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The Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis, are a result of the Sun's immense gravity weakening with increasing distance from its centre, enabling the outermost regions of the Sun's corona to escape as solar wind, which travels towards Earth. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why were the Northern Lights seen in the UK? Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 05/04/23 On the 26th and 27th of February 2023, the UK experienced a rare treat - a “Red Alert” indicating a good chance of seeing the Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis. This captivating event drew people from all over the country, eager to witness one of nature's most awe-inspiring displays. But why is it that opportunities to observe the Northern Lights from the lower latitudes of the UK, France, and Germany are so rare? To truly appreciate the answer to this question, it's important to understand the fascinating science behind the Northern Lights and the 'Northern' aspect that gives them their name. What are the Northern Lights? The Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis, are a result of the Sun's immense gravity weakening with increasing distance from its centre, enabling the outermost regions of the Sun's corona to escape as solar wind, which travels towards Earth. The boundary at which the solar wind and corona are distinguished is known as the Alfvén surface. This solar wind is a plasma composed of protons, electrons, and other charged particles, which collide with atoms in Earth's atmosphere and excite the electrons in these atoms to higher energy levels. Upon de-excitation, the energy gained via collisions is released by the emission of light. Lucky observers saw the characteristic emerald green hues, which result from oxygen atoms at an altitude of around 100km. Those luckier still may have seen crimson aurorae caused by oxygen atoms at roughly 150km upwards. We observe different colours because the chemical composition of Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude. The Northern Lights. Credit: Evan Boyce Why are they (typically) only visible at the poles? The solar wind travels at millions of kilometres per hour and engulfs the Earth. Equatorial regions are protected by Earth's magnetic field as it deflects the solar wind. However, the magnetic field converges at Earth's magnetic poles, redirecting the charged particles of the solar wind to these high-latitude regions, such as Scandinavia and Canada. The same effect occurs at the southern magnetic pole, only these lights are named "Aurora Australis." The "auroral zone" is the region of Earth's atmosphere associated with this magnetic funnelling of charged particles. It takes the shape of an annulus centred on Earth's north magnetic pole and is usually in the 65°-70° latitude range. Why were they visible in the UK last month? The “auroral zone” is key to understanding this question. It is by no means a fixed or static region. There happened to be two coronal mass ejections (CMEs) which arrived at Earth on consecutive nights. The much greater intensity of these CMEs can give rise to distortions to the magnetic field lines resulting in what is called a geomagnetic storm. This triggers the expansion of the ‘auroral zone’ to lower latitudes, thus allowing the Northern Lights to be seen by UK observers. A graph displaying geomagnetic activity with universal time (UTC). Credit: @aurorawatchuk on Twitter How to know when to look? AuroraWatch UK is a free service run by the Lancaster University Department of Physics, providing alerts on the likelihood of observing the Northern Lights. This likelihood is based on geomagnetic activity measurements - disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field - from a network of magnetometers called SAMNET (Sub-Auroral Magnetometer Network). I will certainly be eagerly awaiting the next “Red Alert” and hoping for clear skies! Written by Joseph Brennan

Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How fake science websites hijack our trust in experts to misinform and confuse Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 29/12/22 In science, all research is peer-reviewed by experts. Now, fake science websites are mimicking these disciplines. These websites capitalise on our trust in experts. In some cases, these websites are paid to publish fake science. This is becoming more common. In a recent global survey, almost 50% of respondents said they see false or misleading information online daily. By understanding the methods these sites use we can prevent their influence. Hyperlinking is a technique used to convince website users. They reassure the user that the content is credible, but most people don’t have experience in analytical techniques and so these links aren’t questioned. Repetition is used to increase the visibility of fake science content but also saturate search engines. This content can be repeated and spread across different sites. Users of “lateral reading” get multiple websites that corroborate the fake science from the initial source. Many of these sites only choose articles that agree with their perspective and depend on the audience not taking time to follow up. Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. On fake science websites first, check the hyperlinked articles. These websites will use sites with repeated content from disreputable sites. Next, look at the number of reposts a website has. Legitimate science posts are on credible websites. Some websites investigate websites that feature fake science. Ultimately, these websites thrive on users not having the time or skills to look deeper into the evidence, so doing so will help expose the fake websites. Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Digital disinformation / COVID-19 misconceptions

