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Tackling stereotypes and equal access Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why representation in STEM matters Last updated: 03/04/25, 10:38 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Tackling stereotypes and equal access In collaboration with Stemmettes for International Women's Month Representation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and Science, Technology, Engineering, Art and Mathematics (STEAM), is crucial for everyone. Historically, STEM fields have been dominated by certain demographics that don’t show the true picture of our world. Maybe you grew up seeing no (or very few) women, people of colour, or other marginalised groups mentioned in your science curriculum. This needs to change because your voice, experiences and talents should be celebrated in any career you choose. Below, we’ll list some of the top reasons why representation is so important. Equal access Why does representation matter? Because it promotes equal access! Whether in an educational or career setting, seeing someone who looks like you do something you never thought possible can be life-changing. After all, you can’t be what you can’t see . Showing up in your role and sharing what you do or your STEM/STEAM interests show other people that these fields are accessible to everyone. Also, finding someone in a field you are (or would like to) get into is a great way to find a mentor, build a network, and boost your knowledge. Feeling excluded or discouraged is bound to happen at some point in your career, but anyone can succeed, no matter their background. Innovation When STEM fields are equally represented, better (and more innovative) ideas come to the table. Everything you’ve experienced can be useful in developing solutions to STEM and STEAM problems, no matter your level of education or upbringing. A lot of STEM doesn’t rely so much on your qualifications, but instead on your problem-solving, creativity, and innovation skills. For example, if you’re part of a culture that nobody else in your team has experienced, or you’ve experienced a disability and made adaptations for yourself, you bring a unique set of ideas to the table that can help solve many different problems. Inclusion There are many examples of when certain demographics haven’t been included in STEM decision-making processes. For example, many face recognition apps have failed to recognise the faces of people of colour, and period trackers have been made with misinformation about cycle lengths. If more diversity were seen throughout the process of creating a STEM product or service, we would see a lot fewer issues and a lot better products! Now, more than ever, your voice is important in STEM because science and technology are shaping the future at a fast rate. With the boom in artificial intelligence (AI) technology and its impact on almost every industry, we can’t afford to have models being trained from an unrepresentative data set. Look at people like Katherine Johnson, who despite facing setbacks as an African American at the time, was a pivotal part of sending astronauts aboard Apollo 11 into space. Or, more recently, Dr Ronx, who is paving the way as a trans-non-binary emergency medicine doctor. Tackling stereotypes Showing up in STEM & STEAM fields is a great way to tackle stereotypes. So many underrepresented groups are usually stereotyped into different career paths that are based on old, outdated notions about what certain people should do. By showing up and talking about what you love, you show that you’re not less capable than anyone else. Shout about your achievements, no matter how big or small, no matter where you are on your career journey so that we can encourage a new idea of what STEM looks like. Conclusion If this article hasn’t already given you the confidence to explore STEM and STEAM fields and all they have to offer, there are so many other reasons why you’re important to these fields and capable of achieving your dreams. Representation from you and others helps us create a more equitable, innovative, and inclusive future. It matters because the progress of science and society depends on the contributions of all, not a select few. Written by Angel Pooler -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Stemmettes for this pertinent piece on the importance of representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Check out their website , and Zine / Futures youth board (The Stemette Futures Youth Board is made up of volunteers aged 15-25 from the UK and Ireland who will ensure the voices of girls, young women and non-binary young people are heard. They will work alongside the Stemette Futures charity board to guide and lead the mission to inspire more girls, young women and non-binary young people in to STEAM). -- Related articles: Sisterhood in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Looking at the rare earth elements Last updated: 23/02/26, 21:36 Published: 26/02/26, 08:00 The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Introduction President Trump said in reference to a proposed minerals deal with Ukraine: We're telling Ukraine they have very valuable rare earths. Over the past few decades, the technological revolution has expanded the applications of the rare earth elements (REEs) from modern electronics to renewable energy sources. Despite the name, the REEs are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, but their perceived scarcity is centred around difficulties in extracting and processing. As REE refining is currently monopolised by China, access to these materials is a constant source of geopolitical tension. The REEs comprise the lanthanide series as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), and are characterised by the similarity of their chemical properties. Therefore, this article aims to introduce some of the fundamental chemistry of the rare earth elements to contextualise their role in modern technologies. Chemical properties of the REEs Scandium and yttrium are considered “honorary lanthanides,” as they form highly ionic, charge‑dense +3 cations when ionised. However, as they are transition metals, their properties cannot be explained by considering the f‑orbitals. The f‑orbitals are a set of seven orbitals which can hold a maximum of 14 electrons. For the lanthanides, each element has a set of 4f and 6s valence orbitals, with cerium (Ce),lanthanum (La), gadolinium (Gd), and lutetium (Lu) also having an occupied 5d¹ orbital. The 4f orbitals are generally contracted because of the nuclear charge felt by the electrons in these orbitals. As the atomic radius across the period decreases, this contraction is felt more strongly, meaning the resulting ions become more charge‑dense. This phenomenon is known as the lanthanide contraction. The contracted nature of the 4f orbitals explains why the lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 oxidation state (O.S). The 4f electrons are strongly attracted to the nucleus, making them energetically unfavourable to remove. Therefore, once the two 6s electrons and one 4f (or sometimes 5d) electron are removed, further ionisation becomes much more