The Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis, are a result of the Sun's immense gravity weakening with increasing distance from its centre, enabling the outermost regions of the Sun's corona to escape as solar wind, which travels towards Earth. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why were the Northern Lights seen in the UK? Last updated: 01/03/26 Published: 05/04/23 On the 26th and 27th of February 2023, the UK experienced a rare treat - a “Red Alert” indicating a good chance of seeing the Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis. This captivating event drew people from all over the country, eager to witness one of nature's most awe-inspiring displays. But why is it that opportunities to observe the Northern Lights from the lower latitudes of the UK, France, and Germany are so rare? To truly appreciate the answer to this question, it's important to understand the fascinating science behind the Northern Lights and the 'Northern' aspect that gives them their name. What are the Northern Lights? The Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis, are a result of the Sun's immense gravity weakening with increasing distance from its centre, enabling the outermost regions of the Sun's corona to escape as solar wind, which travels towards Earth. The boundary at which the solar wind and corona are distinguished is known as the Alfvén surface. This solar wind is a plasma composed of protons, electrons, and other charged particles, which collide with atoms in Earth's atmosphere and excite the electrons in these atoms to higher energy levels. Upon de-excitation, the energy gained via collisions is released by the emission of light. Lucky observers saw the characteristic emerald green hues, which result from oxygen atoms at an altitude of around 100km. Those luckier still may have seen crimson aurorae caused by oxygen atoms at roughly 150km upwards. We observe different colours because the chemical composition of Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude. The Northern Lights. Credit: Evan Boyce Why are they (typically) only visible at the poles? The solar wind travels at millions of kilometres per hour and engulfs the Earth. Equatorial regions are protected by Earth's magnetic field as it deflects the solar wind. However, the magnetic field converges at Earth's magnetic poles, redirecting the charged particles of the solar wind to these high-latitude regions, such as Scandinavia and Canada. The same effect occurs at the southern magnetic pole, only these lights are named "Aurora Australis." The "auroral zone" is the region of Earth's atmosphere associated with this magnetic funnelling of charged particles. It takes the shape of an annulus centred on Earth's north magnetic pole and is usually in the 65°-70° latitude range. Why were they visible in the UK last month? The “auroral zone” is key to understanding this question. It is by no means a fixed or static region. There happened to be two coronal mass ejections (CMEs) which arrived at Earth on consecutive nights. The much greater intensity of these CMEs can give rise to distortions to the magnetic field lines resulting in what is called a geomagnetic storm. This triggers the expansion of the ‘auroral zone’ to lower latitudes, thus allowing the Northern Lights to be seen by UK observers. A graph displaying geomagnetic activity with universal time (UTC). Credit: @aurorawatchuk on Twitter How to know when to look? AuroraWatch UK is a free service run by the Lancaster University Department of Physics, providing alerts on the likelihood of observing the Northern Lights. This likelihood is based on geomagnetic activity measurements - disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field - from a network of magnetometers called SAMNET (Sub-Auroral Magnetometer Network). I will certainly be eagerly awaiting the next “Red Alert” and hoping for clear skies! Written by Joseph Brennan

Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Latent space transformations 21/08/25, 16:53 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 17:42 Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Getting machines to understand the information we want to give it is quite the task. Especially, given the level of complexity of the information we give it. For example, when trying to process an image for classification algorithms, how does the algorithm recognise the paws of a dog or the curvature of a boat? We need to simplify the information for simpler processing and manipulation. Similar to how you would take summarised notes in a lecture instead of copying everything. While information is lost, the key features are kept. That is where the term “ latent space ” comes in. What are latent spaces? In the realm of mathematics, various types of spaces play crucial roles. One such space is the linear space, which encompasses the number line—a fundamental construct. Then there's Euclidean space, a broader category that encompasses 2D, 3D, and higher-dimensional spaces. However, as the number of dimensions increases, the mathematical intricacies become exceedingly complex, often pushing the limits of computational feasibility. In a latent space transformation, we essentially reduce the dimensions of the space in which the data exists and create an abstract representation of the key features in a lower dimension space. This has a host of benefits with the main one being a reduction in the compute power needed to process the data. It’s an example of data compression and a direct instance of dimension reduction with neither being new concepts. Example: auto-encoders Auto-encoders are a type of neural network. They consist of an encoder-to-decoder architecture (see image with caption). The transformation allows us to process and store the input data more efficiently. In addition, once trained, auto-encoders can sample data from the latent space to generate new data points also called data generation of a synthetic nature. Other applications of latent space Now that we can store our information more effectively for computers to understand, there are a host of applications for the technique you might want to be aware of: - Natural Language Processing: Latent space models have been used in natural language processing for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. - Audio Processing: Latent space models have been used for music analysis, speech recognition, and audio processing. - Computer Vision: This we have partially discussed already. - Anomaly Detection: Latent space models can be used to recognise security failures in cybersecurity, or potentially fraud in the financial system. The applications of data reduction would be endless but those are just few applications in technology right now. Written by Temi Abbass Related articles: Markov chains / Evolution of AI / Study on brain metastasis Project Gallery