Resources specific to A-levels to help students with revision. A-levels Are you a student currently studying A-levels, or looking to choose them in the near future? Read below for tips and guidance! You may also like: IB resources , University prep and Extra resources What are A-levels? Jump to resources A-levels, short for Advanced Level qualifications, are a widely recognised and highly regarded educational program typically taken by students in the United Kingdom (UK) and some other countries. They are usually studied in the final two years of secondary education, typically between the ages of 16 and 18. A-levels offer students the opportunity to specialise in specific subjects of their choice. Students typically choose three or four subjects to study, although this may vary depending on the educational institution. The subjects available can be diverse, covering areas such as sciences, humanities, social sciences, languages, and arts. How are A-levels graded? The A-level grading system is based on a letter grade scale in the UK. Here's an overview of the A-level grading system: Grades: A* (pronounced "A-star"): The highest grade achievable, demonstrating exceptional performance. A: Excellent performance, indicating a strong understanding of the subject. B: Very good performance, showing a solid grasp of the subject. C: Good performance, representing a satisfactory level of understanding. D: Fair performance, indicating a basic understanding of the subject. E: Marginal performance, showing a limited understanding of the subject. U: Ungraded, indicating that the student did not meet the minimum requirements to receive a grade. What are the benefits of studying A-level? A-levels provide students with a variety of advantages, such as a solid academic foundation for further education, the chance to focus on interest-specific areas, and flexibility in planning their course of study. Transferable abilities like critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research are developed in A-levels, improving both prospects for entrance to universities and future employment opportunities. These widely respected credentials encourage intellectual vigour, intellectual curiosity, and a love of lifelong study. A-levels provide students with a strong foundation for success in higher education and a variety of career pathways, thanks to their academic rigour and global renown. Resources for revision Web sites to hel p Maths / Maths and Further Maths Chemistry / Chemrevise / Chemguide Biology / Quizzes Physics: A-level Physics / Isaac Physics Computer Science topic-by-topic Teach Computer Science Psychology All subjects / Seneca Learning / Save My Exams Physics and Maths Tutor YouTube channels to hel p Chemistry- Allery Chemistry and Eliot Rintoul Past p apers Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Maths Textbooks (depend on exam board) CGP range for Bio, Chem, Phys, and Maths- exam practice workbooks

At Scientia News, we provide free help with personal statements for students applying to UK universities. From proofreading and checking to detailed feedback reports, there is a lot of support. We check UCAS personal statements for free! What are UCAS personal statements? For UK-based universities UCAS personal statements are a chance for students to show a UK university why they should be offered a place to study a particular subject there. Academics or more? Whilst academics are important to talk about, it is just as necessary to talk about who you are beyond your grades, too. We can inform you on what this may look like. Page limited It is critical to note that the statements must not be longer than 1 page: anything beyond this will not be read. You can v isit UCAS for more information... Deadline! All statements must be submitted through UCAS by 31st January 2024 at 18:00 (UK time). However, the earlier the better as universities accept students on a rolling deadline. The process of submitting a personal statement: 1. Research university courses interested in 2. Pick a course & write statement on why this subject 3. Check and edit statement for approval 4. Submit to your top 5 university choices Note for those that are considering medicine or dentistry: You (normally) will have to choose 1 university out of the 5 where you will do a back up course i.e. something that is not medicine or dentistry. What we offer to you: Proofreading To catch any remaining errors or inconsistencies in draft statements Expert advisors Graduates or current university students will provide personalised advice to highlight your unique qualities, and align your statement with your chosen field of study Goals We'll assist in articulating your passion and long-term goals effectively Feedback Get detailed feedback reports with specific improvement suggestions Guidance Giving example guideline questions for you to answer and include in your statement. This will help to create flow and making adjustments easier. Structure Advice on approaching your introduction, main body paragraphs and ending Examples of universities where some of our volunteers currently attend, or have graduated from: Queen Mary University of London, Imperial College London, Kings College London, University of Liverpool and so on. Fill the form out below and we will contact you* * Alternatively, you can email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com . Please keep the subject as 'Personal Statement'. * Disclaimer: there must be no plagiarism in all statements submitted - we will assume there has been no copying. Scientia News will not be responsible for any plagiarism detection by UCAS, as we only give advice. Email Subject Your message Send Thanks for submitting!

Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are pandemics becoming less severe? Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 25/04/23 Ever since the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic in March 2020, many people have become more aware of future pandemics and best management strategies for these health disasters. For example, an online article from 2022 discussed ways to prepare for the next pandemic such as surveilling zoonotic diseases and planning for faster vaccine production; these can be effective in overcoming another pandemic in the future, though it is important to consider factors that may inhibit the above strategies aside from exacerbating future pandemics. With this said, this article will compare the reasons for pandemics becoming less severe and the reasons why they can become worse. Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Firstly, vaccinations reduced the spread of and prevented serious symptoms of many infectious diseases ranging from the eradicated smallpox to the seasonal influenza. Therefore, undermining the success of vaccines during pandemics is not ideal since this has negative consequences, mainly prolonging pandemics and killing more people. Secondly, there are antimicrobial treatments for a person infected with either a viral, bacterial, protozoal, or fungal infection. For instance during World War 2, penicillin has decreased bacterial pneumonia’s death rate from 18% to 1% in soldiers as well as saving 14% of the UK’s injured soldiers. Therefore, this event prevented bacterial spread and a potential pandemic that could have occurred without penicillin or other antibiotics. Another important treatment is for malaria. A review and meta analysis from Ethiopia showed that for artemether-lumefantrine in 10 studies involving 1179 patients, 96.7% did not have a fever and 98.5% did not have the malaria parasite after they were treated for 3 days. Again, artemether-lumefantrine with other antiparasitic drugs reduced the possibility of a malarial pandemic. Additionally, there are non-medical interventions that may decrease the severity of pandemics. For instance, a cross-panel analysis discovered that enforcing a lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic saw new cases declining around 10 days after execution and this benefit grows after 20 days of the lockdown. Similarly, a review highlighted that social distancing of more than 1 metre between individuals led to reduced COVID-19 transmission risk by 5 times while the impact of protection two-fold for each extra 1 metre. Considering both of these methods, re-using them for future pandemics can reduce infectious disease spread in combination with vaccinations and antimicrobial drugs. On the other hand, it is crucial to consider the counter argument of why pandemics may worsen in the future. To illustrate, there is the possibility that diseases could resurge into more fatal variants similar to COVID-19, which lead to more deaths and vaccines becoming less effective. Alternatively, there may a current contagious pathogen that can combine with another one to form a new disease; this is how HIV/AIDS become virulent since the 1980s to present day as researchers uncovered that the virus collaborates with non-viral diseases like malaria and tuberculosis and viral diseases such as hepatitis C to harm/kill the patient. These instances can occur for viral pathogens along with other types (protists, bacteria and fungi). As for non-viral pathogens, it is likely that future pandemics originate from them with a review discussing bacteria like MRSA or ones causing water-borne and unsanitary food infections infecting humans and animals. It elaborated that multi-drug resistant bacteria would be arduous to destroy opposed to non-resistant ones, resulting in higher: mortalities, medical logistics, costs and hospitalisations. Going back to penicillin with other antibiotics, although it was used since World War 2 for bacterial infections, resistance towards them has exponentially increased whereby countless types of bacteria overpower their effects because antibiotics have been overprescribed and their use in agriculture has made bacteria stronger. Another reason to consider pandemics becoming worse is the counter-effectiveness of lockdowns. An article stated that comparing them between countries is insufficient because there is a lack of evidence for them tackling COVID-19 and the 1918-1920 Spanish Flu. Also, it found that it is expensive to enforce them and suggested a 20 fold death rate, indicating that a cost-benefit analysis is needed before utilising lockdowns to stop the spread of infectious diseases. Additionally, COVID-19 not only had detrimental impacts on health, it influenced non-health factors such as economics, culture and politics. For example, lots of Iranian people went to crowded places and business centres as the government did not have the finances during their lockdown to protect citizens from the virus. Overall, everyone should collaborate to prepare for the inevitability of future pandemics because historically, using a multitude of methods: lockdowns, vaccines, social distancing and antimicrobial drugs in order to minimise the time span and consequences of the pandemics. Referring back to deadliest pandemics from the past like the Black Death and Spanish Flu, it is our responsibility to prevent history from repeating itself. Written by Sam Jarada Related article: Rare zoonotic diseases REFERENCES Sridhar D. Five ways to prepare for the next pandemic. Nature. 