difficult. This is reflected by the ionisation potentials of the lanthanides ( Figure 1 ). However, some lanthanides can form stable +2 O.S (samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), and ytterbium (Yb)), while Ce can form a +4 O.S ( Figure 2 ). This is because of the electronic configurations of these elements. For example, Eu has an electronic configuration of [Xe] 4f⁷ 6s²; therefore, by removing two electrons, the ion becomes exchange‑energy stabilised (Eu²⁺ [Xe] 4f⁷). Another notable property of the lanthanides is their large magnetic moments. This again is a consequence of the 4f orbitals. Magnetism is determined by the number of unpaired electrons an element has and its orbital angular momentum. Orbital angular momentum is an intrinsic property and becomes more prevalent with larger elements. Therefore, as the 4f orbitals can hold up to seven unpaired electrons, coupled with the intrinsic heaviness of the lanthanides, they often exhibit strong magnetic behaviour. Applications Catalytic Converters As previously mentioned, most lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 O.S, Ce being a key exception due to its ability to cycle between +3 and +4. This property makes Ce particularly valuable in catalytic converters — vehicle exhaust devices which help reduce emissions of toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO). Using CeO₂ as a catalyst, CO₂ and N₂ are generated as less harmful by‑products ( Figure 2 ). Chemical Reagents The redox flexibility of certain lanthanides is also exploited in organic chemistry. Ce(IV) and Sm(II) compounds serve as effective oxidising and reducing agents respectively. Reagents such as ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) and cerium ammonium sulphate (CAS) are frequently used as selective oxidants, while samarium bromide (SmBr₂) is an effective reductant. MRI & Chiral Shift Reagents The magnetic properties of the lanthanides can be exploited in medical imaging, particularly in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Prior to an MRI scan, patients may be injected with a gadolinium (Gd³⁺) complex, such as [Gd(DTPA)]²⁻ ( Figure 4 ), to enhance image contrast. By coordinating water molecules and increasing the proton relaxation rate, these complexes cause certain regions of tissue to appear brighter and more easily distinguishable. Chemically, this principle is utilised when NMR spectroscopy is conducted in the laboratory. Fundamentally, MRI and NMR machines work in the same way, so by adding small quantities of paramagnetic lanthanide reagents to a proton NMR sample, changes in the chemical shift can be induced. These “lanthanide shift reagents” increase the proton relaxation rate, which reduces signal overlap and allows specific proton environments to be more easily identified. Commonly used lanthanide reagents include Eu³⁺ and Pr³⁺ complexes. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs. While chemically similar, each element has a broad range of diverse applications, whether as magnets, reagents, or even phosphors in TV sets. Certain to dominate geopolitics for the foreseeable future, understanding the chemistry and applications of the REEs has never been more important. Written by Antony Lee Project Gallery

The maths behind trading Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A comprehensive guide to the Relative Strength Index (RSI) 08/07/25, 14:37 Last updated: Published: 27/12/23, 11:02 The maths behind trading In this piece, we will delve into the essential concepts surrounding the Relative Strength Index (RSI). The RSI serves as a gauge for assessing the strength of price momentum and offers insights into whether a particular stock is in an overbought or oversold condition. Throughout this exploration, we will demystify the underlying calculations of RSI, explore its significance in evaluating market momentum, and unveil its practical applications for traders. From discerning opportune moments to buy or sell based on RSI values to identifying potential shifts in market trends, we will unravel the mathematical intricacies that underpin this critical trading indicator. Please note that none of the below content should be used as financial advice, but for educational purposes only. This article does not recommend that investors base their decisions on technical analysis alone. As indicated in the name, RSI measures the strength of a stock's momentum and can be used to show when a stock can be considered over- or under-bought, allowing us to make a more informed decision as to whether we should enter a position or hold off until a bit longer. It’s all very well and good to know that ‘you should buy when RSI is under 30 and sell when RSI is over 70' , but in this article, I will attempt to explain why this is the case and what RSI is really measuring. The calculations The relative strength index is an index of the relative strength of momentum in a market. This means that its values range from 0 to 100 and are simply a normalised relative strength. But what is the relative strength of momentum? Initial Average Gain = Sum of gains over the past 14 days / 14 Initial Average Loss = Sum of losses over the past 14 days / 14 Relative strength is the ratio of higher closes to lower closes. Over a fixed period of usually 14 days (but sometimes 21), we measure how much the price of the stock has increased in each trading day and find the mean average between them. We then repeat and do the same to find the average loss. The subsequent average gains and losses can then be calculated: Average Gain = [(Previous Avg. Gain * 13) + Current Day's Gain] / 14 Average Loss = [(Previous Avg. Loss * 13) + Current Day's Loss] / 14 With this, we can now calculate relative strength! Therefore, if our stock gained more than it lost in the past 14 days, then our RS value would be >1. On the other hand, if we lost more than we gained, then our RS value would be <1. Relative strength tells us whether buyers or sellers are in control of the price. If buyers were in control, then the average gain would be greater than the average loss, so the relative strength would be greater than 1. In a bearish market, if this begins to happen, we can say that there is an increase in buyers’ momentum; the momentum is strengthening. We can normalise relative strength into an index using the following equation: Relative Strength= Average Gain / Average Loss Traders then use the RSI in combination with other techniques to assess whether to buy or sell. When a market is ranging, which means that price is bouncing between support and resistance (has the same highs and lows for a period), we can use the RSI to see when we may be entering a trend. When the RSI is reaching 70, it is an indication that the price is being overbought, and in a ranging market, there is likely to be a correction and the price will fall so that the RSI stays at around 50. The opposite is likely to happen when the RSI dips to 30. Price action is deemed to be extreme, and a correction is likely. It should, however, be noted that this type of behaviour is only likely in assets presenting mean-reversion characteristics. In a trending market, RSI can be used to indicate a possible change in momentum. If prices are falling and the RSI reaches a low and then, a few days later, it reaches a higher low (therefore, the low is not as low as the first), it indicates a possible change in momentum; we say there is a bullish divergence. Divergences are rare when a stock is in a long-term trend but is nonetheless a powerful indicator. In conclusion, the relative strength index aims to describe changes in momentum in price action through analysing and comparing previous day's highs and lows. From this, a value is generated, and at the extremes, a change in momentum may take place. RSI is not supposed to be predictive but is very helpful in confirming trends indicated by other techniques. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Survival Secrets of the Arctic Springtail 04/07/25, 12:59 Last updated: Published: 21/09/24, 16:09 Antifreeze proteins and frozen foods Introduction Approximately 450 million years ago, during the Ordovician period, the Earth was characterised by a hot and humid globe. The sea was teeming with life, with early squids, eel-like fish, and sea worms hunting smaller animals. However, there was no sign of movement above ground as the animals had not yet crawled ashore. This period of warmth created ideal living conditions for wildlife, but it was about to change dramatically. Shortly after, the land masses began to freeze, and an ice cap started to spread. The once warm and accommodating waters turned cold and inhospitable, leading to the second-worst mass extinction in the history of the planet. Many species succumbed to the harsh conditions, but one animal survived - the springtail. The springtail, a small insect-like animal, had developed a special strategy to combat the cold. Its cells started producing proteins that could protect them from freezing. This discovery challenges the previous belief that animals did not develop antifreeze proteins until much later. Research from Aarhus University has shown that the springtail might have been the first animal to develop such proteins. Applications in the Food Industry Since then, scientists have found antifreeze proteins in various animals, plants, and microorganisms. These proteins have also found applications in different industries. One of the industries utilising antifreeze proteins is the food industry, especially in producing frozen foods. Frozen foods often suffer from changes in taste and texture due to the formation of ice crystals. However, by incorporating antifreeze proteins, these undesirable effects can be prevented. Industrial yeast cell cultures have been engineered to produce antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes. These proteins can then be added to different foods, including ice cream, to improve texture and prevent the formation of ice crystals. Exploring Arctic Fish Aside from their contribution to the food industry, springtails have also fascinated scientists due to their ability to survive in extremely cold regions. The discovery of antifreeze proteins explained how arctic fish could swim in icy seawater. The proteins prevent ice from forming in the cells and blood of the fish, allowing them to survive in freezing conditions. Martin Holmstrup, a researcher at Aarhus University, oversees colonies of springtails in his laboratory. These small animals require minimal space and can be easily maintained in Petri dishes with a base of moist plaster and a feed of dry yeast. Researchers have determined that springtails developed these proteins long before other animals by studying the DNA sequences responsible for building antifreeze proteins. The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails opens up possibilities for various applications, including in the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, which can affect the taste and texture of frozen foods. The genes responsible for their production have been copied into industrial yeast cell cultures to utilise these proteins. This allows the yeast to produce the antifreeze proteins, which can then be added to different foods. One example is the use of these proteins in ice cream, where they help create a delightful texture and allow the ice cream to be thawed and refrozen without compromising its quality. Conclusion The discovery of antifreeze proteins in springtails has revolutionised various industries, particularly the food industry. These proteins have been found to prevent ice crystal formation, improving the taste and texture of frozen foods. Incorporating antifreeze proteins derived from fish genes into yeast cell cultures can produce and add these proteins to different foods, such as ice cream, ensuring a delightful texture and the ability to thaw and refreeze without compromising quality. This remarkable adaptation of springtails has provided insight into their survival in extremely cold regions and opened up possibilities for further applications of antifreeze proteins in various fields. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: p53 protein / Zinc finger proteins / Emperor penguins, kings of ice Project Gallery

Exploring the genetic roots of a neurological tragedy Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breaking down Tay-Sachs 15/05/25, 10:43 Last updated: Published: 20/04/24, 11:29 Exploring the genetic roots of a neurological tragedy This is article no. 9 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome . Previous article: Pseudo-Angelman Syndrome . Tay-Sachs disease is a heritable metabolic condition that affects the neurons in the brain. The disease is more common in infants and young children as well as people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, although it can occur in any ethnicity. Symptoms of the disease most commonly manifest themselves in children around six months of age. However, it is possible to develop symptoms from five years old to the teenage years. There are three different forms of the disease, each appearing at different stages of life: infantile, juvenile, and adult. The adult form is much rarer and non-fatal but can still cause neuron dysfunction and psychosis. Early symptoms of the disease include mobility issues such as difficulty crawling, and as the disease progresses, the child may suffer from seizures, vision, and hearing loss. In the classic infantile form, the disease is fatal within the first few years of life or by three to five years old. In infants, infection and respiratory complications, such as pneumonia, are the most common cause of death. Being categorised as an autosomal recessive disease means that in order to display the phenotype, two copies of the mutated HEXA gene must be present in an individual. This HEXA gene is located on chromosome 15 and is responsible for producing enzymes that affect the nerve cells. The carrier frequency of Tay-Sachs is highly dependent on ethnic backgrounds, with carrier frequency being 1 in 30 for those of Ashkenazi Jewish descent and 1 in 300 for others. The chance of developing the disease early or late is predicated on the specific type of HEXA mutation that is inherited within the family. Meaning, if one child in a family possesses the infantile form, all other members of the family