The web of geopolitics surrounding the Rohingyas, and how this impacts their health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Addressing the health landscape of Bangladesh’s Rohingya community Last updated: 05/03/26, 15:04 Published: 18/09/25, 08:00 The web of geopolitics surrounding the Rohingyas, and how this impacts their health This is article no. 6 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir. Next article: A deep, critical reflection . Introduction Welcome to the sixth article of the Global Health Injustices Series, a collaboration with Nasif Mahmood . This article focuses on the ongoing injustices and health issues affecting the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. This community leads a vulnerable life and suffering that it is becoming one of the most significant South Asian crises in the 21st century. Due to Bangladesh's inadequate resources and geopolitical situation, the overall health and well-being of the country and the migratory population are severely hampered. A brief history of Bangladesh and the Rohingya population Bangladesh's history is intricate and has been influenced by many cultures. After India was divided in 1947, the area, previously part of ancient Bengal, was ruled by the British and became East Pakistan. Demands for autonomy resulted from tensions between West and East Pakistan. The Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, culminating in these tensions, led to the country's independence. Bangladesh has made great strides in education, health, and economic growth since gaining its autonomy, despite facing economic hardship, political turmoil, and natural disasters. Rohingya, the Muslim ethnic minority from the state of Rakhine, were denied citizenship by the Myanmar Government, leaving them homeless. They endured years of persecution, discrimination, and violence. In 2017, an inhuman, violent crackdown by the military of the Myanmar government forced over 70,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh. Over 1 million refugees live in Bangladesh, primarily in the Cox Bazar area. A lot of refugees cause overcrowding situations, and limited resources lead to a high rate of nutritional problems and spread of disease, specifically infectious diseases and mental health disorders in the refugee camp. Connecting geopolitics and health: impacts on the Rohingya population The Rohingya crisis is more than just a humanitarian issue; it is a tangled web of geopolitical challenges. The Myanmar government’s ongoing refusal to grant citizenship and fundamental rights to the Rohingya people not only deepens their suffering but also fuels instability in the region. They have not taken the necessary steps to ensure their safety, leaving the crisis unresolved. As refugees continue to pour into neighbouring countries, tensions have escalated, placing a heavy burden on host nations like Bangladesh. This crisis worsens existing socio-economic problems and stretches resources thin in areas struggling to care for their citizens. The international community has responded in various ways; some countries are pushing for tougher sanctions against Myanmar, while others are focused on delivering aid to those affected. However, the underlying issues driving this crisis will unlikely be resolved without a coordinated and sustained political effort ( Table 1, Figure 1 ). Addressing them can lead to improved outcomes for the Rohinyga population. On top of that, the health challenges faced by the Rohingya people go beyond just infectious diseases. The lack of access to essential health services has not only worsened physical health problems but has also led to a growing mental health crisis. Many Rohingya individuals are grappling with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression stemming from their traumatic experiences of violence, loss, trauma, isolation, and forced displacement. Yet, mental health services in the refugee camps are severely lacking. A study showed that the prevalence of emotional and behavioural disorders is high among forcefully migrated refugee children, because of traumatic exposure like the unexpected death of parents, forceful displacement, and the witnessing of family violence and abuse. The stigma surrounding mental health in many cultures, including in the Rohingya community, creates additional hurdles for those seeking help. Enhancing access to mental health support is crucial, not just for the immediate well-being of the refugees, but also for their long-term healing and successful integration into the societies that host them. Moreover, providing humanitarian aid and hosting such a large population in Bangladesh is becoming difficult. The national and international NGOs maintain healthcare for the Rohingya population. However, the funding shortage and inadequate infrastructure hinder the provision of adequate medical services. For this reason, the refugee camps have reported significant outbreaks of diphtheria, cholera, and COVID-19. Given the challenges, developing innovative solutions and working collaboratively on a global or regional scale is needed. By empowering local health workers and training them to offer basic healthcare and mental health support, to close the service delivery gaps. Additionally, building partnerships among NGOs, governments, and international organisations can help ensure that resources are allocated more effectively and that comprehensive health programs are created to meet the unique needs of the Rohingya population. It's crucial to engage the community; by listening to the voices and experiences of the Rohingya, we can develop interventions that truly respect their dignity and cultural context. Additionally, raising global awareness about the struggles faced by the Rohingya can lead to stronger advocacy efforts. Involving the media, educational institutions, and civil society can foster a deeper understanding of the interconnected issues of geopolitics and health. Initiatives that share personal stories and experiences can rally public support and drive meaningful change. Ultimately, tackling the Rohingya crisis calls for a multifaceted approach that blends immediate humanitarian aid with long-term strategies aimed at ending their statelessness and ensuring their rights as human beings are upheld and protected. Recommendations from NGOs National NGOs: Several national NGOs play an essential role in supporting the healthcare needs of the Rohingya population: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), one of the world's largest NGOs, provides comprehensive health care services, including maternal and child health, immunisation programmes, disease prevention initiatives, and arranges many health campaigns for refugees. Gonoshasthaya Kendra established a field hospital and free clinic in the Cox Bazar area near the refugee camp, focusing on primary health care and emergency medical support. International NGOs MedGlobal, an international NGO, responds to this global crisis by delivering medical assistance within the refugee camp. Support hospitals and clinics for affected refugees