembering words, concepts, names and other information. Language : seizures can affect areas of the brain responsible for speaking, understanding and storing words, which can lead to difficulties in finding familiar words. Executive function: seizures can impact the frontal lobe of the brain which is responsible for planning, decision making and social behaviour, leading to challenges in interacting, organising thoughts and controlling unwanted behaviour. While epilepsy itself cannot be cured, treatments exist to control seizures including: Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDs): suppress the brain’s ability of sending abnormal electrical signals - effective in 70% of patients. Diet: ketogenic diets can reduce seizures in some medication- resistant epilepsies and in children as they alter the chemical activity in the brain. Surgery: 1) Resective Surgery: removal of the part of the brain causing the seizures, such as temporal lobe resection, mainly for focal epilepsy. 2) Disconnective Surgery: cutting the connections between the nerves through which the seizure signals travel in the brain, such as in corpus callosotomy, mainly for generalised epilepsy. 3) Neurostimulation device implantation (NDI): insertion of devices in the body to control seizures by stimulating brain regions to control the electrical impulses causing the seizures. This includes vagus nerve stimulation and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS). Even though epilepsy can be challenging, many people manage it successfully with the right treatment. Continued research offers hope for even better, long lasting treatments in the future. Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Different types of epilepsy seizures / Alzheimer's disease / Parkinson's disease / Autism REFERENCES D’Arrigo, T. (n.d.). What Are the Types of Epilepsy? [online] WebMD. Available at: https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/types-epilepsy [Accessed 5 Aug. 2024]. Epilepsy Foundation. (n.d.). Thinking and Memory. [online] Available at: https://www.epilepsy.com/complications-risks/thinking-and-memory [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. GOSH Hospital site. (n.d.). Invasive EEG monitoring. [online] Available at: https://www.gosh.nhs.uk/conditions-and-treatments/procedures-and- treatments/invasive-monitoring/ [Accessed 9 Aug. 2024]. My Epilepsy Team.com. (2016). Epilepsy: What People Don’t See (Infographic) | MyEpilepsyTeam. [online] Available at: https://www.myepilepsyteam.com/resources/epilepsy-what-people-dont-see- infographic [Accessed 29 Aug. 2024]. National institute of Neurological Disorders and stroke (2023). Epilepsy and Seizures | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. [online] www.ninds.nih.gov . Available at: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health- information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. NHS (2020). Epilepsy. [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/ [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. Project Gallery

When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why bacteria are essential for human survival Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 13/04/23 When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. One reason for this is due to the critical role bacteria play in inducing the immune system against pathogenic threats. Upon viral infection, the interferon (IFN) defence system is initiated where the synthesis of antiviral cytokines is upregulated. Evidence suggests bacteria in the gut are capable of modulating the IFN system. They work by inducing macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells to express type 1 IFN, which in turn primes natural killer cells and prepares cytotoxic CD8+ T cells for action. Erttmann et al (2022) demonstrate that a depletion of the gut microbiota diminishes the cell signalling pathways modulated by these commensal bacteria. This causes a reduction in type 1 IFN production, and thus an impairment in the activation of NK and CD8+ T cells. As a result, the body becomes more susceptible to attack by viral infections and less able to defend itself. This highlights just how vital the role bacteria in our microbiome play in providing us with innate immunity against viral pathogens and protecting our health. This also brings attention to our use of antibiotics, and the potential negative effects they may have on the commensal bacteria residing in our body. Erttmann et al (2022) further showed that mice treated with a variety of antibiotics exhibited a major reduction in gut microbiota diversity, thus severely comprising their ability to fight off viral infections. Research like this is important in informing doctors to be sensible in their administration of antibiotics, as well as informing patients to not self-medicate and unnecessarily ingest antibiotics. Ultimately, the commensal bacteria living in our bodies play essential roles in protecting human health, and it is, therefore, vital we take the necessary steps to also protect these remarkable microorganisms in return. Written by Bisma Butt Related article: The rising threat of antibiotic resistance REFERENCES Erttmann, S.F., Swacha, P., Aung, K.M., Brindefalk, B., Jiang, H., Härtlova, A., Uhlin, B.E., Wai, S.N. and Gekara, N.O., 2022. The gut microbiota prime systemic antiviral immunity via the cGAS-STING-IFN-I axis. Immunity, 55(5), pp.847-861. Ganal, S.C., Sanos, S.L., Kallfass, C., Oberle, K., Johner, C., Kirschning, C., Lienenklaus, S., Weiss, S., Staeheli, P., Aichele, P. and Diefenbach, A., 2012. Priming of natural killer cells by nonmucosal mononuclear phagocytes requires instructive signals from commensal microbiota. Immunity, 37(1), pp.171-186.

