An overview Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma (EHE) 09/07/25, 15:05 Last updated: Published: 25/02/24, 14:52 An overview This is article no. 4 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Unfolding prion disease . Previous article: Herpes vs devastating skin disease . Gene fusion and EHE Epithelioid hemangioendothelioma (EHE) is a rare cancer which arises from the cells lining the blood vessels (endothelial cells). This occurs when two genes fuse together. Generally, there are several different gene fusions which lead to cancer, predominantly in prostate, ovarian, blood, and sarcomas (soft tissue cancer). These arise from two genes which bind together to create a fusion oncogene, such as the classical example of the BCR-ABL1 fusion gene, called the “Philadelphia chromosome,” in chronic myeloid leukaemia . EHE is a rare vascular sarcoma caused by a fusion between two genes, primarily TAZ and CAMTA1. TAZ is part of the Hippo signalling pathway (see below) and is a transcriptional co-activator (it binds to a transcription factor to activate the first step in gene expression, which is the conversion of DNA to RNA). Less is known about CAMTA1, although it is a transcription activator found primarily in the brain. However, there are also a small number of cases (10%) caused by a YAP1-TFE3 fusion. YAP1 is also part of the Hippo pathway, whilst TFE3 is a transcription factor. EHE is a prime example of the importance of gene fusions (and other chromosomal rearrangements) in the genetic origin of many cancers. Therefore, further understanding of this disease may provide clues into the tumourigenesis of other different cancers. EHE is extremely rare at a prevalence of 1 in 1 million and presents more often in females, but it can occur in either sex at any age. It is most common in the liver and lung and has an unusual pathology, as it can present as an aggressive or indolent (slow-growing) cancer. Similarly to many cancers, symptoms can present as any or all the following: a mass, fever, fatigue, pain, and weight loss. It may also have no symptoms and be highlighted by chance whilst undergoing other investigations. Cellular signalling behind EHE: the Hippo pathway The Hippo pathway controls tissue growth and is the signalling mechanism behind EHE. YAP/TAZ are vital members of this pathway and are oncogenic transcription (co-) factors in many solid tumours. They have also been shown to be crucial for cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. However, surprisingly, certain blood cancers, such as leukaemia, myeloma, and lymphoma, show reduced levels of YAP/TAZ. Therefore, it seems YAP/TAZ behave differently depending on cell type. High expression of YAP/TAZ (or nuclear localization) is related to poor prognosis in breast, colorectal, liver, lung, gastric, pancreatic, ovarian, endometrial, oesophageal, and bladder cancers. YAP/TAZ are phosphorylated and degraded in the cytoplasm when the Hippo pathway is ‘on.’ However, when the Hippo pathway is ‘off,’ YAP/TAZ move to the nucleus, where they are involved in transcription (see the signalling pathway diagram). However, in EHE disease, even when Hippo is ‘on,’ TAZ-CAMTA1/YAP1-TFE3 override this and move to the nucleus to be involved in aberrant (atypical) transcription. YAP/TAZ bind to TEAD ( DNA-binding domain ) in the nucleus, whilst CAMTA1 and TFE3 are thought to be involved in chromatin remodelling. Chromatin consists of tightly packed DNA and histones (proteins). Chromatin remodelling results in the chromatin unwinding and the DNA becoming more accessible for transcription (i.e. ‘switching on’ certain genes). Therefore, this may lead to overexpression and subsequently, cancer. EHE treatment There are no standard treatments for EHE, but indolent cancers are often treated by monitoring, a ‘watch-and-wait’ strategy. Surgery is a common form of treatment for single tumours. Ablation (burning/freezing), isolated limb perfusion (drug treatment to one limb), vascular embolization (blocking tumour blood supply), and radiation therapy are also other forms of possible treatment, along with the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors (the mTOR pathway controls cell proliferation/metabolism). Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (tyrosine kinases activate proteins in related pathways) and interferon (immune system modulators) are two other possible treatments. A transplant could also be an option if there is an organ with multiple tumours (most often the liver). However, more effective treatments are needed and research into this disease is currently underway. Summary EHE is a rare cancer which arises from the cells lining the blood vessels. It occurs from gene fusions, primarily TAZ-CAMTA1. TAZ is part of the Hippo signalling pathway, which controls tissue growth. Therefore, Hippo is a vital pathway involved in many cancers, and understanding this pathway in EHE disease may provide clues as to the tumourigenesis of other cancers. Written by Eleanor R. Markham Related articles: The Hippo signalling pathway / Apocrine carcinoma (a rare form of breast cancer) Project Gallery