between 2017 and 2019. This organisation's volunteers contributed over 17,000 hours of aid, assisting more than 80,000 individuals. Medair is another international NGO offering health and nutritional support to the Rohingya refugees. Migrant Offshore Aid focuses on sea rescue operations and delivering medical aid and assistance to surfers. Together, these national and international organisations make meaningful contributions to the healthcare needs of the Rohingya population, handling both immediate medical concerns and long-term health support in a challenging environment. Their collaborative efforts help ensure that essential services reach those in critical need, facilitating better health outcomes for refugees. Although they address the healthcare needs of the Rohingya, several challenges can limit their effectiveness. For example, coordination issues may lead to overlapping efforts or service gaps, resulting in inequitable and unequal healthcare access. Also, limited resources and funding can slow extensive long-term support, leaving specific medical needs unaddressed. Additionally, the intricate political and social conditions restrict these organisations' capacity to operate effectively, impacting immediate care and sustainable health initiatives for the Rohingya population. Moving forward, it is crucial for host countries to: finance extra healthcare facilities in refugee camps to enhance access and reduce diseases, launch culturally appropriate mental health initiatives with locally trained workers to decrease stigma and provide community-based support, integrate nutrition programmes to address different forms of malnutrition in vulnerable communities and encourage further international support to maintain health initiatives among the Rohingya population. Conclusion The Rohingya crisis is an example of global health injustice exacerbated by geopolitical and humanitarian challenges. At the same time, Bangladesh is trying to provide temporary shelter for the refugees to minimise the crisis. However, this crisis also requires international cooperation, policy support, and increased funding. Solving this issue is essential for global public health and human rights. Notably, finding sustainable solutions will help the Rohingya people recover and thrive, and enhance stability and security in the region. Their future goes beyond humanitarian aid; it is about upholding inclusion, justice, and respect for human dignity, which should guide all efforts to link geopolitics with health outcomes. To truly tackle the health issues faced by the Rohingya community, we need to take a comprehensive approach that looks at the political, social, and economic factors at play. By adopting such all-encompassing systems, we can work towards a brighter and fairer future for the Rohingya community and other vulnerable groups around the globe who are facing similar challenges. The next article will be the final one reflecting on everything discussed in this series. Written by Nasif Mahmood and Sam Jarada Related articles: Health and well-being in- Palestine , Kashmir / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health / Ethnic health inequalities REFERENCES Tinker HR. History of Bangladesh | Events, People, Dates, & Facts [Internet]. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023 [cited 2025 Jul 15]. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Bangladesh Rahman MM, Bhuiyan MR, Ali MZ, Rahman MS, Hossain MA. Insecurity feelings and mental health status of Rohingya orphan children in BangladeshResearchGate; 2021 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348521935_Insecurity_Feelings_and_Mental_Health_Status_of_Rohingya_Orphan_Children_in_Bangladesh UNHCR. Rohingya refugee crisis – Bangladesh. 2023. https://www.unhcr.org International Crisis Group (ICG). The health crisis in Rohingya refugee camps. 2022. https://www.crisisgroup.org Tay AK, Riley A, Islam R, Welton-Mitchell C, Duchesne B, Waters V, et al. The culture, mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of Rohingya refugees: a systematic review. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences [Internet]. 2019 Apr 22 [cited 2025 Sep 10];28(5):489–94. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6998923/ Human Rights Watch. The plight of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. 2023. https://www.hrw.org . Nivedita Sudheer, Banerjee D. The Rohingya refugees: a conceptual framework of their psychosocial adversities, cultural idioms of distress and social suffering. Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Sep 10];8. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/global-mental-health/article/rohingya-refugees-a-conceptual-framework-of-their-psychosocial-adversities-cultural-idioms-of-distress-and-social-suffering/F4D229807D4ED7667EA16195FDF5C787 World Health Organization (WHO). Health challenges in Rohingya refugee camps. 2022. https://www.who.int Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). Medical response in Rohingya refugee settlements. 2022. https://www.msf.org Project Gallery

Will the scheme work? Or will the government fail to learn from the past and actually make the situation worse? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The ‘New’ Scheme to help you buy your first home Last updated: 29/09/26, 14:13 Published: 01/10/26, 08:00 Will the scheme work? Or will the government fail to learn from the past and actually make the situation worse? On the 26th of September, the UK Government released an announcement saying that they are going to make a change to how home ownership will be done in England. The new scheme, titled ‘Your First Home’, is expected to allow first time buyers to get onto the property ladder with only a 2.5% deposit when purchasing a new-build property from a developer signed up to the scheme. The scheme aims to lower the bar for home ownership within England which with rising costs of living, sky rocketing student debt and stagnant wage growth has felt like a mammoth task for many first time buyers. But will the scheme work? Or will the government fail to learn from the past and actually make the situation worse? The New proposal The announced scheme, which is expected to be confirmed at the Budget, does two key points that we need to discuss. First, the deposit the buyer is expected to provide is 2.5% of the agreed sale price of the home. On average, first time buyers contribute around a 20% deposit for their first home. Halifax data for 2024 found that first-time buyer deposits across the UK averaged 20% of the purchase price. Technically, it is possible to secure mortgages with 10% and even 5% deposits, however these can be associated with higher interest rates, so buyers tend to save up for much longer so the cost of borrowing is much lower. With the proposed scheme however, this is less of a concern. Whilst the buyer only contributes 2.5%, the government will reach down their pockets and provide a further 20% through a government-backed equity