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The properties and nature of matter, and energy. Read up on insights on astro-archaelogy, uncover the concept of building physics, and look at transformers. Physics Articles The properties and nature of matter, and energy. Read up on insights on astro-archaelogy, uncover the concept of building physics, and look at transformers. You may also like: Maths, Technology , Engineering Chaco Canyon, New Mexico Cities designed to track the heavens. Article #1 in a series on astro-archaelogy The Anthropic Principle Science or God? This theory is explained by physics Building Physics The field of study of how buildings interact with the environment to design comfortable and energy-efficient structures The pyramids of Giza, Egypt The astronomical symbolism of these great structures. Article #2 in a series on astro-archaelogy Lonar Lake The astro-geography of this structure in India Basics of transformers An overview on conventional transformers, and Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law The celestial blueprint of time The astronomical important of the structures at Stonehenge, UK. Article #3 in a series on astro-archaelogy Light How is light one of the biggest mysteries in physics? Looking at the Observer Effect and more Creatio ex Nihilo The intersection of physics and religion Previous

Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Antiretroviral therapy: a key to helping HIV patients 09/07/25, 10:51 Last updated: Published: 12/10/24, 11:34 Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Human Immunodeficiency Virus, commonly called HIV, is a sexually transmitted disease that affects approximately 40 million people worldwide and is mostly common in ages 15-49 years. It is spread through direct contact with the blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, and vaginal fluids of an infected person through mucous membranes—contact with male and female genital tracks. Additionally, HIV can be spread through breast milk from mother to child—studies have shown that infants likely contract the virus when the milk makes contact with the mucous membranes of the gut. How does HIV affect immune cells? HIV is a retrovirus—enveloped RNA viruses that can evade the immune defense system and live within host cells indefinitely. To infect cells HIV uses several mechanisms to make contact with the host cell's membrane. This involves the binding of HIV envelope protein (Env) with the cell receptor CD4 of an immune cell (T-helper cells). Env then binds to a co-receptor on the surface of the cell membrane, triggering membrane fusion. Membrane fusion leads to formation of a fusion pore where HIV successfully enters into the cell's cytoplasm through. Following this, HIV converts its RNA to DNA using enzyme reverse transcriptase and then uses integrase enzymes to become a permanent part of the host cell’s DNA. This allows HIV to replicate at a rapid rate, eventually causing the cells to bloat and rupture, killing the cell all while also “hiding” from the immune defense system and going into latency. Such a process is what weakens the immune system as there is a significant depletion in T-helper cells—cells that fight off infections and diseases. The evolution of ART For the reasons above, HIV is almost impossible to cure. While research is still being conducted to find a cure for HIV, most studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). ART is a revolutionary treatment introduced in the late 198 0s that aims to prevent transmission of HIV, prolong survival, improve immune function and increase CD4 cell count, and improve overall mortality. The first drug released in the late 1980’s was Zidovudine, a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that essentially prevents HIV’s RNA from being converted to DNA. This restricted replication hence increasing T-helper cell count. However, while shown to improve the condition of HIV patients, zidovudine did not work well on its own and caused drug resistance from prolonged use. Combination therapy was later introduced where scientists discovered zidovudine to be effective when used alongside another NRTI (dideoxycytidine). This combination did improve CD4 cell count and the overall condition of most patients, not in patients with advanced HIV who had prior use of zidovudine alone. Now, several medications such as NRTIs, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors have been introduced and are used in a combination of three (Triple-Drug Therapy) to help suppress viral load to undetectable levels in the blood and improve the overall quality of life for patients. Triple-drug therapy can be tailored by doctors to improve the patient's condition. HIV is a sexually transmitted, chronic condition that affects less than 1% of the world's population. There is no cure for HIV, however, treatments (ART) have been introduced to reduce the viral load of HIV as well as improve the overall quality of life of patients. Compared to the past where these medications had to be taken multiple times a day, often causing severe side effects, patients can now take just a single tablet daily. This has changed the course of HIV treatment, allowing people to live lengthy, normal lives with the disease. Written by Sherine A Latheef Related article: CRISPR-Cas9 to potentially treat HIV REFERENCES Guha D, Ayyavoo V. Innate immune evasion strategies by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. ISRN AIDS . 2013;2013:954806. Published 2013 Aug 12. doi:10.1155/2013/954806 AlBurtamani N, Paul A, Fassati A. The Role of Capsid in the Early Steps of HIV-1 Infection: New Insights into the Core of the Matter. Viruses . 2021;13(6):1161. Published 2021 Jun 17. doi:10.3390/v13061161 Pau AK, George JM. Antiretroviral therapy: current drugs. Infect Dis Clin North Am . 2014;28(3):371-402. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.06.001 Mayers, Douglas L. “Prevalence and Incidence of Resistance to Zidovudine and Other Antiretroviral Drugs.” The American Journal of Medicine , vol. 102, no. 5, May 1997, pp. 70–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9343(97)00067-3 . Accessed 5 Dec. 2021. “Antiretroviral Drug Discovery and Development | NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.” Www.niaid.nih.gov , www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/antiretroviral-drug-development#:~:text=D urable%20HIV%20Suppression%20with%20Triple%2DDrug%20Therapy&text=In %20December%201995%2C%20saquinavir%20became. CDC. “How HIV Spreads.” HIV , 14 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/hiv/causes/index.html . clinicalinfo.hiv.gov . (n.d.). Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH . [online] Available at: https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/glossary/protease-inhibitor-pi . www.who.int . (n.d.). HIV . [online] Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/hiv-aids#:~:text=Globally%2C%2039.9 %20million%20%5B36.1%E2%80%93. Project Gallery

Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are pandemics becoming less severe? Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 25/04/23 Ever since the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic in March 2020, many people have become more aware of future pandemics and best management strategies for these health disasters. For example, an online article from 2022 discussed ways to prepare for the next pandemic such as surveilling zoonotic diseases and planning for faster vaccine production; these can be effective in overcoming another pandemic in the future, though it is important to consider factors that may inhibit the above strategies aside from exacerbating future pandemics. With this said, this article will compare the reasons for pandemics becoming less severe and the reasons why they can become worse. Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Firstly, vaccinations reduced the spread of and prevented serious symptoms of many infectious diseases ranging from the eradicated smallpox to the seasonal influenza. Therefore, undermining the success of vaccines during pandemics is not ideal since this has negative consequences, mainly prolonging pandemics and killing more people. Secondly, there are antimicrobial treatments for a person infected with either a viral, bacterial, protozoal, or fungal infection. For instance during World War 2, penicillin has decreased bacterial pneumonia’s death rate from 18% to 1% in soldiers as well as saving 14% of the UK’s injured soldiers. Therefore, this event prevented bacterial spread and a potential pandemic that could have occurred without penicillin or other antibiotics. Another important treatment is for malaria. A review and meta analysis from Ethiopia showed that for artemether-lumefantrine in 10 studies involving 1179 patients, 96.7% did not have a fever and 98.5% did not have the malaria parasite after they were treated for 3 days. Again, artemether-lumefantrine with other antiparasitic drugs reduced the possibility of a malarial pandemic. Additionally, there are non-medical interventions that may decrease the severity of pandemics. For instance, a cross-panel analysis discovered that enforcing a lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic saw new cases declining around 10 days after execution and this benefit grows after 20 days of the lockdown. Similarly, a review highlighted that social distancing of more than 1 metre between individuals led to reduced COVID-19 transmission risk by 5 times while the impact of protection two-fold for each extra 1 metre. Considering both of these methods, re-using