A disease of the blood Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anaemia 09/07/25, 10:48 Last updated: Published: 17/06/23, 12:40 A disease of the blood This is article no. 1 in a series about anaemia. Next article: iron-deficiency anaemia Introduction Erythrocytes in their typical state are a biconcave and nucleus free cell responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. The production is controlled by erythropoietin and as they mature in the bone marrow, they lose their nuclei. These red blood cells (RBC) contain haemoglobin, which aids in the transport of oxygen and iron, iron is a key component of haem, insufficient levels of iron leads to anaemic disorders. Low oxygen-carrying capacity may be defined by too few RBC in circulation or RBC dysfunction. Haem iron is acquired through the digestion of meat and transported through enterocytes of the duodenum, in its soluble form. Erythrocytic iron accounts for approximately 50% of the iron in blood. Metals cannot move freely throughout the body so they must be transported, the molecule involved in transporting iron is known as transferrin. Plasma transferrin saturation refers to the iron that is attached to transferrin, in iron deficient anaemia (IDA) this will always be low. Anaemia is physiological or pathological, these changes can be due to a plethora of causes; malabsorption due to diet or gastrointestinal (GI) conditions, genetic dispositions such as sideroblastic anaemias (SA), thalassaemia, or deficiency in erythropoietin due to comorbidities and chronic disease; where haemolysis is caused by autoimmune disorders, infections and drugs, or blood loss. Haem The iron is in a protoporphyrin ring at the centre of a haem molecule. The structure of haem consists of two alpha and two beta polypeptide chains to form a single haemoglobin macromolecule. Microcytic anaemias arise from problems in the creation of haemoglobin; sourcing through diet (IDA), synthesising protoporphyrin (SA) or from globin chain defects caused by thalassaemia. Summary Anaemia is a multifactorial condition with many different mechanisms involved, microcytic anaemias have an issue at the haemoglobin level, these can be acquired or inherited. A microcytic anaemia is caused by a failure to efficiently synthesise haemoglobin, whether from iron, protoporphyrin rings or globin chains. The diagnosis of anaemias is reliant on a patient’s background and medical history, as there are many factors involved in an anaemic disorder. A diagnosis should be patient led, as the age and sex of the patient can significantly highlight the origin and pathogenesis, as well as the prognosis and follow up care. Written by Lauren Kelly Related article: Blood Project Gallery

The future of targeted cancer therapeutics Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Bioorthogonal Chemistry 04/02/25, 15:42 Last updated: Published: 01/09/24, 10:47 The future of targeted cancer therapeutics ‘Bioorthogonal chemistry’ is a term coined in 2003 by American Chemist & 2022 Nobel Prize Laureate Carolyn Bertozzi. It encompasses a set of chemical reactions which can occur within biological environments, whilst exerting minimal effect on native biomolecules or interference with native biochemical processes of the host organism - these reactions exist ‘orthogonal’ (perpendicular) to biology. Key functional groups in Bioorthogonal Chemistry include the alkynes (carbon-carbon triple bonds) and the azides (⁻N=N⁺=N⁻) . The azides are particularly bioorthogonal due to their minute size (which is favourable for cell permeability and avoiding ‘perturbations’ - the alteration of a function of a biological system), metabolic stability, and how, as they don’t naturally exist in cells, they have no competing biological side reactions. Past & present uses of bioorthogonal chemistry include: ● Vehicle airbags: Modern vehicle airbags contain sodium azide (NaN₃), a shock sensitive, explosive compound. When a vehicle’s crash sensor is triggered, an electrical charge is administered which starts the chemical reaction, inflating the air bag with harmless nitrogen gas (2NaN₃ → 2Na + 3N₂). This reaction can occur in as quickly as 0.03 seconds! ● Early HIV treatment: Azidothymidine - AZT - (Fig. 1) was the first drug used to treat HIV infection. For viruses to replicate, they use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert their single-stranded RNA genome to double-stranded DNA in a process termed reverse transcription. When this antiretroviral medicine is used, instead of the virus transcribing thymidine, it instead transcribes the AZT, which contains an azide Group, thus stalling DNA synthesis of HIV and producing less viruses. Another key feature to consider when discussing uses of Bioorthogonal Chemistry are Click Reactions. Click Reactions occur exclusively between the azides (⁻N=N⁺=N⁻) and alkynes (carbon-carbon triple bond), produce no by-products and therefore have a 100% atom economy. Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry has enabled complex chemical reactions to be carried out within living organisms: the reactions do not bring harm to, interfere with or disrupt the biological processes occurring within these systems as they cannot be recognised & used by these systems. ‘Click’ Chemistry is therefore vital in understanding how we may be able to develop Targeted Cancer Therapeutics using Bioorthogonal Chemistry. Modern day cancer treatments tend to be delivered intravenously using anthracyclines (notably doxorubicin), a class of antitumour antibiotics used for cancer chemotherapy: they stop the growth of cancerous cells by preventing their enzymatic machinery from engaging in DNA duplication & cell division, causing the cells to die. The long-standing side effect of using such effective drugs is the high likelihood of ‘off-target toxicity’, where non-cancerous cells can also be harmed by the intercalating effects of the anthracyclines. Frequent targets for this ‘off-target toxicity’ tend to be fast growing body cells, like hair & nails, hence why most cancer patients experience some form of hair loss over the course of their chemotherapy treatment. So, scientists began to consider: what if there was a way to develop targeted cancer treatments? Treatments that enabled the activation of these powerful cancer drugs - anthracyclines - at the tumour sites, mitigating the harm of ‘off-target toxicity’? This is where Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry comes in. ‘ C lick- A ctivated P rotodrugs A gainst C ancer’ (or ‘ CAPAC ’) is a platform developed by American Biotechnology Company Shasqi. Through ‘CAPAC’, Shasqi are pioneering the use of Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry to target cancer drugs directly to the tumour site, minimising side effects and potentially improving the therapeutic index. They’ve achieved this through exploiting one of the fastest click reactions: a Diels-Alder cycloaddition between a tetrazine (C2H2N4) and a trans-cyclooctene (TCO) - 2 bioorthogonal molecules. The treatment involves two key components: a tetrazine-modified sodium hyaluronate biopolymer & doxorubicin that is connected to a TCO (trans-cyclooctene) unit. Over the course of the treatment (Fig. 2) , the patient will undergo multiple stages: ● Local hydrogel injection: The tetrazine-modified sodium hyaluron ate biopolymer is injected into a patient’s tumour ● Protodrug dose: The patient then receives five daily infusions of doxorubicin-TCO ● Concentration: The drug circulates through the body until it meets the tetrazine-modified biopolymer at the tumour site ● Activation: At the point of meeting, the click reaction brings the tetrazine and TCO together, triggering a rearrangement that frees the doxorubicin right next to the tumour cells Compared to prior cancer treatments, this process would not only mitigate the harm of the drug’s ‘off-target toxicity’, limiting the side-effects of the chemotherapy drug, it would also increase the local concentration of doxorubicin far beyond what would normally be possible in a patient, having a greater effect in preventing the growth of cancer cells. In the treatment of this life-threatening disease, Shasqi’s research into the ‘CAPAC’ platform, though still ongoing, looks excitingly promising: as recently as March 2023, they’ve proven their platform’s efficacy in humans. During a Phase 1 dose-escalation clinical trial in adult patients with advanced solid tumours, Shasqi were able to demonstrate the activation of their tetrazine-modified sodium hyaluronate biopolymer & doxorubicin-TCO at tumour sites, evidencing it’s safety, systemic pharmacokinetics, and immunological activity. With the continuation of their innovative research, the future treatment of cancer can be significantly aided with the use of Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry. Written by Emmanuella Fernandez REFERENCES Acs.org . (2021). Click chemistry sees first use in humans . [online] Available at: https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/Click-chemistry-sees-first-use/98/web/2020/10 . Cancer Research UK (2023). Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) | Cancer drugs | Cancer Research UK . [online] www.cancerresearchuk.org . Available at: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/drugs/doxorubicin . Wang, Y., Zhang, C., Wu, H. and Feng, P. (2020). Activation and Delivery of Tetrazine-Responsive Bioorthogonal Prodrugs. Molecules , 25(23), p.5640. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25235640 . Wikipedia Contributors (2019). Reverse transcriptase . [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase . Wikipedia. (2020). Zidovudine . [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zidovudine . Wikipedia. (2022). Bioorthogonal chemistry . [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry . Project Gallery

Also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What does depression do to your brain? 14/07/25, 15:12 Last updated: Published: 10/10/24, 11:19 Also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) This is Article 1 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Next article: Inside out: the chemistry of depression. -- I affect 3.8% of the population wide, With 280 million voices struggling inside. In women, my reach is 6%, And 5.7% of those over 60 feel me. Among new mothers, I reach 10%, With over 700,000 lost to my torment each year. What am I? Depression. The most prevalent psychiatric disorder that costs both money and lives. -- Also known as Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), depression is a heterogenous disease, which means the manifestation of the disorder is influenced by multiple genes. It is commonly known that consistent low mood, loss of interest in hobbies you used to enjoy, lethargy, feeling of hopelessness etc. are physical symptoms of depression. However, have you ever wondered what happens in the brain in a depression sufferer, from the neuroscience aspect? Structurally, research into the neuroscience of depression reveals significant structural abnormalities in the brains of affected individuals. Studies using structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have shown that those with MDD show reductions in gray matter volume in regions responsible for emotion regulation. The limbic system of the brain is responsible for producing and regulating emotions. In depressed individuals, the hippocampus—a key component of the limbic system—shows reduced gray matter volume, which is linked to abnormalities in the associated white matter tracts. White matter consists of myelinated axons that facilitate communication between different brain regions, while grey matter contains the neuronal cell bodies responsible for processing information. The presence of abnormalities in white matter suggests a disconnection between regions within the limbic system, potentially impairing their ability to communicate effectively. This disconnection may contribute to the emotional dysregulation observed in depression, highlighting the intricate relationship between grey and white matter in the pathology of this disorder. Depression is a complex disorder that not only affects mood but changes the structure and function of the brain. By understanding the neurobiological changes—including reductions in grey matter and white matter disconnections—we can better grasp the pathogenesis of this condition. Continued research in the neuroscience behind depression is essential for developing more effective treatments. There is still much more to explore and understand in depression research; with each new discovery, we realise how much more there is to learn. Written by Chloe Kam Related article: Depression in children Project Gallery