2022 Oct 26;610(7933):S50–0. Jarus O. 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history. livescience.com. 2020 Mar 3. Rayner C. How the discovery of penicillin has influenced modern medicine - The Oxford Scientist. The Oxford Scientist. 2020 June 1. Ayalew MB. Therapeutic efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 2017 Nov 15;6(1). Alfano V, Ercolano S. The Efficacy of Lockdown Against COVID-19: A Cross-Country Panel Analysis. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy. 2020 Jun 3;18(4):509–17. Sun KS, Lau TSM, Yeoh EK, Chung VCH, Leung YS, Yam CHK, et al. Effectiveness of different types and levels of social distancing measures: a scoping review of global evidence from earlier stage of COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open. 2022 Apr 1;12(4):e053938. Singer M. Pathogen-pathogen interaction. Virulence. 2010;1(1):10–8. Salazar CB, Spencer P, Mohamad K, Jabeen A, Abdulmonem WA, Fernández N. Future pandemics might be caused by bacteria and not viruses: Recent advances in medical preventive practice. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2022;16(3):1–3. Ventola CL. The Antibiotic Resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and Threats. P & T : a peer-rev10. Yanovskiy M, Socol Y. Are Lockdowns Effective in Managing Pandemics? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jul 29;19(15):9295. Yoosefi Lebni J, Abbas J, Moradi F, Salahshoor MR, Chaboksavar F, Irandoost SF, et al. How the COVID-19 pandemic effected economic, social, political, and cultural factors: A lesson from Iran. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2020 Jul 2;67(3):002076402093998.

The secrets of the brain are secrets no longer; the field of neuroscience is rapidly expanding day by day. Read articles which discuss Parkinsonism, Huntington’s, degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and more. Neuroscience Articles The secrets of the brain are secrets no longer; the field of neuroscience is rapidly expanding day by day. Read articles which discuss Parkinsonism, Huntington’s, degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and more. You may also like: Biology , Immunology , Medicine Synaptic plasticity and London taxi drivers Synaptic plasticity and navigating our surroundings Stress and neurodegeneration And how the hormone cortisol plays a significant role Markers for Parkinsonism Exploring the role of TDP43 The wonders of the human brain A basic overview of brain function The brain-climate connection Can rising temperatures really affect our brains? Schizophrenia and accelerated ageing A complex medical phenotype Squid axons And how they were fundamental to discoveries in neuroscience Alzheimer's disease Its pathology and potential treatment Serial killers Their neurological basis Huntington's disease A rare, inherited, debilitating neurological disease Electricity in the body Luigi Galvani 's work PTSD and intrusive memories Article #1 in a series on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and traumatic memories Mobility disorders Hypermobility spectrum disorders vs. Hypermobile Ehler-Danos Syndrome Brief neuroanatomy of autism Autism is a neurological and developmental disorder Oliver Sacks Who was this famous neuroscientist? A treatment for Huntington's disease Antisense oligonucleotide gene therapy PTSD and Tetris Article #2 in a series on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and traumatic memories The dopamine connection The link between the brain and the digestive system Neuromyelitis optica (NMO)- Devic disease How is it different to Multiple Sclerosis? Article #8 in a series on Rare diseases. DFNB9 How was this form of deafness treated for the first time? Next

Resources to help you prepare for university admission. Entrance Exam Preparation Resources to help you with university admission for: medicine , dentistry, natural sciences , physics , maths , engineering . Do note these entrance exams are mainly for UK universities, but can be used for international unis too. It is advised to check with the university when applying. You may also like: A-level resources, IB resources and Extra resources MEDICINE: University Clinical Aptitude Test (UCAT) UCAT resources: UCAT website / The Medic Portal / 6med UCAT Books: 1300 UCAT Practice Questions / 1250 UKCAT Practice Questions / UCAT 700+ UCAT online course: Medify Help with medical exams DENTISTRY: UCAT and BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT; for University of Leeds only) Dentistry application preparation BMAT: online mastery course / Medify guide / Past papers / 700 BMAT Practice Questions / BMAT ebook For UCAT resources, see above OTHER ADMISSION TESTS Engineering: STEP / PAT University of Cambridge: natural sciences (NSAA) / engineering (ENGAA) / maths (STEP) / physics (PAT)