loan! This means that a buyer could benefit from the low interest rates of a lower loan-to-value purchase, whilst only contributing a very small amount themselves. The drawback to this is that the 20% is an equity loan rather than a grant, with further details around how this will work to be finalised. The law of unintended consequence This sounds like a great idea with great intentions. First time buyers can get on the property ladder with lower deposits, whilst still benefiting from the lower interest rates and therefore lower monthly repayments associated with higher deposits. Yet there is one important detail that is missing from this, and that is that a very similar policy has already been tried before! So, rather than being political, let’s have a look at the economics on what happened with the Help to Buy Scheme in England (2013-2023). The major concern associated with these schemes is that they will artificially inflate house prices. This is a real concern. The greater demand can put pressure on prices causing them to rise disturbing market forces, although Help to Buy was also found to have increased the supply of new housing. Whilst you effectively help individuals get on the housing ladder today, you can also make some buyers pay more for houses than they might otherwise have paid. This has additional issues such as making switching homes more expensive as people who are off the scheme could also face higher prices in areas where the scheme pushes prices up compared to if the scheme wasn’t introduced. So the question now becomes, does this actually affect house prices? Well the answer is the evidence suggests yes, but the exact size of the effect is difficult to measure. Researchers working on the government-commissioned Help to Buy evaluation investigated this problem by comparing house prices of homes across the England Wales border. England introduced Help to Buy in April 2013, while Wales introduced a similar scheme in January 2014, although the Welsh scheme initially had a much lower property price cap. Because homes close to either side of the border are likely to have similar housing markets, the researchers could compare how prices changed under the different levels of support. Under the assumption that price trends on either side of the border would otherwise have moved in parallel, differences that emerged after the introduction of the scheme can be attributed to the differences in the schemes. This is called a difference in discontinuities regression analysis. The results showed that there was an attributable increase in house prices in England compared to Wales by around 2% for homes in the areas analysed along the border, which is the equivalent of several thousand pounds per home. Whilst this evidence is strong, we can only say this is true for those areas close to the border. The national analysis found that house prices in England followed a trajectory around 10% higher than comparable prices in Wales after the introduction of Help to Buy, yet it would be unwise to attribute all of that increase over to the policy, as house-price trends in England and Wales were already diverging before the scheme began, and comparing the two countries as a whole gives a less reliable counterfactual than comparing similar areas directly either side of the border. So what does this mean? So where does that leave ‘Your First Home’? The scheme will almost certainly help some first time buyers who are currently struggling to save a large enough deposit. For those individuals, getting onto the property ladder years earlier could make a genuine difference. But that does not necessarily mean that the policy makes housing more affordable overall. The problem is that helping buyers borrow more money does not create more houses. If the supply of homes does not increase alongside the additional demand created by the scheme, then at least some of that extra purchasing power is likely to find its way into higher house prices. In other words, the government may be helping people afford today’s prices, whilst at the same time putting upward pressure on the prices faced by tomorrow’s buyers. That does not mean the scheme is destined to fail. The previous Help to Buy scheme was also associated with an increase in new-build housing supply, meaning the effect is more complicated than simply saying that government support pushes prices higher. The success of ‘Your First Home’ will therefore depend not only on how many people use it, but also on whether the supply of new homes can respond to the extra demand. So will ‘Your First Home’ work? For some buyers, probably yes. But if the ultimate goal is to make home ownership more affordable across England, a smaller deposit may only solve one part of a much bigger problem. Written by George Chant Related article: How does moving houses impact your wellbeing? Project Gallery

Our planet's ecosystems are teeming with life! Navigate the intricate web of interactions in these intriguing articles. How do organisms relate to one another and their surroundings? Ecology Articles Our planet's ecosystems are teeming with life! Navigate the intricate web of interactions in these intriguing articles. How do organisms relate to one another and their surroundings? You may also like: Biology, Zoology Galápagos Tortoises An end at the beginning: their conservation Beavers are back in Britain The role of beavers in the ecosystem and their reintroduction in the UK. Article #3 in a series on animal conservation around the world. Pangolins in China From poached to protected. Article #4 in a series on animal conservation around the world. Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique From conflict to community. Article #5 in a series on animal conservation around the world. Wildlife corridors Why did the sloth cross the road? Meet the microbes that feed phosphorus to plants Plants need phosphorus to make biological molecules like DNA, ATP, and the phospholipid bilayers that form cell membranes How human activity impacts the phosphorus cycle Discussing eutrophication and industrial activities Rock, paper, survival? This theory occurs when three equally strong variants coexist in a population Behind the scenes of a David Attenborough documentary People behind the scenes, filming challenges (e.g. physical toll), technology and other factors Beak diversity in Darwin's finches The finches are a classic example of adaptive radiation The diversity of bat faces The New World leaf-nosed bats of the ‘Phyllostomidae’ family are known for their diversity, specifically their diverse skull shapes and therefore face shapes

Step into the intricate field of dentistry and learn about dental tourism, tooth decay, water fluoridation- and more. Dentistry Articles Step into the intricate field of dentistry and learn about dental tourism, tooth decay, water fluoridation- and more. You may also like: Medicine Water fluoridation Diving deep Dental tourism What is 'Turkey teeth'? Tooth decay And how to prevent it COMING SOON