them for future pandemics can reduce infectious disease spread in combination with vaccinations and antimicrobial drugs. On the other hand, it is crucial to consider the counter argument of why pandemics may worsen in the future. To illustrate, there is the possibility that diseases could resurge into more fatal variants similar to COVID-19, which lead to more deaths and vaccines becoming less effective. Alternatively, there may a current contagious pathogen that can combine with another one to form a new disease; this is how HIV/AIDS become virulent since the 1980s to present day as researchers uncovered that the virus collaborates with non-viral diseases like malaria and tuberculosis and viral diseases such as hepatitis C to harm/kill the patient. These instances can occur for viral pathogens along with other types (protists, bacteria and fungi). As for non-viral pathogens, it is likely that future pandemics originate from them with a review discussing bacteria like MRSA or ones causing water-borne and unsanitary food infections infecting humans and animals. It elaborated that multi-drug resistant bacteria would be arduous to destroy opposed to non-resistant ones, resulting in higher: mortalities, medical logistics, costs and hospitalisations. Going back to penicillin with other antibiotics, although it was used since World War 2 for bacterial infections, resistance towards them has exponentially increased whereby countless types of bacteria overpower their effects because antibiotics have been overprescribed and their use in agriculture has made bacteria stronger. Another reason to consider pandemics becoming worse is the counter-effectiveness of lockdowns. An article stated that comparing them between countries is insufficient because there is a lack of evidence for them tackling COVID-19 and the 1918-1920 Spanish Flu. Also, it found that it is expensive to enforce them and suggested a 20 fold death rate, indicating that a cost-benefit analysis is needed before utilising lockdowns to stop the spread of infectious diseases. Additionally, COVID-19 not only had detrimental impacts on health, it influenced non-health factors such as economics, culture and politics. For example, lots of Iranian people went to crowded places and business centres as the government did not have the finances during their lockdown to protect citizens from the virus. Overall, everyone should collaborate to prepare for the inevitability of future pandemics because historically, using a multitude of methods: lockdowns, vaccines, social distancing and antimicrobial drugs in order to minimise the time span and consequences of the pandemics. Referring back to deadliest pandemics from the past like the Black Death and Spanish Flu, it is our responsibility to prevent history from repeating itself. Written by Sam Jarada Related article: Rare zoonotic diseases REFERENCES Sridhar D. Five ways to prepare for the next pandemic. Nature. 2022 Oct 26;610(7933):S50–0. Jarus O. 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history. livescience.com. 2020 Mar 3. Rayner C. How the discovery of penicillin has influenced modern medicine - The Oxford Scientist. The Oxford Scientist. 2020 June 1. Ayalew MB. Therapeutic efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 2017 Nov 15;6(1). Alfano V, Ercolano S. The Efficacy of Lockdown Against COVID-19: A Cross-Country Panel Analysis. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy. 2020 Jun 3;18(4):509–17. Sun KS, Lau TSM, Yeoh EK, Chung VCH, Leung YS, Yam CHK, et al. Effectiveness of different types and levels of social distancing measures: a scoping review of global evidence from earlier stage of COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open. 2022 Apr 1;12(4):e053938. Singer M. Pathogen-pathogen interaction. Virulence. 2010;1(1):10–8. Salazar CB, Spencer P, Mohamad K, Jabeen A, Abdulmonem WA, Fernández N. Future pandemics might be caused by bacteria and not viruses: Recent advances in medical preventive practice. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2022;16(3):1–3. Ventola CL. The Antibiotic Resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and Threats. P & T : a peer-rev10. Yanovskiy M, Socol Y. Are Lockdowns Effective in Managing Pandemics? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jul 29;19(15):9295. Yoosefi Lebni J, Abbas J, Moradi F, Salahshoor MR, Chaboksavar F, Irandoost SF, et al. How the COVID-19 pandemic effected economic, social, political, and cultural factors: A lesson from Iran. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2020 Jul 2;67(3):002076402093998.

The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beyond the bump: unravelling traumatic brain injuries 13/11/25, 12:27 Last updated: Published: 15/10/24, 11:32 The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most serious and complex injuries sustained by the human body, often with profound and long-term effects on an individual’s physical, emotional, behavioural and cognitive abilities. What is a traumatic brain injury? A TBI results from an external force which causes structural and physical damage to the brain. The primary injury refers to the immediate damage to the brain tissue which is caused directly by the event. Whereas secondary injuries result from the cascade of cellular and molecular processes triggered by the initial injury and develop from hours to weeks following the initial TBI. Typically, the injury can be penetrating, where an object pierces the skull and damages the brain, or non-penetrating which occurs when the external force is large enough to shake the brain within the skull causing coup- contrecoup damage. Diagnosis and severity The severity of a TBI is classified as either mild (aka concussion), moderate, or severe, using a variety of indices. Whilst more than 75% of TBIs are mild, even these individuals can suffer long-term consequences from post-concussion syndrome. Here are two commonly used measures to initially classify severity: The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is an initial neurological examination which assesses severity based on the patient’s ability to open their eyes, move, and respond verbally. It is a strong indicator of whether an injury is mild (GCS 13-15), moderate (GCS 9-12) or severe (≤8). Following the injury and any period of unconsciousness, when a patient has trouble with their memory and is confused, they are said to have post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). This is another measure of injury severity and lasts up to 30 30 minutes in mild TBI, between 30 minutes and 24 hours in moderate TBI, and over 24 hours in severe TBI. Imaging tests including CT scans and MRIs are used to detect brain bleeds, swelling or any other damage. These tests are essential upon arrival to the hospital, especially in moderate and severe cases to understand the full extent of the injury. Leading causes of TBI Common causes of TBI are a result of: Falls (most common in young children and older adults) Vehicle collisions (road traffic accidents- RTAs) Inter-personal violence Sports injuries Explosive blasts Interestingly, the rate of TBI is 1.5 times more common in men than women. General symptoms The symptoms and outcome of a TBI depend on the severity and location of the injury. They differ from person to person based on a range of factors which include pre-injury sociodemographic vulnerabilities including age, sex and level of education, as well as premorbid mental illnesses. There are also post-injury factors such as access to rehabilitation and psychosocial support which influence recovery. Due to this, nobody will have the same experience of a TBI, however there are some effects which are more common than others which are described: Mild TBI: Physical symptoms: headaches, dizziness, nausea, and blurred vision. Cognitive symptoms: confusion, trouble concentrating, difficulty with memory or disorientation. Emotional symptoms: mood swings, irritability, depression or anxiety. Moderate-to-severe TBI: Behavioural symptoms: aggression, personality change, disinhibition, impulsiveness. Cognitive symptoms: difficulties with attention and concentration, decision making, memory, executive dysfunction, information processing, motivation, language, reasoning, self-awareness. Physical symptoms: headaches, seizures, speech problems, fatigue, weakness or paralysis. Many of these symptoms are ‘hidden’ and can often impact functional outcomes for an individual, such as their capacity for employment and daily living (i.e., washing, cooking, cleaning etc.). The long-term effects of TBI can vary, with some returning to normal functioning. However, others might experience lifelong disabilities and require adjustments in their daily lives. For more information and support, there are some great resources on the Headway website, a leading charity which supports individuals after brain injury. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Related articles: Why brain injuries affect adults and children differently / Neuroimaging / Different types of seizures Project Gallery