will also possess the infantile form (if they express the phenotype). When both parents are carriers of the Tay-Sachs gene mutation, there is a 25% chance with each pregnancy that the child will inherit two mutated copies of the HEXA gene and thus be affected by the disease. Also, there is a 50% chance the child will be a carrier like the parents and a 25% chance the child will inherit two normal copies of the gene and be unaffected. Furthermore, this particular type of gene mutation results in the disease being commonly labelled as a hexosaminidase A deficiency. The HEXA gene’s significance in the disease is further highlighted due to its ability to code for specific alpha subunits in the enzyme β-hexosaminidase A. This enzyme is involved in breaking down molecules that can be recycled in a cell through the use of lysosomes. This key cellular function helps a cell undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) or help evade bacteria that can damage a cell. However, in individuals with this HEXA gene mutation, less of the enzyme β-hexosaminidase A is produced, which results in less degradation of GM2 ganglioside. GM2 ganglioside is a lipid involved in a host of processes such as membrane organisation, neuronal differentiation, and signal transduction. In addition, due to its lack of degradation, it accumulates inside the body. The rate at which the lipid accumulates inside the cell ultimately determines the form of Tay-Sachs an individual will possess. It is worth noting that this GM2 ganglioside pathology also includes other diseases, such as Sandhoff disease and the AB variant, which have similar disease prognoses. Furthermore, the disease specifically targets the brain as gangliosides are the main lipids that compose neuronal plasma membranes. Their expression is specific to brain regions, impacting key neurodevelopmental processes like neural tube formation and synaptogenesis. Furthermore, ganglioside synthesis is a highly regulated process facilitated by glycosyltransferases during transcription and post-transcription. They also modulate ion channels and receptor signalling, which are crucial for neurotransmission, memory, and learning. The exact mechanism of how this ganglioside accumulation due to HEXA malfunction leads to neuronal death remains unclear. Figure 1 illustrates the dysfunction of the alpha subunit in HEXA as it cannot break down GM2 gangliosides. This results in an accumulation of GM2 within the liposome, contrasting with its concentration in the external environment. This accumulation of GM2 causes lysosomal dysfunction and eventually cell damage, which leads to the symptoms commonly associated with Tay-Sachs. Mouse models have been created to understand this GM2 pathway in greater detail to develop treatments. However, this is quite limited as mice do not have the same pathway of breaking down GM2 as humans. Also, since the disease may be prevalent before birth, it is hard to establish the damage done to a baby inside the womb, making reversing this disease in infants very challenging. However, the later onset types of Tay-Sachs disease might respond to treatment. Implementing ganglioside synthesis inhibitors in combination with existing DNA and enzymatic screening programs holds promise for eventually managing and controlling this condition. Parents can undergo genetic screening to assess their risk of carrying the Tay-Sachs gene, which is done by doing a simple blood test that examines the DNA for mutations in the HEXA gene. Genetic screening is particularly important for couples who have a family history of Tay-Sachs disease or who belong to ethnic groups with a higher prevalence of the condition. Early detection through genetic screening allows couples to make informed reproductive decisions, such as pursuing in vitro fertilisation with preimplantation genetic testing or opting for prenatal testing during pregnancy to determine if the foetus has inherited the mutated gene. Utilising the acronym SHADES as a mnemonic to recognise potential signs of Tay-Sachs disease in their child can help parents get a prompt medical evaluation if any symptoms arise. SHADES: S tartle response H earing loss A ffecting vision D evelopmental delay E pileptic seizures S wallowing difficulties Written by Imron Shah REFERENCES Center, N. (2015). Tay-Sachs disease. Nih.gov . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22250/ . Leal, A.F., Benincore-Flórez, E., Solano-Galarza, D., Garzón Jaramillo, R.G., Echeverri-Peña, O.Y., Suarez, D.A., Alméciga-Díaz, C.J. and Espejo-Mojica, A.J. (2020). GM2 Gangliosidoses: Clinical Features, Pathophysiological Aspects, and Current Therapies. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(17), p.6213. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176213 . Ramani, P.K. and Parayil Sankaran, B. (2022). Tay-Sachs Disease. PubMed. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564432/ . Project Gallery

Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician and biologist, and is known for his work on bioelectricity, and for laying the foundations of electrophysiology- the branch of science focusing on electricity in the body. He was born in 1737 in Bologna, Italy, and died in 1798 when the age of electricity was approaching. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Electricity in the body: Luigi Galvani Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 05/12/23 Luigi Galvani (1737- 1798) Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician and biologist, and is known for his work on bioelectricity, and for laying the foundations of electrophysiology- the branch of science focusing on electricity in the body. He was born in 1737 in Bologna, Italy, and died in 1798 when the age of electricity was approaching. Galvani began his career as a doctor after he graduated with a thesis in 1762, at the University of Bologna. The same year, he became a Reader in Anatomy at the university. He was then given the Chair of Obstetrics at the Institute of Sciences, owing to his surgical skills, and became its president in 1772. He held his chair for 33 years but was dismissed in 1797 when Napoleon’s army invaded but was reinstated sometime later. Galvani's discovery Galvani was performing experiments on frog legs at the University of Bologna, when his assistant touched his scalpel to the crural nerves of the frog, when he was drawing spark from the brass conductor of the electrostatic machine, and the frog leg twitched. Due to the current, muscular spasms were generated throughout the body. Galvani was intrigued and performed more experiments to see if he would get the same result. He did- the experiment was reproducible. Galvani used a Leyden jar (a device which stores static electricity, an early form of capacitor), and an electrostatic machine to produce this electricity. He knew that metals transmitted something called electricity, and a form of this electricity was presumably generated in the frog tissue to allow muscular contraction- he named this ‘animal electricity’. He believed this ‘animal electricity’ was different from static, and natural electricity e.g. lightning. Indeed, in 1786, during a lightning storm, he touched some frog