Resources specific to A-levels to help students with revision. A-levels Are you a student currently studying A-levels, or looking to choose them in the near future? Read below for tips and guidance! You may also like: Personal statements , IB resources , University prep and Extra resources What are A-levels? Jump to resources A-levels, short for Advanced Level qualifications, are a widely recognised and highly regarded educational program typically taken by students in the United Kingdom (UK) and some other countries. They are usually studied in the final two years of secondary education, typically between the ages of 16 and 18. A-levels offer students the opportunity to specialise in specific subjects of their choice. Students typically choose three or four subjects to study, although this may vary depending on the educational institution. The subjects available can be diverse, covering areas such as sciences, humanities, social sciences, languages, and arts. How are A-levels graded? The A-level grading system is based on a letter grade scale in the UK. Here's an overview of the A-level grading system: Grades: A* (pronounced "A-star"): The highest grade achievable, demonstrating exceptional performance. A: Excellent performance, indicating a strong understanding of the subject. B: Very good performance, showing a solid grasp of the subject. C: Good performance, representing a satisfactory level of understanding. D: Fair performance, indicating a basic understanding of the subject. E: Marginal performance, showing a limited understanding of the subject. U: Ungraded, indicating that the student did not meet the minimum requirements to receive a grade. What are the benefits of studying A-level? A-levels provide students with a variety of advantages, such as a solid academic foundation for further education, the chance to focus on interest-specific areas, and flexibility in planning their course of study. Transferable abilities like critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research are developed in A-levels, improving both prospects for entrance to universities and future employment opportunities. These widely respected credentials encourage intellectual vigour, intellectual curiosity, and a love of lifelong study. A-levels provide students with a strong foundation for success in higher education and a variety of career pathways, thanks to their academic rigour and global renown. Resources for revision Web sites to hel p Maths / Maths and Further Maths Chemistry / Chemrevise / Chemguide Biology / Quizzes Physics: A-level Physics / Isaac Physics Computer Science topic-by-topic Teach Computer Science Psychology All subjects / Seneca Learning / Save My Exams Physics and Maths Tutor YouTube channels to hel p Chemistry- Allery Chemistry and Eliot Rintoul Past p apers Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Maths Textbooks (depend on exam board) CGP range for Bio, Chem, Phys, and Maths- exam practice workbooks

Is bacteria the key to unlocking this treatment? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A breakthrough in endometriosis treatment 27/03/25, 12:05 Last updated: Published: 29/06/23, 10:16 Is bacteria the key to unlocking this treatment? In a giant leap forward, scientists have linked a specific bacterial infection to endometriosis for the very first time. Endometriosis is a condition in which the endometrium (lining of the uterus wall) grows outside of the uterus. For many women, the condition is characterised by debilitating pain, fatigue and infertility. The average time span for an accurate diagnosis is 7.5 years, with some women opting for a complete hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) to curb the pain. Unfortunately, the pathogenesis (the process by which a disease develops) of endometriosis is still relatively unknown. With previous scientific theories including retrograde menstruation, immune dysregulation, hormonal imbalance, stem cells and benign metastasis- this is the first time a bacterial theory has been forwarded. Dr Muraoka and his team theorised a link between bacterial localisation within the female reproductive tract and endometriosis- following promising research carried out on mice models. The Japanese study discovered a bacterium known as Fusobacterium to be present in the uteruses of 65% of women suffering from endometriosis, compared to less than 7% of women without the disease. Fusobacterium is a bacterium which is mostly found within the microbe of the mouth, gut and vagina. This bacterium has been linked to other inflammatory diseases such as gum disease. Follow-up studies- undertaken on mice- discovered that those treated with antibiotics saw a significant reduction in both size and frequency of lesions associated with the disease. Clinical trials are now forging ahead to investigate the effects of antimicrobials as a viable treatment option for endometriosis patients. This revolutionary study is the first of its kind and could see patient disease management progress away from medieval invasive procedures and decades of pain. For more information on Dr Muraoka and his team's work check out his study . Written by Kellie Leonard Related articles: Underreporting of endometriosis / Are PCOS and endometriosis sisters? / Gynaecology Project Gallery

Discussing an upcoming biotech thriller book Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link ‘The Molecule’ by Dr Rick Sax and Dr Marta New Last updated: 02/01/26, 18:11 Published: 08/01/26, 08:00 Discussing an upcoming biotech thriller book Science, to some extent, is very black and white. You carry out experiments; you analyse the data, and you could use numerous techniques to get results. Although there is a range of techniques you could use to analyse and interpret the data, if it has been carried out correctly, the results should be reproducible. 1 + 1 will always equal 2, a eukaryote will always have a nucleus, and pure water will always have a boiling point of 100ºC. Once again, science is entirely black and white. But after an hour of conversation on a cold London afternoon, this writer can conclude that the life of a scientist does not have to be as black and white as their research. This is confirmed by looking at the fascinating lives of Dr Marta New and Dr Rick Sax. Dr Marta New Dr. Marta New's career spans the intersection of science and business, beginning with her PhD in Microbiology and Immunology from the University of Illinois Chicago. Demonstrating her versatility, she pursued an MBA at Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management just two years later. Recognizing her passion extended beyond academia, Dr. New ventured into the business world, where she has held various influential roles. Her career includes positions as a venture capitalist at ARCH Venture Partners, board observer for numerous biotech companies, and strategic advisor to pharmaceutical firms. Dr. New's expertise lies in translating scientific breakthroughs