This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Summary of a liquid viscosity experiment Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 26/01/23 For this experiment the liquid viscosity of castor oil was determined by dropping steel spherical balls into a tube of castor oil. By considering the forces acting on the ball whilst in the fluid, it was found that the viscosity was 1.37±0.01 Pa s with a percentage error of 71.25% to the literature value of castor oil’s viscosity. This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, because as the particles slide past each other there will be work done to slide over another particle which will produce heat. For this experiment, laminar flow was a valid model for the sphere falling down the castor oil tube, because the terminal velocity of the sphere is quite small and was reached quickly so there will not be any turbulence effects. Laminar flow is defined when liquids flow smoothly with layers that do not mix, however when the layers do mix then the flow is turbulent with different layers of the fluid swirling and mixing. As the sphere was travelling through the fluid there were three forces acting on it: drag force, weight and buoyancy. This investigation can be furthered as viscosity is vital in the field of medicine. There are certain drugs that are directly injected into patients so by knowing the optimal path for the drug to be administered, the drug can reach the patient’s vital areas as quickly as possible. Overall, this experiment was interesting as it led to numerous insights as to what may have affected the motion of a sphere falling down the tube of a viscous fluid, regardless of the simplicity of the experiment. Even though the uncertainties did not overlap with the literature value and the percentage differences were very high (in part due to calculations of the momentum), the experiment was not a failure due to the scientific insight it provided to make a carry out a more accurate experiment. Written by Siam Sama Related article: Pendulum and its relation to gravity experiment

Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician and biologist, and is known for his work on bioelectricity, and for laying the foundations of electrophysiology- the branch of science focusing on electricity in the body. He was born in 1737 in Bologna, Italy, and died in 1798 when the age of electricity was approaching. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Electricity in the body: Luigi Galvani Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 05/12/23 Luigi Galvani (1737- 1798) Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician and biologist, and is known for his work on bioelectricity, and for laying the foundations of electrophysiology- the branch of science focusing on electricity in the body. He was born in 1737 in Bologna, Italy, and died in 1798 when the age of electricity was approaching. Galvani began his career as a doctor after he graduated with a thesis in 1762, at the University of Bologna. The same year, he became a Reader in Anatomy at the university. He was then given the Chair of Obstetrics at the Institute of Sciences, owing to his surgical skills, and became its president in 1772. He held his chair for 33 years but was dismissed in 1797 when Napoleon’s army invaded but was reinstated sometime later. Galvani's discovery Galvani was performing experiments on frog legs at the University of Bologna, when his assistant touched his scalpel to the crural nerves of the frog, when he was drawing spark from the brass conductor of the electrostatic machine, and the frog leg twitched. Due to the current, muscular spasms were generated throughout the body. Galvani was intrigued and performed more experiments to see if he would get the same result. He did- the experiment was reproducible. Galvani used a Leyden jar (a device which stores static electricity, an early form of capacitor), and an electrostatic machine to produce this electricity. He knew that metals transmitted something called electricity, and a form of this electricity was presumably generated in the frog tissue to allow muscular contraction- he named this ‘animal electricity’. He believed this ‘animal electricity’ was different from static, and natural electricity e.g. lightning. Indeed, in 1786, during a lightning storm, he touched some frog nerves with a pair of scissors and the muscle contracted. Galvani thought ‘animal electricity’ as a fluid secreted by the brain, which flows though nerves and activates the muscles. This is how his experiments helped pave the way