nerves with a pair of scissors and the muscle contracted. Galvani thought ‘animal electricity’ as a fluid secreted by the brain, which flows though nerves and activates the muscles. This is how his experiments helped pave the way for electrophysiology in neuroscience. In 1786, during a lightning storm, Galvani touched some frog nerves with a pair of scissors and the muscle contracted. Galvani's experimental setup consisted of frog legs, a Leyden jar, and an electrostatic machine. He knew that metals transmitted something called electricity, and a form of this electricity was presumably generated in the frog tissue to allow muscular contraction- he named this ‘animal electricity’. A first step in the branch of electrophysiology. Galvani's progress in the field Galvani’s work was accepted by all his colleagues except for Volta, the professor of physics at the University of Pavia. Though Volta could reproduce Galvani’s experiments, he did not like Galvani’s explanation of ‘animal electricity’. Volta believed it was the two dissimilar metals producing the electricity, he named it ‘metallic electricity’, and there was no current running inside the frogs- there was no ‘animal electricity’. Galvani argued that there were electric forces inside organisms, and in 1794 he published an anonymous book Dell’uso e dell’attivita dell’arco conduttore nella contrazione dei muscoli (“On the Use and Activity of the Conductive Arch in the Contraction of Muscles”), where Galvani described his work on how he obtained electricity inside the frog, without the use of any metal. It was reported that he did this by touching the exposed muscle of one frog with a nerve of another, and the muscle contracted (Dibner 2020). This seems doubtful as Galvani’s forceps must have been in contact with spark for there to be movement. Still, it was the first attempt to demonstrate the existence of bioelectric forces. Outside of neuroscience The term ‘animal fluid’ Galvani used, is reminiscent of ‘animal spirits’, which was used by Rene Descartes, French philosopher, in the 1600s. Descartes described ‘animal spirits’ as a fluid flowing through the brain and the body, and Galvani unwittingly built on this belief with his findings on bioelectricity; the spirits ‘became’ “electricity”. There was a paradigm shift as Descartes thought that nerves were water pipes, but they were electrical conductors. This illustrates how Galvani was able to build on existing ideas in science. Limitations Even with the vigorous experiments and support, there was one limitation. For a direct correlation between frog muscle contraction and electricity generation, Galvani needed to be able to quantitatively measure the electrical currents generated in the muscle. This was difficult to do at the time since there was not enough technology to measure the currents- the currents were too small. Eventually, in the early 1900s when there were major advances in technology, Muller, Bois-Reymond, and Helmholtz, three German physiologists, managed to successfully measure the conduction of electrical activity along the nerve axon. This breakthrough furthered the branch of electrophysiology which Galvani had started. Summary In conclusion, Luigi Galvani was an influential physician and biologist, who founded the branch of electrophysiology with his experiments on frogs and metals. His results were crucial to the development of neuroscience, particularly the beginning of understanding electrical activity along the axon. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related article: Nikola Tesla and wireless electricity

Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia Last updated: 06/11/25, 11:54 Published: 29/05/25, 07:00 Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series on animal conservation. Previous article: Emperor penguins, kings of ice . First article: 55 years of vicuna conservation . Australia is home to many unique mammals because they have evolved in geographic isolation for millennia. Over 200 years ago, European colonists brought their own mammals to Australia, devastating this unique wildlife in ways that can still be seen today. One example is the rock-wallabies ( Petrogale spp. ), a group of 25 animal species and subspecies related to kangaroos. Australian scientists are monitoring rock-wallaby populations to ensure they remain safe from natural and human-caused threats. This article will describe those threats and how rock wallabies are being conserved. Rock-wallaby habitat As their name suggests, rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, including outcrops, cliffs and caves. Since they are primarily nocturnal, these habitats provide shelter in the daytime. Rock-wallabies have modified foot pads to grip tricky surfaces and access places their predators cannot. Recent research found that for two rock-wallaby species, their abundance is associated with more complex and rocky habitats. Because their habitat type is so niche and they rarely migrate, one small disturbance could wipe out an entire rock-wallaby population. This is reflected by their protections under Australian law: five types of rock-wallaby are classified as ‘vulnerable’, six as ‘endangered’, and one as ‘critically endangered’. Thus, the complex habitat of rock-wallabies is both a blessing and a curse. Threats to rock-wallabies Rock-wallabies are vulnerable or endangered mainly because of invasive predators such as foxes, cats, and goats. After being introduced from Europe during colonisation, these predators have eaten many wallabies and scared the rest into foraging elsewhere. If predators live between two rock-wallaby populations, there will be less migration and interbreeding, reducing overall genetic health ( Figure 1 ). In addition, rock-wallabies will not forage if predators are in an area, so they have limited food sources under high pressure ( Figure 1 ). Combined with these indirect reasons, direct predation by invasive mammals is the biggest threat to rock-wallaby survival. Invasive predators are not the only threats to rock-wallaby populations. Wildfires kill the plants that wallabies rely on for food and shelter, such as rock figs. For example, one wildfire in the 2019/2020 season destroyed about 38% of brush-tailed rock-wallaby habitat. The already dwindling rock-wallaby populations may disappear if the climate crisis makes wildfires less predictable and more severe. Native herbivores like the euro and invasive herbivores like goats may also compete with rock-wallabies for food. There is evidence that euros out-compete rock-wallabies when food supplies are limited, but no evidence for goats yet. Thus, fires and competition combine with invasive predators to endanger rock-wallabies. Translocation and monitoring Monitoring existing rock-wallaby populations and creating new ones by translocation are reducing the threats of predation, fire, and competition. Brush-tailed rock-wallabies were translocated to Grampians National Park in 2008, but most animals died by 2013. Scientists thought manually handling wallabies might make them stressed and more vulnerable to predators. From 2014 onwards, non-invasive monitoring procedures like cameras and faecal DNA monitoring reduced