Delving into the impacts of gut bacteria on health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Gut Microbiome 11/07/25, 10:58 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 17:41 Delving into the impacts of gut bacteria on health Inflammatory Bowel Disease The microbiome is hugely important to human health, and has been shown to beneficial to digestion, the immune system and even our mental health when in good working condition. However, disruption to the balance of the microbial flora has likewise been associated with multiple diseases and poor general health. Dysbiosis, or a poor balance, of human microbiome communities has been implicated in a wide range of disease, such as cardiovascular disease, chronic inflammation, obesity and even mental health issues. A diverse and well-balanced microbial community is important for disease prevention, however modern over usage of antibiotics as well as poor diets low in dietary fibre and high in artificial additives can lead to compromised communities dominated by single pathogenic strains of bacteria. The human microbiome plays a critical role in overall health, from providing valuable metabolites to aiding the immune system. Friendly commensal bacteria colonise major regions in our gut, with characteristic diverse communities of microbes inhabiting them. These microbes occupy these niches and outcompete pathogenic organisms, actively preventing infection and disease. In this article we will be specifically looking into the link between the gut microbiome and Inflammatory Bowel disease (IBD), as this is currently one of the most well researched cases of a causal relationship between the microbiome and disease state. Dysbiosis and Disease state Disruption of the gut flora is associated with painful inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, diagnosed as IBD. Crohn’s disease and Ulcerative Colitis are conditions under the umbrella term of IBD and cause painful swelling and eventually ulcers in the gastrointestinal tract. The exact cause of IBD remains unclear, with the true cause likely a combination of genetics, environmental factors and the gut microbiome. Evidence has come to light that shows a link between disease state and the gut dysbiosis, where they influence each other and are potentially both each other’s cause and effect. Successfully treating IBD has proved difficult; medications focus on alleviating inflammation or other symptoms as antibiotics have shown limited effectiveness in curing the disease. Antibiotics have even been suggested to weaken the immune system long-term, as evidence suggests that antibiotic clearance of commensal bacteria can provide opportunity for pathogenic strains to establish themselves. Medical treatments destabilizing the microbiome can lead to a change in overall metabolism and chronic Clostridium difficile infection. When colonization resistance is compromised there is more opportunity for single bacteria to dominate the community, with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea a common side effect associated with antibiotic induced dysbiosis. Microbial-based therapies Recently potential therapies pivoted to target the microbiota, as reinstating a healthy colony of gut microbials should alleviate the cause of IBD. Previous treatments relied on antibiotics followed by a course of probiotics; however, this has had variable levels of success as the antibiotic treatment can further reduce bacterial diversity in the gut. Probiotics have limited effectiveness in alleviating symptoms; any effect is transient as no probiotic microbial strains are detectable after 2 weeks of stopping intake. In modern clinical trials we have already seen positive results from microbiome treatments in clearing C. difficile infection, such as faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) therapy. FMT uses faeces from a healthy donor, which are processed and delivered to the gastrointestinal tract of patients. Faeces contain a high microbial load, with up to 1011 bacterium per gram and multiple archaea, fungi and viruses that could not be delivered orally in a probiotic form. Success in resolving dysbiosis through FMT is variable but shows more promise than other therapies. Future Potential Specific forms of IBD such as ulcerative colitis (UC) was first treated with FMT in 1989, with patients reducing medications within a week of enema treatments and remaining clinically disease free for multiple years after treatment. More recent trials have had more variable levels of remission, suggesting donor compatibility, disease prevalence and engraftment of the microbiota all factor into the success of FMT. There is potential in this therapy, as FMT has proved more robust than previous treatments for IBD. Modern research into the relationship between disease and gut flora has come a long way in a relatively short time and shows there is much potential for future research in this area. Written by Charlotte Jones Related articles: the power of probiotics / Crohn's disease / the dopamine connection / Diverticular disease / Nanoparticles on gut health / Microbes in charge Project Gallery