into viable business opportunities, particularly in the areas of drug discovery and development. Currently, she is the founder and CEO of Radyus Research, a company focused on accelerating drug discovery through innovative AI-powered platforms. In this role, Dr. New continues to drive innovation and strategic growth in the biotech and pharmaceutical sectors, leveraging her unique blend of scientific knowledge and business acumen. Dr Rick Sax Dr. Rick Sax is a distinguished figure in the pharmaceutical industry with over 30 years of experience in senior leadership positions. His career spans across major pharmaceutical companies, including Merck & Co. and AstraZeneca, where he held executive roles in clinical development. At Merck, Dr. Sax led cardiovascular drug development and served on key business strategy teams. At AstraZeneca, he took on various leadership positions, including Vice President for U.S. Clinical Research and roles in global Medical Sciences. Dr. Sax later joined Quintiles (IQVIA) as Senior Vice President for Integrated Clinical Services, where he played a crucial role in developing innovative approaches to clinical program design and drug development strategies. His expertise encompasses drug research and development, clinical program design, translational medicine, and the application of information technology in clinical research. Currently, Dr. Sax serves as an advisor to biotechnology startups and consulting firms, leveraging his extensive experience to improve pharmaceutical R&D efficiency and productivity. Through their amazing expertise they have joined hands to write a biotech thriller called the ‘The Molecule’. What is the inspiration behind the novel The Molecule ? Science thrives on curiosity, discovery, and the pursuit of knowledge, often driven by a passion to understand the unknown. On the other hand, business is fueled by profit, efficiency, and the drive to deliver tangible results in the shortest possible time. The challenges can be immense in the biotech industry, where these two worlds must collide. Transforming a scientific breakthrough into a marketable product requires more than just innovation; it demands strategic thinking, financial acumen, and a deep understanding of the regulatory environment. The journey from lab bench to market shelf is fraught with obstacles, including securing funding, navigating complex regulations, and managing stakeholders' expectations with very different goals. In their new novel, The Molecule , authors Rick Sax and Marta New delve into the intricate world of drug development, breaking the conventional notion that this process is solely the domain of academia. The book explores the multifaceted journey of a startup company navigating the complex path of science, regulation, and industry. When asked about the inspiration behind the book, Rick and Marta emphasised their desire to shed light on the complex interplay between scientific innovation and the financial forces that drive it. They wanted to illustrate that drug development is a scientific endeavour and a battleground where researchers, regulators, and industry professionals often find themselves at odds. While The Molecule is a work of fiction, it brings a deep emotional resonance. The authors were keen to portray the technical challenges of developing a new drug and the human element—the hopes, fears, and sacrifices of those involved. Rick and Marta crafted a narrative that captures the struggles and triumphs, emphasising the complex journey of bringing a new drug to market. The book goes beyond the laboratory, vividly depicting the stages a startup company must navigate to succeed. It paints a realistic picture of the hurdles and setbacks often encountered along the way, making it a compelling read for anyone interested in the intersection of science, business, and human emotion. This biotech thriller also serves as a reminder that the fusion of science and business, though complex, is essential for driving progress and bringing life-changing innovations to the world. What is the drug development process, and what are the challenges? As mentioned, drug development is a long, arduous, and multifaceted journey. A journey that, in reality, is not limited to academia or clinical research. We must remember that drug development translates an idea into a drug in the market, a process that spans more than simple laboratory experiments. The book The Molecule gives us a glimpse of this process. As it turns out, there is a lot more that happens even before clinical trials begin. Unsurprisingly, the process of drug development began before "development". Instead, it starts as drug "discovery". Here, scientists wear their thinking hats to try and understand a disease, hoping to discover new insights or technologies that provide an approach to treatment. As Marta neatly outlined, scientists at this stage are surrounded by numerous questions, such as the drug's mechanism of action, how it works, etc. However, this discovery is not a finished product but rather a technology. Different questions must be asked to translate a fresh-off-the-lab technology into a marketable drug. Namely, "Is it safe and is it efficacious?" Next, the drug development journey will continue into the preclinical stage. Those who work in preclinical drug development may be familiar with the abundance of cell cultures and animal models used in this stage. Indeed, the preclinical stage often follows either or both in vitro and in vivo testing. Marta also highlighted another key factor, reproducibility. Crucially, a reproducible study refers to a repeated study done under different conditions or parameters and by other researchers where the results or analyses are the same or in agreement. Any study can be vulnerable to biases. Therefore, a reproducible study ensures fair, correct, and trustworthy results that allow scientists the confidence that the drug is safe before it enters clinical trials. Furthermore, testing the potential drug with a "standard of care" is equally essential. This means testing the candidate against an existing drug for the same disease. The process seeks to observe efficacy, whether the experimental drug is more efficacious than an already marketed drug. In other words, if the drug is working. As you can see, much work must be done before drug development reaches human testing. Preclinical studies may vary in size, but they are crucial in defining how safe the drug is before it is tested on people. Therefore, Rick and Marta emphasise that the preclinical stage must follow good practice and the correct guidelines, collecting data to paint a detailed pict ure before being given to the regulatory bodies. Upon the success of preclinical research and the approval of human testing by the regulatory bodies, a process that can take up to 5 years, we finally arrive at clinical trials. In short, clinical trials will further test the candidate drug on human subjects for safety and efficacy, dosage, side effects, and