Role of neurotransmitters in depression Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Inside out: the chemistry of depression Last updated: 10/07/25, 10:16 Published: 05/06/25, 07:00 Role of neurotransmitters in depression This is Article 2 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Next article coming soon. Previous article: What does depression do to your brain? Ever wondered what’s going on inside your brain when you’re feeling down? Imagine the scene from Inside Out , where Sadness takes over the control room, overshadowing the other emotions. That’s actually not too far from what happens during depression, but the changes in your brain are much more than just a battle of emotions. Depression is the most common mental illness globally. It is typically marked by a persistently low mood and energy, and a loss of interest or pleasure in everyday activities. Risk factors include chronic stress, traumatic life events, genetic vulnerability, ageing, and female sex. While these influences are widely recognised, have you ever thought about what is actually happening inside your brain when you're depressed? You've probably heard phrases like “I need a serotonin boost,” but what does that really mean? What is serotonin, and how does it influence our emotions and mental health? What are neurotransmitters? Think of neurotransmitters as messenger pigeons between neurons. They are involved in communication between different neurons. Communication between neurons is called synaptic transmission. In synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles in one neuron into the synaptic cleft (the gap between two neurons) and then bind to receptors on the receiving neuron. This is how information travels through the brain, allowing us to think, feel, and act. Serotonin is an example of a neurotransmitter. Others include dopamine, noradrenaline, acetylcholine. The monoamine theory of depression One of the most widely supported explanations for the neurobiology of depression is the monoamine theory. This theory suggests that depression results from an imbalance or deficiency of monoamines in the brain. Monoamines are a group of neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, that are synthesised from the amino acids L-tryptophan and L-tyrosine. Fun fact: Did you know around 95% of the body's serotonin is produced in the gut? This is why there is growing interest in the gut-brain axis in mental health! Different neurotransmitter systems are involved in depression and even everyday emotion processing and regulation. The dopamine (DA) system plays a key role in experiencing reward and pleasure, often linked to feelings of joy. In contrast, the serotonin (5-HT) system is more associated with responses to punishment and aversive experiences, such as sadness or disgust. Noradrenaline (NE), on the other hand, is closely tied to fear, anger, and the activation of the "fight or flight" response during stressful situations. These neurotransmitters are thought to underlie three fundamental emotional states, which can combine in different ways to form a wide range of complex emotions. In the brain, these monoamines regulate mood, motivation, pleasure, and emotional stability. When levels are low, people may experience sadness, fatigue, apathy, and changes in appetite or sleep. This is why many antidepressant medications, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), aim to increase the availability of these monoamines in the synapse, improving communication between neurons and, over time, alleviating symptoms. SSRI treatment, in particular, is based on the serotonin hypothesis, a subset of the broader monoamine theory of depression, which suggests that reduced serotonin levels contribute to depressive symptoms. Conclusion: why depression is more than a mood Depression isn’t just “feeling sad”; it is a real condition that involves real chemical changes in the brain. The monoamine theory helps explain this by focusing on key neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, which help control mood, motivation, and emotional balance. When these chemicals are out of sync, too low or not working properly, it can lead to the emotional numbness, low energy, and hopelessness that many people with depression experience. These neurotransmitters do not work in isolation; they influence how we respond to rewards, stress, and even daily activities. By understanding the biological changes behind depression, we take an important step toward not only understanding the condition but also reducing the stigma around it. Written by Chloe Kam Related articles: Emotional chemistry / Embarrassment / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES Barchas, J.D. and Altemus, M. (1999) ‘Monoamine Hypotheses of Mood Disorders’, in Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition . Lippincott-Raven. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28257/ (Accessed: 3 May 2025). Jiang, Y. et al. (2022) ‘Monoamine Neurotransmitters Control Basic Emotions and Affect Major Depressive Disorders’, Pharmaceuticals , 15(10), p. 1203. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15101203 . Project Gallery