The true cost Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Turkey Teeth 14/07/25, 15:06 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:57 The true cost Coined as 'Turkey teeth,' the rising trend of dental tourism has gained increasing popularity among the British population, largely influenced by social media. Many people are now traveling abroad for veneers, crowns, and implants, in the hope of achieving the perfect smile at a fraction of the cost in the UK. However, patients may be paying with their future oral health in the long run, as evidence emerges of botched procedures, with crucial steps missed and patients having long-lasting pain following their treatment. Many young people opt to visit cosmetic dentistry clinics in European countries to obtain veneers due to their cheaper costs compared to the UK dental fees, given that cosmetic dentistry is not covered under the subsidised NHS prices. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that many consumers are in fact receiving full dental crowns without their knowledge, as opposed to veneers, thus sacrificing more of their natural tooth structure in the trade for a seemingly perfect smile. A critical difference between crowns and veneers is the amount of natural tooth structure removed to fit the prosthesis. Veneers are a much more minimally invasive fix, whereby 0.5mm of enamel is shaved away to allow a porcelain cover to fit to the surface of the tooth. Veneers are primarily used to conceal enamel discoloration, variations in shades, and natural tooth shapes. The minimally invasive procedure preserves tooth tissue and can even be potentially reversible in cases where there has been no preparation to the tooth. Crowns in the UK are vastly indicated for badly broken-down teeth and teeth deemed unrestorable. The preparation for a crown is far more invasive, with a significant amount of tooth structure irreversibly removed. This process sees teeth shaved down, with almost 2mm of the structure being irreversibly removed. Filing down teeth when they are otherwise perfectly clinically healthy can have dire consequences, and many patients returning to England have found themselves needing corrective work to rectify the procedures they underwent abroad. A study conducted by the Irish Dental Association revealed that 75% of those who travelled abroad for dental procedures required corrective work back home. The harsh reality of this treatment is that it can result in severe infections, long-lasting tooth pain, inflamed gums, exposed nerves, and heightened sensitivity. The destructive process of crown preparations in clinically healthy teeth increases the likelihood of exposing the tooth's pulp as more tooth tissue is removed, making the tooth more susceptible to infection. If the tooth's pulp becomes exposed, a costly and uncomfortable root canal procedure may be necessary. In the long term, these patients are more likely to lose the affected teeth altogether, as irreversible damage has occurred to the teeth. Another disadvantage of quick-fix dentistry abroad is the lack of follow-up appointments. In the UK, services such as occlusion checks are offered to ensure the bite is correct and that the veneers provide the desired result while lasting for an extended period. In contrast, dental procedures abroad are often expedited, sometimes limited to a single appointment as tourists return home swiftly to resume their daily lives. This can raise the risk of rushed procedures and a lack of follow-up to ensure the prosthetics' longevity. This has seen patients crowns falling off, and leaving their teeth exposed. In a typical UK dental clinic, the process involves an initial assessment, a dental health check, trial designs, and finally, the fitting of new veneers. Teeth are meticulously assessed for potential issues, including periodontal disease, and bite evaluations are performed to ensure that the prosthetics do not interfere with the occlusion. This comprehensive approach differs significantly from the one-appointment dentistry often observed abroad. Love Island's Jack Finham underwent the procedure and documented his experience across social media to thousands of followers. He later went on to reveal that in hindsight, he would not have chosen the procedure has he known its intricacies. Influencers are slowly turning to reveal the true costs of fast dentistry abroad, and it can only be hoped that consumers become better informed on the processes performed abroad, and are more well informed before making an irreversible decision for their teeth. In conclusion, it is imperative for consumers to be well-informed when considering dental procedures, especially when faced with the allure of cheaper veneers, or rather crowns abroad. While the cost savings may initially seem enticing, the potential risks associated with overseas treatments, including inadequate follow-ups, irreversible damage to natural tooth structure, and a lack of comprehensive assessments, should not be overlooked. Opting for dentistry in the UK provides a safer and more comprehensive approach, with qualified professionals who prioritize patients' oral health and long-term well-being. While affordability is a significant consideration, the adage "you get what you pay for" holds true in the realm of dental care. Informed decision-making and prioritizing one's health should always take precedence when seeking dental treatments, ensuring not only a beautiful smile but also lasting oral health. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery

AI has long been a controversial topic, with some people fearing its potential consequences. This has been exacerbated by popular culture, with movies such as "The Terminator" and "2001: A Space Odyssey" depicting AI systems becoming self-aware and turning against humans. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The evolution of AI: understanding the role of NLP technologies Last updated: 08/03/25 Published: 08/05/23 Artificial intelligence (AI) has long been a controversial topic, with some people fearing its potential consequences. This has been exacerbated by popular culture, with movies such as The Terminator and 2001: A Space Odyssey depicting AI systems becoming self-aware and turning against humans. Similarly, The Matrix portrayed a dystopian future where AI systems had enslaved humanity. Fast forward to 2023- AI has become a normal part of our everyday life, whether we realise it or not. From virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa to personalised movie and product recommendations, AI-powered technologies have revolutionised the way we interact with technology. AI also plays a critical role in industries such as healthcare, finance, and transportation, with algorithms helping to analyse data, identify patterns, and make predictions that lead to better decision-making. As with any industry, the AI industry is very much prone to evolution. In fact, this is especially relevant for the AI industry, given that it engages user habits to learn and redefine its understanding. This has led to the introduction of unforeseen technologies. One of the most studied and developed AI modelling techniques, Natural Language Processing (NLP), has been particularly placed under focus recently with the emergence of technologies such as Open AI’s ChatGPT, Google’s Gemini (formerly Bard) AI and Microsoft’s Bing AI- known as Copilot. ChatGPT in particular, was one of the first technologies of this kind to garner significant fame. Within its first year of release, the GPT-3 model had more than 10,000 registered developers and over 300 applications built on its application programming interface (API). In addition, Microsoft acquired OpenAI's exclusive license to the GPT-3 technology in 2020, further solidifying its position as a leading language model in the industry. ChatGPT works as an advanced artificial intelligence technology designed to understand and process human language. Built on the GPT-3.5 architecture, it uses NLP to comprehend and generate responses that simulate human conversation. ChatGPT is classified as a large language model, which means it has been trained on vast amounts of data and can generate high-quality text that is both coherent and relevant to the input provided. While concerns have been raised about the potential impact of NLP technologies, there are several reasons why we should not fear their emergence. Firstly, NLP has already enabled a wide range of useful applications that have the potential to improve efficiency, convenience, and accessibility. Furthermore, the development and deployment of NLP technologies is subject to ethical considerations and regulations that aim to ensure their responsible use. NLP technologies are not designed to replace humans, but rather to complement and enhance human capabilities. While some jobs may be impacted by automation, new jobs are likely to emerge that require human skills that are not easily replicated by machines. Ultimately, the impact of NLP technologies depends on how they are developed and used. There are always likely to be risks, but by taking a proactive approach to their development and deployment, we can ensure that they are used to benefit society and advance human progress. Written by Jaspreet Mann Related articles: AI: the good, the bad, and the future / Latent space transformations / Markov chains REFERENCES Hirschberg, Julia, and Christopher D. Manning. “Advances in Natural Language Processing.” Science, vol. 349, no. 6245, July 2015, pp. 261–66. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa8685. What Is Natural Language Processing? | IBM. https://www.ibm.com/topics/natural-language-processing. Accessed 1 May 2023. Biswas, Som S. “Role of Chat GPT in Public Health.” Annals of Biomedical Engineering, vol. 51, no. 5, May 2023, pp. 868–69. Springer Link, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-023-03172-7. Davenport, T.H. (2018). The AI Advantage: How to Put the Artificial Intelligence Revolution to Work. MIT Press. Bird, S., Klein, E., & Loper, E. (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. O'Reilly Media.