predation and increased the survival rate of young rock-wallabies. Meanwhile, black-flanked rock-wallabies were being translocated from four different source populations to Kalbarri National Park, hoping they would interbreed and create a new genetically diverse population. The project was successful, as microsatellite genotyping found that the translocated population had more heterozygotes and more alleles per locus than the source populations ( Figure 2 ). This population is predicted to grow until at least 2028 because it is diverse enough to avoid the inbreeding mentioned earlier. The Grampians and Kalbarri translocations show the importance of careful monitoring and genetic considerations for conserving rock-wallabies. Conclusion After invasive mammalian predators have decimated rock-wallaby populations throughout Australia for over 200 years, wildfires and herbivore competition make survival even more difficult. Conservation efforts are made harder by the specific and limited habitats that rock-wallabies need. However, translocation efforts which consider genetic diversity and the stress of manual handling keep rock-wallaby populations afloat. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Wildlife corridors REFERENCES Campbell, I. & Woods, S. (2013) Wildlife of Australia . Princeton, UNITED STATES: Princeton University Press. Kleemann, S., Sandow, D., Stevens, M., Schultz, D.J., Taggart, D.A. & Croxford, A. (2022) Non-invasive monitoring and reintroduction biology of the brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) in the Grampians National Park, Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology . 69 (2): 41–54. Available from: https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/ZO21009 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Lavery, T.H., Eldridge, M., Legge, S., Pearson, D., Southwell, D., Woinarski, J.C.Z., Woolley, L.-A. & Lindenmayer, D. (2021) Threats to Australia’s rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.) with key directions for effective monitoring. Biodiversity and Conservation . 30 (14): 4137–4161. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02315-3 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Morris, S.D., Johnson, C.N. & Brook, B.W. (2020) Roughing it: terrain is crucial in identifying novel translocation sites for the vulnerable brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale pencillata). Royal Society Open Science . 7 (12): 201603. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.201603 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Nilsson, K., Pearson, D., Paxman, M., Desmond, A., Kennington, J., Byrne, M. & Ottewell, K. (2023) Translocations restore a population of a threatened rock-wallaby and bolster its genetic diversity. Conservation Genetics . 24 (5): 547–561. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-023-01520-7 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Silcock, J.L., Gynther, I.C., Horsup, A., Molyneux, J., Wattz, T.L., Fairfax, R.J., Healy, A.J., Murphy, D. & McRae, P.D. (2024) Half a century of survey data reveal population recovery but persistent threats for the Vulnerable yellow-footed rock-wallaby in Queensland, Australia. Oryx . 1–13. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/half-a-century-of-survey-data-reveal-population-recovery-but-persistent-threats-for-the-vulnerable-yellowfooted-rockwallaby-in-queensland-australia/D976E61ABE458B9FADA059372117382E (Accessed 10th December 2024). Project Gallery

Insight into the different stages Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A deep dive into ovarian cancer 03/07/25, 10:24 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 14:41 Insight into the different stages Introduction Ovarian cancer occurs when abnormal cells in the ovary begin to grow and divide uncontrollably ; this may lead to tumour formation. According to Cancer Research UK , there are around 7,500 new cases of ovarian cancer each year - that is around 21 a day. This makes ovarian cancer the 6th most common cancer in females in the UK, as it makes up around 4% of all cancer cases. Nevertheless, a total of around 11% of all ovarian cancer cases are thought to be preventable. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of ovarian cancer including the risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Diagnostics At present, there is no screening test specific for ovarian cancer. Hence, this often leads to late-stage diagnosis, which results in death or high rates of recurrence within ten years of initial diagnosis, should remission be reached. Initial diagnostic testing includes transvaginal ultrasonography and serum cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) level testing. Transvaginal Ultrasonography This type of imaging is used to assess the overall architecture and vascularity of the ovaries as well as to differentiate cystic from solid masses and detect ascites (a collection of fluid within abdominal spaces). The sensitivity (a tests ability to correctly identify if an individual has a disease) and specificity (a tests ability to correct identify individuals who do not have a disease) for distinguishing malignant lesions using this type of imaging is 86% - 94%. Blood Testing Complete blood count, as well as liver function tests, calcium, and serum biomarkers, are often obtained if ovarian cancer is suspected. CA 125 is the most commonly tested biomarker. However, its usefulness in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer depends on the stage of the disease at the time of testing. CA 125 is elevated in around 80% of epithelial ovarian cancers overall. However, it is only elevated in around 50% of early-stage epithelial ovarian cancers. This biomarker may also rise in conditions such as fibroids and endometriosis. Other biomarkers involved include human epididymis protein 4 (HE4), a glycoprotein expressed in about 1/3rd of ovarian cancers that lack elevated CA125. Biomarkers for non-epithelial cancers include inhibin A/B for sex-cord stromal tumours and serum α-fetoprotein and quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin for germ cell tumours. Staging Ovarian cancer is often categorised using the FIGO (1 – 4 staging) system, named after the International Federation of Gynaecological Oncologists. Stage 1 Stage one ovarian cancer means that the cancer is only located in the ovaries and is further divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 1A : the cancer is entirely confined within a singular ovary Stage 1B : the cancer is entirely confined within both ovaries Stage 1C is split into 3 subgroups: Stage 1C1 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures during a surgical procedure Stage 1C2 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures before a surgical procedure or there is evidence of cancer on the surface of the ovary Stage 1C3 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and cancer cells are detected in the fluid collected from the abdominal cavity during surgery These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 1 at the end of the text. Stage 2 Stage 2 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the ovaries and is growing within the pelvis. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website the two groups are. Stage 2A : the cancer has extended its growth into either the fallopian tubes or the womb Stage 2B : the cancer has infiltrated surrounding tissues within the pelvic region such as the bladder or the bowel These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 2 at the end of the text. Stage 3 Stage 3 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the pelvis into the abdominal cavity or lymph nodes. It is divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 3A is divided into two subgroups: Stage 3A1 : the cancer has infiltrated lymph nodes in the rear of the abdomen Stage 3A2 : there are cancer cells detected in tissue samples taken from the peritoneum, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3B : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure up to 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3C : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure over 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 at the end of the text. Stage 4 Stage 4 ovarian cancer means the cancer has metastatic and has spread to organs some distance away from the ovaries. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website, the two groups are: Stage 4A : the cancer has induced a build-up of fluid in the pleura Stage 4B : the cancer has infiltrated various locations throughout the body including the interior of the liver or spleen, lymph nodes outside the abdominal region and any other organ within the body These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6 at the end of the text. Types of Ovarian Cancers There are three known types of ovarian cancer: epithelial, germ cell ovarian tumours and sex cord-stromal tumours. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common type of cancer. According to Cancer Research UK , about 90% of all ovarian tumours are epithelial. In this type of ovarian cancer, cancer starts in the surface layer covering the ovary. There are four stages of epithelial ovarian cancer - stages 1 to 4. Type Summary High-grade serous tumours ● 90% of all tumour tumours ● 10-year mortality rate of roughly 70% Low-grade serous tumours ● 10% of all tumour types ● Diagnosed at a younger age; better prognosis than high-grade serous tumours Endometrioid carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● Good prognosis; mostly diagnosed at an early stage and are low-grade Clear cell carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● 10% of epithelial ovarian cancers; rare form ● Often diagnosed in early stages. Late diagnosis has a poor prognosis. Mucinous carcinoma ● Least common form of epithelial ovarian cancer ● Origins linked with metastasis from gastrointestinal tract Table 1. Types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Germ Cell Ovarian Cancers Germ cell ovarian tumours are rare as they make up only 3% of ovarian cancer cases. They have a younger age of diagnosis with the average age being between 10 and 30 years old. Germ cell ovarian tumours can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous) Sex Cord-Stromal Tumours Sex cord-stromal tumours (SCSTs) are rare tumours of the ovary that originate in tissues that support the ovaries, known as the stroma or the sex cords. SCSTs account for around 5% of all ovarian cancer cases and are often diagnosed early. There are three main groups of SCSTs: Pure stromal tumours such as fibromas and thecomas. These are mainly benign. Pure sex cord tumours such as adult and juvenile granulosa cell tumours. These are the most common types of SCSTs and are malignant. Mixed sex cord-stromal tumours such as Sertoli-Leydig cell tumours. These can be either malignant or benign. Symptoms Historically, the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer are non-specific and vague. The most common presenting symptoms in women are: Swelling or bloating of the abdomen Feel full quickly when eating Unexplained weight loss Pelvic and or abdominal pain or discomfort Unexplained fatigue A frequent need to urinate Changes in bowel habits or IBS symptoms The most common presenting symptom in children and adolescents is persistent abdominal pain. However, precocious puberty, irregular periods or hirsutism (excessive hair growth) may also be present. Due to the non-specific nature of these symptoms, many women will not get them checked by a doctor. It is still vitally important for a person to get any non-typical symptoms checked out by a doctor. Early diagnosis will lead to better outcomes. Treatment There are a variety of different treatment options for ovarian cancer. The treatment an individual undergoes is dependent on the size and location of the cancer as well as if it is metastatic. Debulking Surgery Debulking is a type of cytoreductive surgery that aims to remove as much cancer as possible if it has spread to areas within the pelvis and abdomen. This type of surgery is a mainstay of ovarian cancer treatment as most cases are more advanced in staging when initially diagnosed. Generally, debulking surgery is used on cancer that has spread widely throughout the abdomen and its goal is to do ‘optimal cytoreduction’, meaning no visible cancer is left behind or, if removing all visible disease is not possible, lesions less than 1cm in size are left. Hysterectomy For most women, a hysterectomy is the first-line treatment for ovarian cancer. The surgery removes the womb (including the cervix) as well as both ovaries and fallopian tubes and is known as a total abdominal hysterectomy (TAH) and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO) . This procedure is further illustrated by Figure 7 at the end of the text. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer drugs to destroy cancer. These drugs circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream. In the treatment of ovarian cancer, chemotherapy can be given before, during or after surgery. The most commonly used drugs are carboplatin and paclitaxel. However, these are not the only options. Chemotherapy is typically used in the treatment of ovarian cancer if the cancer is: ● Stage 1C or above ● Stage 1A or 1B but is high grade ● Has come back (recurrence) Medication Route of administration Stage treated Duration Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and cisplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Dose-dense paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Carboplatin and liposomal doxorubicin Intravenous II, III, IV 28 days Bevacizumab with paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Table 2. Commonly used chemotherapy drugs for ovarian cancer Radiotherapy Radiotherapy involves the use of high-energy X-rays to destroy ovarian cancer cells. It is not the main treatment of ovarian cancer and is often used to try and shrink the size of tumours or to reduce the symptoms of advanced ovarian cancer. This is known as palliative radiotherapy . Targeted Therapies Cancer-targeting drugs change how a cell works by acting on cellular processes or by modifying cell signalling. They stimulate the body to attack or control cancer cell growth. These drugs are a form of palliative treatment. The