for electrophysiology in neuroscience. In 1786, during a lightning storm, Galvani touched some frog nerves with a pair of scissors and the muscle contracted. Galvani's experimental setup consisted of frog legs, a Leyden jar, and an electrostatic machine. He knew that metals transmitted something called electricity, and a form of this electricity was presumably generated in the frog tissue to allow muscular contraction- he named this ‘animal electricity’. A first step in the branch of electrophysiology. Galvani's progress in the field Galvani’s work was accepted by all his colleagues except for Volta, the professor of physics at the University of Pavia. Though Volta could reproduce Galvani’s experiments, he did not like Galvani’s explanation of ‘animal electricity’. Volta believed it was the two dissimilar metals producing the electricity, he named it ‘metallic electricity’, and there was no current running inside the frogs- there was no ‘animal electricity’. Galvani argued that there were electric forces inside organisms, and in 1794 he published an anonymous book Dell’uso e dell’attivita dell’arco conduttore nella contrazione dei muscoli (“On the Use and Activity of the Conductive Arch in the Contraction of Muscles”), where Galvani described his work on how he obtained electricity inside the frog, without the use of any metal. It was reported that he did this by touching the exposed muscle of one frog with a nerve of another, and the muscle contracted (Dibner 2020). This seems doubtful as Galvani’s forceps must have been in contact with spark for there to be movement. Still, it was the first attempt to demonstrate the existence of bioelectric forces. Outside of neuroscience The term ‘animal fluid’ Galvani used, is reminiscent of ‘animal spirits’, which was used by Rene Descartes, French philosopher, in the 1600s. Descartes described ‘animal spirits’ as a fluid flowing through the brain and the body, and Galvani unwittingly built on this belief with his findings on bioelectricity; the spirits ‘became’ “electricity”. There was a paradigm shift as Descartes thought that nerves were water pipes, but they were electrical conductors. This illustrates how Galvani was able to build on existing ideas in science. Limitations Even with the vigorous experiments and support, there was one limitation. For a direct correlation between frog muscle contraction and electricity generation, Galvani needed to be able to quantitatively measure the electrical currents generated in the muscle. This was difficult to do at the time since there was not enough technology to measure the currents- the currents were too small. Eventually, in the early 1900s when there were major advances in technology, Muller, Bois-Reymond, and Helmholtz, three German physiologists, managed to successfully measure the conduction of electrical activity along the nerve axon. This breakthrough furthered the branch of electrophysiology which Galvani had started. Summary In conclusion, Luigi Galvani was an influential physician and biologist, who founded the branch of electrophysiology with his experiments on frogs and metals. His results were crucial to the development of neuroscience, particularly the beginning of understanding electrical activity along the axon. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related article: Nikola Tesla and wireless electricity

For this experiment, the gravitational acceleration was calculated by measuring the time period of a simple pendulum using three different experimental methods; methods 2 and 3 were more similar than method 1. This experiment is primarily for data analysis of the measurements taken of a simple pendulum oscillating freely to determine the acceleration due to gravity. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Outline of an investigation of the period of a single pendulum, and its relation to gravity Last updated: 13/11/24 Last updated: 26/01/23 For this experiment, the gravitational acceleration was calculated by measuring the time period of a simple pendulum using three different experimental methods; methods 2 and 3 were more similar than method 1. This experiment is primarily for data analysis of the measurements taken of a simple pendulum oscillating freely to determine the acceleration due to gravity. This experiment can be repeated but can be carried out in different viscous liquids to see how the extra damping force affects the time period of the oscillation and calculate the g value from it. This can be useful to know as then making pendulum watches to work, say in different environments (such as under water), will be easier to make. It has future implications in industries and/ or technologies that produce related devices. Overall, this experiment was flawed from the beginning from not correctly applying the small angle criteria (in methods 2 and 3). However, there was success for method 1. (Reduced from a full lab report) Written by Siam Sama Related article: Viscosity of castor oil experiment