- And face masks! No need to say they don’t work either. No matter the number of layers in the mask. Nothing is ever 100% efficient, and face masks are not exempt from this. Face masks help a lot by stopping you from inhaling COVID-19 particles in the air, indeed spread by people not wearing, or cannot wear, masks. Not just COVID-19 particles, Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Misconceptions about COVID-19 and its vaccine Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 28/12/22 Three years into the pandemic, after huge losses in lives, livelihoods, and freedoms, misinformation about the coronavirus and now its vaccines, are still in circulation on the internet. It will take time to completely eradicate these misconstructions, but it is not impossible. I will begin discussing some myths and theories about the coronavirus itself, and then continue on to the vaccines science has developed to battle the virus. The misunderstandings are not listed in any order. Coronavirus The virus is called many different names: coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). The disease it causes is called COVID-19, or simply COVID. – Getting COVID is no big deal. It is just another flu. It is true yes that COVID-19 is only a mild condition for most people, however for those who are elderly and/ or clinically vulnerable it is anything but mild. Getting COVID-19 depends on the immune system, and if the immune system is already weakened, it is a big deal. As for the flu, it has been around for years mutating each time, but it is never less of a threat. – Only the elderly contract it. In most cases, it is the elderly who fall victim to the disease. But there are many factors at play; age is only one of them. Pre-existing health conditions regardless of age (for those clinically vulnerable), ethnicity, wealth, gender (does not factor that much), all determine who contracts it and how long it will take for someone to recover from the disease. – Children and teenagers are immune to it. Not necessarily true. For the better part of a year, children and younger adults seemed to evade COVID-19 but now more and more are falling ill to it. It is probably due to the emerging variants and how vulnerable children are. – Herd immunity is the way out. We do this by sacrificing said elderly to save the economy. It would have been the ideal solution to continue working and travelling while the virus ravages entire nations to protect the economy, but it would also have meant exposing society’s most vulnerable, namely the elderly, to the virus. Not a good solution to only protect one generation of society and not another. – Yes, because lockdowns don’t work. Lockdowns tend to have a rapid effect; they act to break the circuit of virus transmission up and down the country. They work. This is the reason why they last no more than one month or so when put in place. However, lockdown costs people’s freedoms and mental health so it should only be imposed when crucial. – But we need to work! How will we support ourselves? Very understandable. But if you suddenly contract COVID, you will not be able to work anyway. Many government initiatives have been started to support workers in the past year or so. - What is this 2m/ 6ft rule? No social contact whatsoever? The particles don’t even travel that far. The major way coronavirus travels is by droplets in the air between human contact. Not through surfaces (very little evidence supporting this), not by sharing needles, not by parasites and animals (vectors that bring the virus to humans). - And face masks! No need to say they don’t work either. No matter the number of layers in the mask. Nothing is ever 100% efficient, and face masks are not exempt from this. Face masks help a lot by stopping you from inhaling COVID-19 particles in the air, indeed spread by people not wearing, or cannot wear, masks. Not just COVID-19 particles, but any other harmful particles. You’re still able to take oxygen in and carbon dioxide out- these molecules are much smaller, 1-3 atoms big, so they can pass through the mask. Multiple layers of the mask offer more protection, however one is enough. - Antibiotics can be used to treat COVID-19. Antibiotics are anti-bacteria. Coronavirus is a virus- only antivirals will help. - Surely if bleach cleans and wipes out pathogens on surfaces and on just about anything else, it can do the same inside our bodies. Bleach is for surfaces only; they are not for consumption or administration as medicine. They will cause untold amount of damage inside the body. Bleach also turns things white. Whatever cleaning and wiping of pathogen need to be done, your immune system will do it. No need for bleach. - How does opening windows help prevent the spread of COVID-19? As mentioned before, COVID-19 respiratory particles travel by air. So opening windows and increasing the circulation of air, helps the particles to be blown away from you and the people with you and reduces the chance of becoming infected with the virus. Going outside for this reason helps (if not under lockdown or other restrictions). - How does fresh air help? As above. Vaccine – I think they will inject a microchip under the pretence of a vaccine and will track my every movement. There is no microchip. All the ingredients and chemicals used to produce the vaccines are available to view on the respective pharmaceutical website. None of the ingredients have any tracking potential. – Or they are just making money. Usually the government or state orders and buys the vaccines from the different companies. The expenses are on them. The rest of the population get the vaccine for free. - Vaccines hurt. Only a pinprick when the vaccine is being administered. After that only mild side effects and taking paracetamol or other painkillers will help. - And we are part of a big experiment. All the testing and experimenting was done during the three phases of clinical trials. The vaccines have been approved for (temporary) nationwide use. - Vaccines don’t work anyway. There is always a story in the news detailing the efficacies of the vaccines. They have an efficiency of 70-96% depending on the vaccine, and vaccine dose. Generally, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks that come from it. - Yes, because they cause shedding. Check the context and definition of this word. ‘Shedding’ here refers to the vaccine releasing or discharging its viral components onto others and infecting them. Once inside the body, the vaccine has no way to expel the viral contents.The only way the virus will shed its components is when the person is infected and sneezes, coughs, or causes the particles to travel in the air (i.e. when NOT vaccinated). - And, fertility issues. No biological mechanism or pathway has been discovered over the centuries that shows vaccines cause fertility issues. In fact, the reproductive system itself suppresses the immune system (not the other way round). - They will definitely cause issues if given to children. Vaccines were originally produced to provide protection to adults 18 years and older. Though there are vaccines that only children take as routine e.g. MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) and children don’t typically have any problems with them, COVID-19 vaccines aren’t among them. - Vaccines contain meat, and/ or made from animal products (and I am against this). As mentioned already, all the ingredients of the different vaccines can be found on the individual drug company websites. None of the vaccines contain meat, and if religion-conscious, scriptures advise the use of health agents even if they contain meat, to better your well-being. Anyway, the vaccine is used as medicine and not as an item for consumption. – You can pay to get a vaccine made from glucose sugar and water, and I believe it does the same thing as the official vaccine. Sugar solution is not a vaccine. It does not prevent against COVID-19. No trials have been conducted in favour of this. For a vaccine to be a vaccine, it is essential to have the actual weakened version or mRNA form of the virus. - Please take the time to read, watch, or listen to official government or health system information on coronavirus and vaccines. Millions if not billions have listened so far, be a part of this number. As with any public health guidance, education and spreading awareness are always key. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: COVID-19 glossary / Origins of COVID-19 / Digital disinformation / Fake science websites