Unleashing the power of mRNA: revolutionising medicine with personalised vaccines Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The exciting potential of mRNA vaccines 11/07/25, 11:03 Last updated: Published: 03/12/24, 12:19 Unleashing the power of mRNA: revolutionising medicine with personalised vaccines Basic mRNA vaccine pharmacology Basic mRNA vaccine pharmacology involves the study of two types of RNA used as vaccines: non-replicating mRNA and self-amplifying RNA. Non-replicating mRNA-based vaccines encode the antigen of interest and contain untranslated regions (UTRs) at both ends. Self-amplifying RNAs, on the other hand, encode both the antigen and the viral replication machinery, allowing for intracellular RNA amplification and abundant protein expression. For successful protein production in mRNA therapeutics, the optimal translation of in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA is crucial. Factors such as the length of the poly(A) tail, codon usage, and sequence optimisation can influence translation efficiency and accuracy. Adding an optimal length of poly(A) to mRNA is necessary for efficient translation. This can be achieved by directly incorporating it from the encoding DNA template or by using poly(A) polymerase. Codon usage also plays a role in protein translation. Replacing rare codons with frequently used synonymous codons, which have abundant cognate tRNA in the cytosol, can enhance protein production from mRNA. However, the accuracy of this model has been subject to questioning. Optimally translated IVT mRNA encoding mRNA IVT mRNA plays a crucial role in mRNA vaccines as it is designed for optimal translation, ensuring efficient protein production. To achieve this, a 5ʹ cap structure is added, which is essential for efficient protein synthesis. Different versions of 5ʹ caps can be added during or after the transcription process. Furthermore, the poly(A) tail plays a significant regulatory role in mRNA translation and stability. Sequence optimisation is another critical factor that can enhance mRNA levels and protein expression. Increasing the G:C content has been shown to elevate steady-state mRNA levels in vitro and improve protein expression in vivo. Furthermore, modifying the codon composition or introducing modified nucleosides can positively influence protein expression. However, it is important to note that these sequence engineering techniques may impact mRNA secondary structure, translation kinetics, accuracy, protein folding, as well as the expression of alternative reading frames and cryptic T-cell epitopes. Sequence optimisation for protein translation Sequence optimisation plays a crucial role in the development of mRNA vaccines. It involves modifying the mRNA sequence to improve the efficiency of protein translation. By optimising the sequence, researchers can enhance the expression and stability of therapeutic mRNAs. However, the immunogenicity of exogenous mRNA is a concern, as it can trigger a response from various innate immune receptors. In some cases, encoding mRNA in the hypothalamus may even elicit a physiological response. Despite initial promising outcomes, the development of mRNA therapeutics has been hindered by concerns regarding mRNA instability, high innate immunogenicity, and inefficient in vivo delivery. As a result, DNA-based and protein-based therapeutic approaches have been preferred in the past. Modulation of immunogenicity Modulation of immunogenicity is a crucial aspect of mRNA vaccine development. Researchers aim to design mRNA vaccines that elicit a strong immune response while minimising adverse reactions. This involves careful selection of antigens and optimisation of the mRNA sequence to enhance immunogenicity. Self-replicating RNA vaccines and adjuvant strategies, such as TriMix, have shown increased immunogenicity and effectiveness. The immunostimulatory properties of mRNA can be further enhanced by including adjuvants. The size of the mRNA-carrier complex and the level of innate immune sensing in targeted cell types can influence the immunogenicity of mRNA vaccines. Advantages of mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines offer several advantages over conventional vaccine approaches. First, they have high potency, meaning they can induce a strong immune response. Second, they have a capacity for rapid development, allowing for quick vaccine production in response to emerging infectious diseases or new strains. Third, mRNA vaccines have the potential for rapid, inexpensive, and scalable manufacturing, mainly due to the high yields of in vitro transcription reactions. Additionally, mRNA vaccines are minimal genetic vectors, avoiding anti-vector immunity, and can be administered repeatedly. However, recent technological innovations and research investments have made mRNA a promising therapeutic tool in vaccine development and