adverse reactions. As the trial progresses, the group size of each phase also increases, and as the number of human subjects increases, so does the cost. Rick and Marta explained that labs or smaller companies will usually carry out the preclinical research, but will search for larger pharmaceutical companies as partners to continue clinical trials. The drug development process is complex and concerns a multidisciplinary team of scientists, corporate partners, and regulatory bodies. However, this process is necessary to create a safe and effective drug that can change lives. Many science and STEM students gravitate only towards science and their respective passionate fields and, unfortunately, tend to find business intimidating. So, what would be your advice for these students to begin learning more about the business side of STEM and building their own start-up? The ideal way to answer this question is to consider it in two different parts: exploring a new passion (the world of business) and the advice to learn more. In many ways, one may always feel the vulnerability of exploring the unknown. Perhaps that is why we live following our passions: there is a certain security in their reliability and certainty for enjoyment and happiness. A safety blanket, so to speak. However, this very blanket could be the culprit that slowly suffocates all possibilities of growth, keeping you safe, secure, and immovable. By reading through their novel, The Molecule , and doing a Google search of these two writers' incredible lives, any reader can surely understand how to grow in pharmacology; there needs to be a specific element of business. Of course, for many, the thought of entering the clutches of the world of business, a world of numbers, negotiations, and a lack of laboratory equipment and sterilisation, might seem daunting. However, it is essential for any reader to understand that if they wish to enter the world of drug development, they will not find this door in academia. Instead, the key to drug development is built when different skill sets, areas of knowledge, and technical expertise come together through the work of a multipurpose team. This delicate and intricate process centres on the team, a team that requires multiple disciplines to work in harmony and in an environment where creativity may flourish. However, how can one go from understanding the importance of business in drug development to taking the first steps into this new, terrifying, and exhilarating world? The simple answer to this is explored in The Molecule . To succeed in the unknown, one must find a good mentor. Someone you truly believe in to show you the way. Of course, there should always be some caution in ensuring the right mentor is found. However, this should not hinder any keen reader from trying, as every experience can be an opportunity for growth. Furthermore, there are many positive stories of successful mentorships, as seen through Dr Sax’s personal experience. In the beginning, like many in STEM, he considered pharmacology “the dark side”. At the time, he worked at Cornell University Medical Centre, living the life many could only dream of. He spent his days working as a triple blend between a physician, a researcher, and a teacher – his passions. When first approached by a mentor on the possibility of pharmacology, a scene was conjured. A scene that showed the fiery pits of hell with the personification of pharmacology itself as a fearful villain pushing one into damnation. However, the support and encouragement from this mentor were the tiny pushes that convinced him to try, leading him to where he is today. There are many ways to find these mentors. Through academia, students can take advantage of programs such as hosting entrepreneurial activities, wet labs, organised panels, and events, such as “speak to a member of the industry”. Even exploring master programs in drug development could be a step forward in matching a student with potential mentors. Moreover, outside of the academic halls, there are many opportunities to form connections. By browsing LinkedIn groups, forums, and Reddit posts, you can find your people and see their steps. Following Dr. New’s humbling words, “It is important for students to remember they are not the first in the history of civilisation to think of entrepreneurship, and it is online where they can find signatures of the work others have done". "Your people" will be the ones that share your confusion, fear, perhaps lack of expertise, love for adrenaline, and a good challenge. Once you find them, everything will start flowing. Furthermore, consider how the real world works: if you want something, you need to go get it, be it with cold reach outs into the unknown and follow-up emails. On average, it takes 6 follow-up emails until someone replies to you. Hence, whatever you are doing, selling, or asking, do it 6 times before you give up. What vision do you see for the future of the biotechnology industry? When posed this question, both Fredrick and Marta conveyed that the future of biotechnology is heavily unpredictable, primarily due to the variability in the success of biotech startups. Moreover, one significant factor influencing this unpredictability is the funding which these firms receive. However, the changes in focus to new trends in biotechnology show great promise for how this large industry may grow and develop. For instance, a new trend is the considerable focus on rare diseases and targeted therapies for specific mutations such as the ALMK-14 mutation in lung cancer. There is also a significant focus on looking at disease subcategories and honing in on the specific type of disease. For example, instead of broadly targeting lung cancer, there is a trend towards addressing specific forms such as small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. This precise approach aims to focus on specific characteristics of each disease’s subtype, for example, some forms of lung cancer may be more aggressive than others. Moreover, both Marta and Richard both highlighted the intertwining of biotechnology with other fields, specifically artificial intelligence (AI). An interesting example of this is utilising AI to develop targeted therapies for molecular markers of disease which may have been identified by lab techniques such as Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). Finally, the industry encompasses a wide range of professions from smaller pharmaceutical companies to larger pharmaceutical firms each with different focuses. Due to these varied focuses, the industry will likely develop and progress in diverse ways, reflecting the various aims of these firms. This diversity further reinforces the unpredictability of the industry’s future but also makes it an interesting field to watch. A massive thank you to Nick Johnstone for giving Scientia News this opportunity; it means a lot. We have learnt so many new things and it has been very inspiring talking to Rick and Marta. For more information, visit the following hyperlinks: Dr Rick Sax ( research ) Dr Marta New Nick Johnstone ( author ) Written by Inês Couto André, Jeevana Thavarajah, Stephanus Steven & Harene Elayathamby Related book reviews: Intern Blue , The Emperor of All Maladies Project Gallery