How music can manipulate our emotional processes Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The cognitive orchestra Last updated: 17/06/25, 11:21 Published: 26/06/25, 07:00 How music can manipulate our emotional processes Introduction Music has considerably always been a universal way of communicating. Every day, we are introduced to new genres and concepts despite the differences in language or musical techniques. As a result, psychology has increasingly researched music and its effects on human cognition. Music as a means of therapy The common way most people use music is to regulate their emotions. When we are feeling down, we are more than likely to choose a melancholic playlist over an upbeat one. It has been found that music aids in uplifting mood and reducing anxiety. Juslin and Sloboda (2010) demonstrated that people often choose to listen to music that links to how they are feeling in the moment or even how they desire to feel. With music being deemed a powerful emotional mechanism, music therapy has seen its benefits as a tool for regulating emotions. Thoma et al. (2013) support the idea of music being used for treating conditions like depression and PTSD, with their findings indicating that music listening impacts the psychobiological stress system. Listening to music prior to a stressful event predominantly affected the autonomic nervous system by recovering the nerves much faster, although the effects on the physiological stress and the endocrine (stress hormones) were not as noticeable. However, just as all forms of therapy are not generalisable to everyone, music therapy is not always an appropriate solution. The over-reliance on music to regulate feelings can lead to emotional avoidance and not addressing the initial cause of low mood. This leaves no room for solving the issues at hand. In the context of neurological rehabilitation, it was suggested that further controlled studies are needed to establish the efficacy of music in neurological recovery, and music-based interventions are emerging as promising rehabilitation strategies. Mental clarity or spiritual melodies? The benefits music can hold for our cognitive abilities are endless. Musical training in childhood, studied by Forgeard et al. (2008), is positively correlated with enhanced fine motor skills and non-verbal reasoning. Children were predicted to have much better cognitive flexibility and strengthened memory, outperforming the experimental control group. Another advantage music holds for cognitive abilities is making tasks easier to work with. Lesiuk (2005) conducted a study into the influence of music on mood and work performance. He introduced a ‘no music’ rule for workers in a software company, where they were prohibited from listening to music whilst working. The results demonstrated a predictable decrease in quality of work once music was abandoned, which workers were not habitually familiar with. Performance in quality of work remained poor in week 4, but managed to improve again when music was involved again during week 5. Although, it is important to note that music as a means of concentrating is not always beneficial. Lyrical songs can potentially act as a distractor when completing tasks that require verbal or visual memory, hindering our cognitive ability. Zulkurnaini et al. (2012) studied Lesiuk (2005) hypothesis, exposing participants to classical music and a verse from the Quran. By observing EEG signals, they found that listening to the Quran resulted in a more relaxed state compared to classical music. They also found that listening to the Quran increased the alpha band in the brain, which is associated with relaxation. Conclusion It is clear music is more than just a background track while completing daily errands. The influence it has on emotional well-being, memory and mood is vital to acknowledge. With evidence of positive correlations between cognitive productivity and listening to music, and neurological research of in-depth brain studies, the effects of music are much more prevalent to us. Future research should aim to look into the long-term effects on cognitive functioning, more specifically within clinical settings like neurorehabilitation. Written by Tania Khan Related article: Chemistry of emotions REFERENCES Schäfer, T., Sedlmeier, P., Städtler, C., & Huron, D. (2013). The psychological functions of music listening. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 , 511. Juslin, P. N., & Sloboda, J. A. (2010). Music and emotion. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 3-20). Oxford University Press. Thoma, M. V., La Marca, R., Brönnimann, R., Finkel, L., Ehlert, U., & Nater, U. M. (2013). The effect of music on the human stress response. PLOS ONE, 8 (8), e70156. Krause, A. E., North, A. C., & Heritage, B. (2023). The role of music listening in reducing stress and anxiety: A meta-analysis. PLOS ONE, 18 (1), e0281337 Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. Psychology of Music, 33 (2), 173-191. Lesiuk, T. (2012). The effect of music listening on work performance. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 55 (4), 282-290. Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. PLOS ONE, 8 (8), e70156. Miller, A. H., Haroon, E., Raison, C. L., & Felger, J. C. (2017). Cytokine targets in the brain: Impact on neurotransmitters and neurocircuits. The Lancet Neurology, 16 (11), 1013-1025. Project Gallery

How colonialism, interventionism and health are interwoven Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How colonialism and geopolitics shape health injustices: a deep, critical reflection Last updated: 23/10/25, 10:16 Published: 16/10/25, 07:00 How colonialism, interventionism and health are interwoven This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Addressing the health landscape in Bangladesh's Rohingya community Introduction Welcome to the reflective article of the Global Health Injustices Series. Before I begin, I want to thank Jana Antar again for her contributions to the Lebanon and Syria article, and Dr Nasif Mahmood for his contributions to the Rohingya people in Bangladesh article. Writing and researching about these different countries was an incredible experience. Although I initially planned for this series to go beyond ten articles, focusing on the most enduring and neglected injustices was vital, particularly as the world is becoming more dynamic with geopolitical power shifts. With this in mind, I want to emphasise that each vulnerable population faces unique challenges, but they have challenges shared with others that are not mentioned in this series. I wanted to address these injustices because they are urgent and demonstrate how interconnected global struggles truly are. Through writing this last article, I deepened my understanding of how colonialism, interventionism, and health are interwoven. How the past impacts present reality (colonialism) The injustices we see in news headlines, social media, or the ones we directly experience should not be understood as isolated examples ( Table 1 ). Instead, they stem from European colonialism and later foreign interventionism, shaping how regional governments were created. The ongoing Gaza genocide and expanding illegal settlements pushing out Palestinians in the West Bank are due to Israel’s brutal military occupation and apartheid for 70+ years, and its acts, including the Nakba. Sudan had external rulers (notably Egypt and the British Empire) contributing to its civil wars through political destabilisation, among other factors. This similarly happened in Yemen, though it is also important to note that foreign intervention from the United States (US) and Saudi Arabian governments contributed to the country's existing crises. Lebanon and Syria were divided up and governed by Britain and France after the Ottoman Empire collapsed shortly after World War 1, a significant event leading to political destabilisation and ongoing catastrophes, which also happened to Palestine. In Kashmir, the people’s plight erupted through the British Empire partitioning the Indian subcontinent into multiple nations in 1947 (India, West Pakistan becoming Pakistan and East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh), with Kashmir being a disputed territory between Pakistan and India. As for the Rohingya population and Bangladesh, civil wars during the 20th century and ensuing persecution by the government of Myanmar have contributed to their crises. Therefore, it is clear that all of these events I summarised showcase how their root causes lead to the substantial effects of the current daily injustices. Moreover, what connects these substantial injustices and many others worldwide traces back to the consequences of European colonialism; these powers dispossessed indigenous peoples of their lands and resources through violence, subsequently broken treaties, or legal frameworks that did not identify Indigenous land tenure systems. While they did disrupt indigenous governments, some recent injustices prevail because post-colonial elites embraced or exacerbated these exploitative systems. This severed deep cultural, spiritual, and economic ties that indigenous communities had with their land. For example, Canada’s colonial legacy, notably its Indian Residential Schools, involved forcibly removing children from their families, leading to negative outcomes for the Indigenous communities. Moreover, it is vital to acknowledge the impact of settler colonialism on Indigenous communities globally across South America, Africa, Asia and the Aboriginal people of Australia and New Zealand. If we do not critically think and learn about these past events, how will we improve our present reality and build a future for everyone? Table 1: Summary of the historical and modern perpetrators of injustices affecting the countries/communities explored in the Global Health Injustices Series Country/ community explored in the Global Health Injustices