protein replacement therapy. mRNA has several advantages over other vaccine platforms, including safety and efficacy. It is non-infectious and non-integrating, reducing the risk of infection and insertional mutagenesis. mRNA can be regulated in terms of in vivo half-life and immunogenicity through various modifications and delivery methods. Production of mRNA vaccines The production of mRNA vaccines involves in vitro transcription (IVT) of the optimised mRNA sequence. This process allows for the rapid and scalable manufacturing of mRNA vaccines. High yields of IVT mRNA can be obtained, making the production process cost-effective. Making mRNA more stable and highly translatable is achievable through modifications. Efficient in vivo delivery can be achieved by formulating mRNA into carrier molecules. The choice of carrier and the size of the mRNA-carrier complex can also modulate the cytokine profile induced by mRNA delivery. Current mRNA vaccine approaches (Figure 1) There are several current mRNA vaccine approaches being explored. These include the development of mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases and various types of cancer. mRNA vaccines have shown promising results in both animal models and humans. Cancer vaccines Cancer vaccines are a type of immunotherapy that aim to stimulate the body's immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells. These vaccines work by introducing specific antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, into the body. The immune system then recognises these antigens as foreign and mounts an immune response against them, targeting and destroying cancer cells that express these antigens. There are different types of cancer vaccines, including personalised vaccines and predefined shared antigen vaccines. Personalised vaccines are tailored to each patient and are designed to target specific mutations or antigens present in their tumor. These vaccines are created by identifying tumor-specific antigens by sequencing the patient's tumor DNA and predicting which antigens are most likely to elicit an immune response. These antigens are then used to create a vaccine that is specific to that patient's tumor. On the other hand, predefined shared antigen vaccines are designed to target antigens that are commonly expressed in certain types of cancer. These vaccines can be used in multiple patients with the same type of cancer and are not personalised to each individual. The antigens used in these vaccines are selected based on their ability to induce an immune response and their potential to be recognised by T cells. Despite the promising potential of cancer vaccines, their clinical progress is limited, and skepticism surrounds their effectiveness. While there have been some examples of vaccines that have shown systemic regression of tumors and prolonged survival in small clinical trials, many trials have yielded marginal survival benefits. Challenges such as small trial sizes, resource-intensive approaches, and immune escape of heterogeneous tumors have hindered the field's progress. However, it is important to note that other immunotherapies, such as monoclonal antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies, have also faced challenges and setbacks before eventually achieving success. Therefore, cancer vaccines may also have the potential for eventual success, given their clear rationale and compelling preclinical data. To improve the efficacy of cancer vaccines, researchers are exploring various strategies. These include optimising antigen presentation and immune activation by using adjuvants or agonists of pattern-recognition receptors. Additionally, advancements in sequencing technologies and computational algorithms for epitope prediction allow for the identification of more specific tumor mutagens and the production of personalised neo-epitope vaccines. Neo-epitope vaccines are a type of personalised vaccine that target specific mutations or neo-epitopes present in a patient's tumor. These vaccines exploit the most specific tumor mutagens identified through computational methods and prioritise highly expressed neo-epitopes. They can be given with adjuvants to enhance their immunogenicity. Hence, cancer vaccines hold promise as a potential standard anti-cancer therapy. While their progress has been limited, a clear rationale and compelling preclinical data support their further development. Personalised vaccines targeting specific mutations or antigens present in a patient's tumor, as well as predefined shared antigen vaccines targeting commonly expressed antigens, are being explored. Future of mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional vaccine approaches due to their high potency, rapid development capabilities, and potential for low-cost manufacture and safe administration. Recent technological advancements have addressed the challenges of mRNA instability and inefficient in vivo delivery, leading to encouraging results in the development of mRNA vaccine platforms against infectious diseases and