For some species, the rock-paper-scissors theory determines survival or reproductive success. Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Rock, paper, survival? Last updated: 02/04/26, 18:23 Published: 02/04/26, 08:00 For some species, the rock-paper-scissors theory determines survival or reproductive success. Rock-paper-scissors: a classic way of resolving petty disputes or making small decisions. That is, if you’re a human. For some species, the rock-paper-scissors theory determines survival or reproductive success. It occurs when three equally strong variants coexist in a population. The three variants interact “non-transitively”, meaning there is not one clear best variant; each variant has an advantage in a different environment. Variants of a species are controlled by genetics, so they are called “genotypes”. This article describes two cases of rock-paper-scissors competition between three genotypes of the same species, and one case between different species. Alternative mating strategies in side-blotched lizards The first scientific article to describe a real-life rock-paper-scissors system was published by Sinervo and Lively in 1996. They studied male side-blotched lizards that come in three different throat colours: yellow, orange, and blue. The lizards fight each other for territory and female mates, and the more females a male has on his territory, the more offspring he can have, so the more successful he is. Orange-throated male lizards are the most aggressive and have the most testosterone. Blue-throated males are less aggressive, so they lose fights against the orange-throats and therefore lose their females. Yellow-throated male lizards do not fight for mates, so they lose their females to the fighting blue-throated males. Instead, yellow-throated males pretend to be sexually active females, deceiving another male lizard and mating with his females. Since orange males are more aggressive in finding females, they are more prone to yellow-throated deception, and lose many females to the yellow-throats. So yellow beats orange, orange beats blue, and blue beats yellow: a rock-paper-scissors dynamic. Sinervo and Lively found that blue-throated males dominated the side-blotched lizard population in 1991, but they were wiped out by the more aggressive orange-throated males in 1992, who themselves were wiped out by the deceiving yellow-throated males in 1993-4. A population dominated by yellow-throats was the ideal environment for blue-throated males to come back in 1995 ( Figure 1 ). Therefore, rock-paper-scissors competition causes a population to cycle between three equally strong genotypes over time. Colicin dynamics in E. coli While rock-paper-scissors theory determines reproductive success in side-blotched lizards, the stakes are higher in E. coli bacteria, where the three genotypes fight each other to survive. In this system, there are three strains (i.e. types) of E. coli called colicin-producing (C), colicin-susceptible (S), and colicin-resistant (R). Strain C makes a toxin called colicin, which kills strain S. Strain R outcompetes strain C because not only is it resistant to strain C’s colicin, but it also saves the energy needed to produce it. However, by gaining colicin resistance, strain R loses nutrient uptake abilities. This means strain S, which is better at nutrient uptake, outcompetes strain R. So C kills S, S outcompetes R, and R outcompetes C: a rock-paper-scissors dynamic ( Figure 2 ). Kerr et al. found that when the three E. coli strains were grown on a solid agar surface, they stayed at equal, constant biomass for one week. If one strain grew too much, another strain in a system would outcompete it and bring the biomass back down. Therefore, rock-paper-scissors competition maintained strain diversity and stability in a genetically heterogeneous E. coli population. Rock-paper-scissors-lizard-Spock in coral reefs Expanding rock-paper-scissors theory to between species, rather than within species, creates a complex and diverse ecosystem. ‘The Big Bang Theory’ TV show popularised a five-object version of rock-paper-scissors called rock-paper-scissors-lizard-Spock, which expanded the number of possible scenarios in the game and reduced the chance of a draw. Similarly, a 1979 paper describes dozens of possible interactions between seven species of marine animals off the coast of Jamaica, keeping the marine ecosystem diverse. There were five sponges (S-2 Toxemna sp. , S-3 Tenaciella sp ., and three previously undescribed sponges S-4, S-5, and S-6), one coral species (C-1 Madracis sp. ), and one ascidian (A-1 Didemnum sp. ). These species all grow as colonies, in which hundreds of individual animals function as one cohesive unit. However, coral reefs have limited space, so colonies of different species fight over a solid surface to grow on. Scientists noted the outcomes of dozens of interactions where the colony of one species grew over the colony of another, to determine whether the ecosystem is linear/transitive or not. They found many examples of non-transitive interactions; for example, one rock-paper-scissors three-species system, and one system where six species beat each other in a cyclical pattern ( Figure 3 ). Even though species S-4 can outcompete five other species, there is always the risk of species S-2 outcompeting it, so S-4 cannot dominate the ecosystem. Depending on the spatial and temporal organisation of the Jamaican coral reef, any of the seven species can dominate. Conclusion Non-transitive interactions lead to high diversity and cyclical patterns over time. Scientists have observed these interactions between and within species, and across ecological scales from small laboratory bacteria to complex coral reef ecosystems. If one variant begins to dominate, that makes another variant perform better, keeping the system balanced. While the three variants co-exist in some situations, like the E. coli colicin dynamics, they take turns being dominant in other situations, like the side-blotched lizards. So next time you’re thinking of using rock-paper-scissors to decide something, maybe try C-S-R E. coli or orange-yellow-blue lizards instead! Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Sinervo, B. and Lively, C.M. (1996) The rock–paper–scissors game and the evolution of alternative male strategies. Nature , 380(6571), 240–243. Buss, L.W. and Jackson, J.B.C. (1979) Competitive Networks: Nontransitive Competitive Relationships in Cryptic Coral Reef Environments. The American Naturalist , 113(2), 223–234. Kerr, B., Riley, M.A., Feldman, M.W. and Bohannan, B.J.M. (2002) Local dispersal promotes biodiversity in a real-life game of rock–paper–scissors. Nature , 418(6894), 171–174. Project Gallery