Series Main perpetrator(s) of their injustices Palestine Israel + foreign military aid from the US, UK + other countries Sudan RSF + other local political factions with foreign military aid from the UAE + other countries Yemen Houthis + other local political factions + foreign Interventionism from Saudi Arabia + US + foreign military aid Lebanon Local political factions + US, UK + other countries Syria Local political factions + US, UK + other countries Kashmir Indian + Pakistani militaries + foreign military aid Rohinyga Government of Myanmar + foreign military aid Bangladesh UK via the partition of Subcontinental India (1947), contributing to later injustices Current major health problems Health is essential in global injustices because it is a mirror and a driver of the disparities among various populations. Accessing quality healthcare is usually affected by factors, such as race and ethnicity, which accentuate deep-rooted inequalities. For example, communities with lower incomes encounter challenges, ranging from a lack of healthcare infrastructure to environmental hazards, leading to worse health outcomes. Therefore, tackling them is essential for achieving justice, as improved health outcomes can empower marginalised groups. Aside from warfare being a major determinant of health and injustice, I want to highlight migration as a significant co-occurring determinant. Although research is expanding, the bidirectional relationship between migration and health remains inadequately incorporated into practice and laws. Migration is a complicated and heterogeneous multiphase process ( Figure 1 ). Meanwhile, collecting migration data remains difficult due to polarised political views, unwillingness to finance research on discriminatory laws, varying migration definitions, and limited comparable global data. Unfortunately, political rhetoric and media depictions form incorrect assumptions, stereotypes, and negative views of migrants and refugees, leading to a weakened understanding of the severity and positive aspects of migration. Also, this manifests into hatred and scapegoating of migrants and refugees through their “perceived” impact on countries like employment and healthcare. In reality, accessing employment and healthcare is very difficult for them, leading to negative health outcomes. Thinking more broadly, health behaviours are not solely individual choices, but are deeply rooted in and affected by social, cultural, and political environments. For example, when looking at politics and health through a framework ( Figure 2 ), it is clear how politics is influential through labour markets and welfare states, leading to socioeconomic, income and wealth inequalities and poor health. One systematic review found that a generous welfare state is typically associated with positive population health outcomes, with the Nordic model as an example. This suggests that political leaders are vital in affecting agendas, encouraging intersectoral partnerships, and showing political will to promote health equity. Another review supported the benefits of a generous welfare state through maternal and child health outcomes. Therefore, health and politics are intertwined, as addressed in previous articles through specific contexts. Now I will discuss it more broadly. Current major geopolitical problems Geopolitical dynamics are crucial to shaping the lives of vulnerable populations by influencing their access to security, resources, and fundamental human rights; this is impacted by governments, policies, geographies, and the relationships and interests between countries. In countries or regions plagued by continuous conflict or authoritarian governments, these communities often find themselves at greater risk of challenges like displacement, violence, and systemic discrimination. Moreover, the complicated relationship between global and local power systems results in specific communities being neglected, as more powerful geopolitical interests repeatedly overshadow their needs. To truly support these communities, it is vital to consider how foreign interventionism from countries like the US and the UK impacts the Palestinians, Sudanese, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemeni, Kashmiri, and the Rohingya populations. Foreign interventionism, which typically occurs through militarism, is characterised as the international and social relations of training for and executing organised political violence; this is a pervasive feature of geopolitics, rising into civilian domains by shaping countries and regions. Then, humanitarianism is typically seen as an unbiased moral discourse centred on universal humanity and aid. Yet, it is historically linked to militarism, particularly in Western countries and has deepened in recent decades. Humanitarian standards, like International Humanitarian Law (IHL), are supposed to limit wars’ consequences, but IHL may implicitly tolerate particular levels of ‘collateral damage’ as allowable. IHL is embedded in a hierarchy that determines who can be saved and who cannot, possibly causing inequalities and unstable power relations tied to imperial dynamics. Hence, I see Western humanitarianism as deeply entangled with militarism because of how it can serve to justify and expand political violence across diverse countries and regions, as seen in modern news headlines. More importantly, this dynamic drives a vicious cycle of violence, where armed conflicts cause vulnerability by destroying infrastructure, destabilising nations and other negative consequences, like climate change and rising extremism, leading to civil wars and genocide. Moving forward To truly move forward, adopting a multifaceted approach (e.g. decolonising global health) to addressing all the injustices and health disparities is vital; this can work, but I think that should involve giving all the most vulnerable communities their autonomy, liberation and fundamental human rights. There is the notion of peace plans coming from Western governments like the US, yet that cannot start without putting those directly experiencing war, genocide, displacement, ethnic cleansing and other atrocities as the central voice in those conversations. Moreover, we should highlight those most accountable for making amends. For example, they should allow a right to return and a payment of extensive reparations to the displaced Palestinians, Sudanese, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemeni, Kashmiri, and the Rohingya populations to their homelands, among numerous others. The big question is whether these suggestions will become tangible realities. Although reparations and the right to return may seem distant from contemporary political realities, they are moral imperatives for real justice to occur. Continuously raising awareness and rallying support for affected communities so they can tackle their needs and challenges is important. There is also advocacy, which is vital in showcasing the issues they encounter, which can pave the way for significant policy changes. Moreover, the participation of local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), like Amnesty International, is crucial for enforcing ongoing solutions, as they better grasp the vulnerable communities’ needs. When these efforts are done collaboratively, fostering a more supportive environment for those needing it most is vital. Unfortunately, NGOs cannot replace genuine international political will because their impact will always be limited without structural change. Importantly, recognising how interconnected everyone is as a global community is crucial. Engaging in different cultures and experiences should foster empathy and build a collective strength to face challenges, notably climate change and warfare driven by the weapons industry. Uniting and sharing knowledge can encourage real change and all countries actually following international law, which requires powerful countries to be held responsible in ways that have been avoided so far; this should involve acknowledging that the vulnerable communities have a right to resist and defend themselves against their oppressors. Conclusion The global health injustices seen today have historical roots in European colonialism, which has stripped indigenous global communities of their homelands and disrupted their cultural connections. Furthermore, they are influenced by many factors. Moreover, health behaviours are influenced by the broader social, cultural, and political landscapes. Geopolitical dynamics impact vulnerable populations by undermining their security, access to resources, and fundamental human rights; foreign interventionism via militarism makes them worse. Humanitarianism with militarism can reinforce cycles of violence by legitimising unequal power dynamics despite its good intentions. To effectively tackle the global health injustices, uplifting vulnerable communities by prioritising their human rights is vital. The perpetrators should pay reparations and grant the right of return to the most impacted. As individuals, we must raise awareness and push for policy changes. Local and international organisations are pivotal in understanding and addressing community needs. With everything said, I enjoyed writing this series because it showed me how connected all these injustices are and how we can act, listen and reflect together. Ultimately, we must focus on all the countries and communities highlighted in this series, as well as others currently facing injustices like the Uyghurs in China and Afghanistan. We must open our eyes, hearts, souls, and minds to nurture global connections and share knowledge for impactful change. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: How does physical health affect mental health? / Beyond medicine: health through different stances / Regulation and policy of stem cell research REFERENCES Banat BYI, Entrena-Durán F, Dayyeh J. Palestinian Refugee Youth: Reproduction of Collective Memory of the Nakba. Asian Social Science. 2018 Nov 29;14(12):147.2. Amiad Haran Diman, Miodownik D. Bloody Pasts and Current Politics: The Political Legacies of Violent Resettlement. Comparative Political Studies. 2023 Aug 13;57(9). Abubakar M, Yahaya TB. Secession and border disputes in Africa: The case of Sudan and South Sudan border. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 2021 Oct 31;15(4):131–8. Tamer Abd Elkreem, Jaspars S. Sudan’s catastrophe: the role of changing dynamics of food and power in the Gezira agricultural scheme. Disasters [Internet]. 2024 Oct 30 [cited 2025 Sep 18];49(1). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11603519/ eClinicalMedicine. Under the shade of world events: a never-ending crisis in Yemen. EClinicalMedicine [Internet]. 2023 Oct 1 [cited 2025 Sep 18];64:102302–2. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00479-0/fulltext Bordón J, Eyad Alrefai. Saudi Arabia’s Foreign aid: the Singularity of Yemen as a Case Study. Third World Quarterly. 2023 Jul 14;45:1–18. Osman O. Western Domination, Destructive Governance, and the Perpetual Development Crisis in the Arab Region. World review of political economy. 2024 Apr 15;15(1). Huber D, Woertz E. Resilience, conflict and areas of limited statehood in Iraq, Lebanon and Syria. Democratization. 2021 Jun 25;28(7):1–19. Gupta H. 1947 Partition of India and its lessons. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care [Internet]. 2024 Jul 26 [cited 2025 Sep 18];13(8):3471–2. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11368293/ Jong K de, van, Ford N, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley II: psychosocial impact. Conflict and Health [Internet]. 2008 Oct 14 [cited 2025 Sep 18];2(1). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2577626/ Project Gallery

Discussing an upcoming biotech thriller book Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link ‘The Molecule’ by Dr Rick Sax and Dr Marta New Last updated: 02/01/26, 18:11 Published: 08/01/26, 08:00 Discussing an upcoming biotech thriller book Science, to some extent, is very black and white. You carry out experiments; you analyse the data, and you could use numerous techniques to get results. Although there is a range of techniques you could use to analyse and interpret the data, if it has been carried out correctly, the results should be reproducible. 1 + 1 will always equal 2, a eukaryote will always have a nucleus, and pure water will always have a boiling point of 100ºC. Once again, science is entirely black and white. But after an hour of conversation on a cold London afternoon, this writer can conclude that the life of a scientist does not have to be as black and white as their research. This is confirmed by looking at the fascinating lives of Dr Marta New and Dr Rick Sax. Dr Marta New Dr. Marta New's career spans the intersection of science and business, beginning with her PhD in Microbiology and Immunology from the University of Illinois Chicago. Demonstrating her versatility, she pursued an MBA at Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management just two years later. Recognizing her passion extended beyond academia, Dr. New ventured into the business world, where she has held various influential roles. Her career includes positions as a venture capitalist at ARCH Venture Partners, board observer for numerous biotech companies, and strategic advisor to pharmaceutical firms. Dr. New's expertise lies in translating scientific breakthroughs into viable business opportunities, particularly in the areas of drug discovery and development. Currently, she is the founder and CEO of Radyus Research, a company focused on accelerating drug discovery through innovative AI-powered platforms. In this role, Dr. New continues to drive innovation and strategic growth in the biotech and pharmaceutical sectors, leveraging her unique blend of scientific knowledge and business acumen. Dr Rick Sax Dr. Rick Sax is a distinguished figure in the pharmaceutical industry with over 30 years of experience in senior leadership positions. His career spans across major pharmaceutical companies, including Merck & Co. and AstraZeneca, where he held executive roles in clinical development. At Merck, Dr. Sax led cardiovascular drug development and served on key business strategy teams. At AstraZeneca, he took on various leadership positions, including Vice President for U.S. Clinical Research and roles in global Medical Sciences. Dr. Sax later joined Quintiles (IQVIA) as Senior Vice President for Integrated Clinical Services, where he played a crucial role in developing innovative approaches to clinical program design and drug development strategies. His expertise encompasses drug research and development, clinical program design, translational medicine, and the application of information technology in clinical research. Currently, Dr. Sax serves as an advisor to biotechnology startups and consulting firms, leveraging his extensive experience to improve pharmaceutical R&D efficiency and productivity. Through their amazing expertise they have joined hands to write a biotech thriller called the ‘The Molecule’. What is the inspiration behind the novel The Molecule ? Science thrives on curiosity, discovery, and the pursuit of knowledge, often driven by a passion to understand the unknown. On the other hand, business is fueled by profit, efficiency, and the drive to deliver tangible results in the shortest possible time. The challenges can be immense in the biotech industry, where these two worlds must collide. Transforming a scientific breakthrough into a marketable product requires more than just innovation; it demands strategic thinking, financial acumen, and a deep understanding of the regulatory environment. The journey from lab bench to market shelf is fraught with obstacles, including securing funding, navigating complex regulations, and managing stakeholders' expectations with very different goals. In their new novel, The Molecule , authors Rick Sax and Marta New delve into the intricate world of drug development, breaking the conventional notion that this process is solely the domain of academia. The book explores the multifaceted journey of a startup company navigating the complex path of science, regulation, and industry. When asked about the inspiration behind the book, Rick and Marta emphasised their desire to shed light on the complex interplay between scientific innovation and the financial forces that drive it. They wanted to illustrate that drug development is a scientific endeavour and a battleground where researchers, regulators, and industry professionals often find themselves at odds. While The Molecule is a work of fiction, it brings a deep emotional resonance. The authors were keen to portray the technical challenges of developing a new drug and the human element—the hopes, fears, and sacrifices of those involved. Rick and Marta crafted a narrative that captures the struggles and triumphs, emphasising the complex journey of bringing a new drug to market. The book goes beyond the laboratory, vividly depicting the stages a startup company must navigate to succeed. It paints a realistic picture of the hurdles and setbacks often encountered along the way, making it a compelling read for anyone interested in the intersection of science, business, and human emotion. This biotech thriller also serves as a reminder that the fusion of science and business, though complex, is essential for driving progress and bringing life-changing innovations to the world. What is the drug development process, and what are the challenges? As mentioned, drug development is a long, arduous, and multifaceted journey. A journey that, in reality, is not limited to academia or clinical research. We must remember that drug development translates an idea into a drug in the market, a process that spans more than simple laboratory experiments. The book The Molecule gives us a glimpse of this process. As it turns out, there is a lot more that happens even before clinical trials begin. Unsurprisingly, the process of drug development began before "development". Instead, it starts as drug "discovery". Here, scientists wear their thinking hats to try and understand a disease, hoping to discover new insights or technologies that provide an approach to treatment. As Marta neatly outlined, scientists at this stage are surrounded by numerous questions, such as the drug's mechanism of action, how it works, etc. However, this discovery is not a finished product