two most common drugs are olaparib and bevacizumab. Olparib Olaparib (Lynparza) belongs to a drug type known as cancer growth blockers. It acts on PARP (poly ADP-ribose polymerase); a protein that helps damaged cells repair and regenerate themselves. Olaparib inhibits PARP from working. Bevacizumab Bevacizumab (Avastin) belongs to a drug type known as anti-angiogenesis treatments. It targets VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) proteins. VEGFs aid in cancer cell growth as they help cancers develop their blood supplies, meaning they can become self-sufficient. Bevacizumab blocks VEGF proteins from working, which cuts off the blood supply that feeds the cancer, ultimately starving it and preventing its growth. Risk Factors Modifiable Nonmodifiable Smoking BRCA1 and/ord BRCA2 mutation carrier Hormone Replacement Therapy (particularly for more than five years) Family predisposition/history Obesity Lynch syndrome Endometriosis Uninterrupted ovulation cycles Ethnicity/race Table 3. Ovarian cancer risk factors Genetic Syndromes Familial genetic syndromes are the strongest known risk factor for the development of ovarian cancers, as they account for around 10% - 12% of all cases. Table 4 which is taken from the paper ‘Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer’ by Doubeni et al (2016) illustrates genetic syndromes known to have an increased risk of ovarian cancer. Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome (HBOC) Mutations of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are primarily associated with a genetic risk of developing ovarian cancer and can increase the risk from 1.6% to 40% ( BRCA1 ) and 1.6% to 18% ( BRCA2 ). This syndrome should be considered if a woman has close blood relative with a diagnosis of ovarian or breast cancer by the age of 50. Lynch Syndrome Although less common, Lynch syndrome is also linked to the development of ovarian cancer as it is involved in 2% - 3% of cases. Lynch syndrome is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder in which there is a mutation that increases the risk for certain cancers, specifically colorectal cancer, as well as increases the risk for other malignancies. Ovulation Ovulation is directly linked to the risk of ovarian cancer. Studies have shown that the more ovulatory cycles a woman has, the higher her risk of developing ovarian cancer. This may be due to the pro-inflammatory response from the distal fallopian tube during ovulation, which is known to promote malignant ovarian tendencies. Assuming this is true, factors that interrupt or prevent ovulation, such as contraception, early onset menses, pregnancy, breastfeeding and early menopause, could decrease a woman’s risk of developing ovarian cancer. Endometriosis Endometriosis, a disease in which tissue similar to the uterine lining grows outside the uterus, is known to be linked to some types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Endometriosis-associated epithelial ovarian cancers tend to develop in younger women and have an overall better prognosis. -- Where to seek help if affected by this article... F or support and more information regarding ovarian cancer: Macmillan Cancer Research If you or somebody you know have been affected by this article, help is always available: Mind and Samaritans -- Written by Lily Manns Related articles: A breakthrough drug discovery process in cancer treatment / Immune signals and metastasis / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Reference guide Cancer Research. Ovarian Cancer Statistics: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/statistics-by-cancer-type/ovarian-c ancer Cancer Research. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/types/epithelial-ovarian-cancers/ep ithelial Cancer Research. Stages and grades of ovarian cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/stages-grades Elsevier. Ovarian Cancer: An integrated review: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749208119300129?via%3Dihub American Family Physician. Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2016/0601/p937.html Cancer Research. Treatment for Ovarian Cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/treatment Project Gallery

It’s been found that the species Dicrurus adsimilis (fork-tailed drongos) uses deception by flexible alarm mimicry to target and carry out food-theft attempts. The deceptive tactics of the fork-tailed drongo were studied which includes the use of false alarm calls and mimicked calls. Research was done on 64 wild drongos in the Kalahari Desert and it was found that the drongos spent more than a quarter of their time watching their target species which included southern pied babblers and meerkats Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Deception by flexible alarm mimicry in an African bird Last updated: 05/11/24 Published: 28/12/22 It’s been found that the species Dicrurus adsimilis (fork-tailed drongos) uses deception by flexible alarm mimicry to target and carry out food-theft attempts. The deceptive tactics of the fork-tailed drongo were studied which includes the use of false alarm calls and mimicked calls. Research was done on 64 wild drongos in the Kalahari Desert and it was found that the drongos spent more than a quarter of their time watching their target species which included southern pied babblers and meerkats. The other species’ would listen to the alarm calls made by drongos and would rush to take cover as they would if it was an alarm call from their species. These alarm calls were beneficial to them as it increased the number of returns from foraging and reduced their vigilance. However, the drongos used this to their advantage and if the target species was to find a large item of food the drongos could produce a false alarm call to make the target species run to cover out of fear which allowed the observing drongo to steal the deserted food. In 42% of cases of false alarms the drongos used a mimicked cry and in another 27% it was a mixture of mimicked and drongo-specific. This could be because target species are more likely to respond to a mimicked alarm call. In the case of babblers, if they heard a mimicked alarm call they would take longer to carry on foraging than with a drongo-specific call. The results show that false alarm calls by drongos work to distract their target but the call should also be frequently changed and not overused for best results. Written by Areebah Khan Related article: Conserving the Californian condor SUMMARISED FROM Flower, T.P., Gribble, M. and Ridley, A.R. (2014) “Deception by flexible alarm mimicry in an African bird,” Science, 344(6183), pp. 513–516.

Read articles delving into the universal genetic code: from specific examples of epigenetic modifications, to rare genetic diseases. Genetics Articles Read articles delving into the universal genetic code: from specific examples of epigenetic modifications, to rare genetic diseases. You may also like: Biology Why South Asian genes remember famine An example of epigenetic modification CEDS- a break in cell death Looking at caspase-8’s inability to trigger cell death. Article #11 in a series on Rare diseases. COMING SOON COMING SOON Previous