but rather a technology. Different questions must be asked to translate a fresh-off-the-lab technology into a marketable drug. Namely, "Is it safe and is it efficacious?" Next, the drug development journey will continue into the preclinical stage. Those who work in preclinical drug development may be familiar with the abundance of cell cultures and animal models used in this stage. Indeed, the preclinical stage often follows either or both in vitro and in vivo testing. Marta also highlighted another key factor, reproducibility. Crucially, a reproducible study refers to a repeated study done under different conditions or parameters and by other researchers where the results or analyses are the same or in agreement. Any study can be vulnerable to biases. Therefore, a reproducible study ensures fair, correct, and trustworthy results that allow scientists the confidence that the drug is safe before it enters clinical trials. Furthermore, testing the potential drug with a "standard of care" is equally essential. This means testing the candidate against an existing drug for the same disease. The process seeks to observe efficacy, whether the experimental drug is more efficacious than an already marketed drug. In other words, if the drug is working. As you can see, much work must be done before drug development reaches human testing. Preclinical studies may vary in size, but they are crucial in defining how safe the drug is before it is tested on people. Therefore, Rick and Marta emphasise that the preclinical stage must follow good practice and the correct guidelines, collecting data to paint a detailed pict ure before being given to the regulatory bodies. Upon the success of preclinical research and the approval of human testing by the regulatory bodies, a process that can take up to 5 years, we finally arrive at clinical trials. In short, clinical trials will further test the candidate drug on human subjects for safety and efficacy, dosage, side effects, and adverse reactions. As the trial progresses, the group size of each phase also increases, and as the number of human subjects increases, so does the cost. Rick and Marta explained that labs or smaller companies will usually carry out the preclinical research, but will search for larger pharmaceutical companies as partners to continue clinical trials. The drug development process is complex and concerns a multidisciplinary team of scientists, corporate partners, and regulatory bodies. However, this process is necessary to create a safe and effective drug that can change lives. Many science and STEM students gravitate only towards science and their respective passionate fields and, unfortunately, tend to find business intimidating. So, what would be your advice for these students to begin learning more about the business side of STEM and building their own start-up? The ideal way to answer this question is to consider it in two different parts: exploring a new passion (the world of business) and the advice to learn more. In many ways, one may always feel the vulnerability of exploring the unknown. Perhaps that is why we live following our passions: there is a certain security in their reliability and certainty for enjoyment and happiness. A safety blanket, so to speak. However, this very blanket could be the culprit that slowly suffocates all possibilities of growth, keeping you safe, secure, and immovable. By reading through their novel, The Molecule , and doing a Google search of these two writers' incredible lives, any reader can surely understand how to grow in pharmacology; there needs to be a specific element of business. Of course, for many, the thought of entering the clutches of the world of business, a world of numbers, negotiations, and a lack of laboratory equipment and sterilisation, might seem daunting. However, it is essential for any reader to understand that if they wish to enter the world of drug development, they will not find this door in academia. Instead, the key to drug development is built when different skill sets, areas of knowledge, and technical expertise come together through the work of a multipurpose team. This delicate and intricate process centres on the team, a team that requires multiple disciplines to work in harmony and in an environment where creativity may flourish. However, how can one go from understanding the importance of business in drug development to taking the first steps into this new, terrifying, and exhilarating world? The simple answer to this is explored in The Molecule . To succeed in the unknown, one must find a good mentor. Someone you truly believe in to show you the way. Of course, there should always be some caution in ensuring the right mentor is found. However, this should not hinder any keen reader from trying, as every experience can be an opportunity for growth. Furthermore, there are many positive stories of successful mentorships, as seen through Dr Sax’s personal experience. In the beginning, like many in STEM, he considered pharmacology “the dark side”. At the time, he worked at Cornell University Medical Centre, living the life many could only dream of. He spent his days working as a triple blend between a physician, a researcher, and a teacher – his passions. When first approached by a mentor on the possibility of pharmacology, a scene was conjured. A scene that showed the fiery pits of hell with the personification of pharmacology itself as a fearful villain pushing one into damnation. However, the support and encouragement from this mentor were the tiny pushes that convinced him to try, leading him to where he is today. There are many ways to find these mentors. Through academia, students can take advantage of programs such as hosting entrepreneurial activities, wet labs, organised panels, and events, such as “speak to a member of the industry”. Even exploring master programs in drug development could be a step forward in matching a student with potential mentors. Moreover, outside of the academic halls, there are many opportunities to form connections. By browsing LinkedIn groups, forums, and Reddit posts, you can find your people and see their steps. Following Dr. New’s humbling words, “It is important for students to remember they are not the first in the history of civilisation to think of entrepreneurship, and it is online where they can find signatures of the work others have done". "Your people" will be the ones that share your confusion, fear, perhaps lack of expertise, love for adrenaline, and a good challenge. Once you find them, everything will start flowing. Furthermore, consider how the real world works: if you want something, you need to go get it, be it with cold reach outs into the unknown and follow-up emails. On average, it takes 6 follow-up emails until someone replies to you. Hence, whatever you are doing, selling, or asking, do it 6 times before you give up. What vision do you see for the future of the biotechnology industry? When posed this question, both Fredrick and Marta conveyed that the future of biotechnology is heavily unpredictable, primarily due to the variability in the success of biotech startups. Moreover, one significant factor influencing this unpredictability is the funding which these firms receive. However, the changes in focus to new trends in biotechnology show great promise for how this large industry may grow and develop. For instance, a new trend is the considerable focus on rare diseases and targeted therapies for specific mutations such as the ALMK-14 mutation in lung cancer. There is also a significant focus on looking at disease subcategories and honing in on the specific type of disease. For example, instead of broadly targeting lung cancer, there is a trend towards addressing specific forms such as small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. This precise approach aims to focus on specific characteristics of each disease’s subtype, for example, some forms of lung cancer may be more aggressive than others. Moreover, both Marta and Richard both highlighted the intertwining of biotechnology with other fields, specifically artificial intelligence (AI). An interesting example of this is utilising AI to develop targeted therapies for molecular markers of disease which may have been identified by lab techniques such as Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). Finally, the industry encompasses a wide range of professions from smaller pharmaceutical companies to larger pharmaceutical firms each with different focuses. Due to these varied focuses, the industry will likely develop and progress in diverse ways, reflecting the various aims of these firms. This diversity further reinforces the unpredictability of the industry’s future but also makes it an interesting field to watch. A massive thank you to Nick Johnstone for giving Scientia News this opportunity; it means a lot. We have learnt so many new things and it has been very inspiring talking to Rick and Marta. For more information, visit the following hyperlinks: Dr Rick Sax ( research ) Dr Marta New Nick Johnstone ( author ) Written by Inês Couto André, Jeevana Thavarajah, Stephanus Steven & Harene Elayathamby Related book reviews: Intern Blue , The Emperor of All Maladies Project Gallery