various types of cancer. Looking ahead, the future of mRNA vaccines holds great potential for further advancements and widespread therapeutic use. Efficient in vivo delivery of mRNA remains a critical area of focus for future development. Researchers are working on improving delivery systems to ensure targeted delivery to specific cells or tissues, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of mRNA vaccines. This includes the development of lipid nanoparticles, viral vectors, and other delivery mechanisms to optimize mRNA delivery and cellular uptake. The success of mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer has opened doors to exploring their potential in other areas of medicine. Future research may involve the development of mRNA vaccines for autoimmune disorders, allergies, and chronic diseases. The versatility of mRNA technology allows for the rapid adaptation of vaccine candidates to address various medical conditions. One exciting prospect for mRNA vaccines is their potential for personalised medicine. The ability to easily modify the genetic sequence of mRNA allows for the development of personalised vaccines tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup or disease profile. This could revolutionise preventive medicine by enabling targeted immunisation strategies. Combining mRNA vaccines with other treatment modalities, such as immunotherapies or traditional therapies, could lead to synergistic effects and improved clinical outcomes. The unique properties of mRNA vaccines, such as their ability to induce potent immune responses and modulate the expression of specific proteins, make them attractive candidates for combination therapies. Continued advancements in manufacturing processes will be crucial for the widespread adoption of mRNA vaccines. Efforts are underway to optimise and scale up the production of mRNA vaccines, making them more accessible and cost-effective. This includes refining in vitro transcription reactions and implementing efficient quality control measures. The regulatory landscape surrounding mRNA vaccines will evolve as the field progresses. Regulatory agencies will need to establish guidelines and frameworks specific to mRNA vaccine development and approval. Ensuring safety, efficacy, and quality control will be essential to gain widespread acceptance and public trust in mRNA vaccines. Conclusion mRNA vaccines have shown great potential in revolutionising the field of medicine, particularly in the areas of personalised medicine and preventive medicine. The ability to easily modify the genetic sequence of mRNA allows for the development of personalised vaccines tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup or disease profile. Furthermore, the unique properties of mRNA vaccines, such as their ability to induce potent immune responses and modulate the expression of specific proteins, make them attractive candidates for combination therapies. However, there are still challenges to overcome, such as ensuring safety, efficacy, quality control, addressing concerns regarding immunogenicity. Nonetheless, with continued advancements in manufacturing processes and regulatory guidelines, the future of mRNA vaccines holds great promise for further advancements and widespread therapeutic use. Efforts to improve in vivo delivery systems and explore the potential of mRNA vaccines in other areas of medicine, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic diseases, further contribute to the promising outlook for this technology. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Potential malaria vaccine / Bioinformatics in COVID vaccine production / Personalised medicine REFERENCES Lin, M.J., Svensson-Arvelund, J., Lubitz, G.S. et al. Cancer vaccines: the next immunotherapy frontier. Nat Cancer 3, 911–926 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43018-022-00418-6 Pardi, N., Hogan, M., Porter, F. et al. mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology. Nat Rev Drug Discov 17 , 261–279 (2018). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2017.243 Project Gallery

A vital fluid Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Blood 03/05/26, 18:35 Last updated: Published: 07/09/23, 11:16 A vital fluid A guide to the human blood system and alternatives Human blood Blood is a vital fluid for humans and vertebrates. It transports nutrients, including oxygen, to cells and tissues. Blood is made of different components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) contain haemoglobin, which gives blood its red colour. Haemoglobin helps to carry oxygen to the body from the lungs. White blood cells (also called leukocytes) defend the body against infections. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell, and the two types are T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. T lymphocytes target infected cells and regulate the function of other immune cells. B lymphocytes, on the other hand, create antibodies, which are proteins that can destroy foreign substances like bacteria and viruses. Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are small cell fragments. They are essential in blood clotting, a process known as coagulation. Platelets also help wounds heal and contribute to the immune response. Plasma is the liquid component in blood, made of water, ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes and gases. Its main role is transporting substances such as blood cells and other nutrients throughout the body. Artificial blood There are two main types of artificial blood: haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). HBOCs are synthetic solutions designed to carry oxygen. They are usually a smaller size than RBCs. The haemoglobin is modified and covered with carriers to ensure the HBOCs do not break down inside the body. They can be used for blood transfusions that need to be done immediately or when there is too much blood loss. PFCs are derived from fluorine-containing and carbon-containing chemicals, and have a high capacity for carrying and delivering oxygen. Advantages and disadvantages of artificial blood Artificial blood can be beneficial because it can be used for any patient who needs a blood transfusion, regardless of their blood type, if the substitute has the universal O blood group. There is also less chance of diseases being passed to patients using artificial blood. However, artificial blood has been shown to have adverse side effects, including high blood pressure and a higher chance of heart attacks. The future of artificial blood There have been experiments in the NHS with laboratory-grown RBCs in the RESTORE randomised controlled clinical trial, which aims to see if RBCs produced from stem cells in a lab can survive longer in the body than normal donated cells. As part of the trial, scientists created lab-grown RBCs to be given to healthy volunteer participants in small doses. In February 2026, the final batch of RBCs produced as part of the trial was given to volunteers. This trial highlights the potential for artificial blood to be used in clinical settings, especially when supply is low or for patients with rare blood types, diseases, or complex transfusion requirements. The results of this trial are planned to be shared in late 2026 or early 2027. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Sideroblastic anaemia / Kawasaki disease Project Gallery

Explore artificial intelligence, a technology that has taken the world by storm. Learn how it is used in fields like agriculture, drug discovery, and outer space. Elsewhere, get to grips with semi-conductor manufacturing, quantum computing, and biotechnology. Technology Articles Explore artificial intelligence, a technology that has taken the world by storm. Learn how it is used in fields like agriculture, drug discovery, and outer space. Elsewhere, get to grips with semi-conductor manufacturing, quantum computing, and biotechnology. You may also like: Maths , Physics , Engineering Fake science websites Ways fake science websites misinform and misguide readers The evolution of artificial intelligence And its greater role in natural language processor technologies Medical biotechnology Technology in the medical sciences Quantum computing What are its applications? Improving agriculture Revolutionising sustainable agriculture through AI AI in drug discovery Using this technology in drug research Digital disinformation With the use of IT cells Digital innovation in rural farming What are the benefits? AI in space What is artificial intelligence used for in outer space? Radiation therapy to treat cancer Revolutionising patient setup in cancer treatment AI: the good, the bad, and the future A Scientia News Biology group collaboration Photonic integration In semiconductor manufacturing Nanomedicine Tiny solutions for big health problems NHS clinical computer scientist Exploring the day-to-day routine in this new field in healthcare Semi-conductor laser technology The recent advancements Code to cure How bioinformatics and technology helped to develop a vaccine for COVID-19 Virtual reality in healthcare Its potential Mauritius's rise as African leader of mobile networks An in-depth look at the rollout of 5G on the island, and the factors enabling this

Can CRISPR/Cas9 overcome the challenges posed by current HIV treatments? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A potential treatment for HIV 09/05/26, 14:38 Last updated: Published: 21/07/23, 10:50 Can CRISPR/Cas9 overcome the challenges posed by current HIV treatments? The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was recorded to affect 40.8 million people globally at the end of 2024. This virus attacks the immune system, incapacitating CD4 cells: white blood cells (WBCs) which play a vital role in activating the innate immune system and fighting infection. The normal range of CD4 cells in our body is from 500 to 1500 cells/mm3 of blood; HIV can rapidly deplete the CD4 count to dangerous levels, damaging the immune system and leaving the body highly susceptible to infections. Whilst antiretroviral therapy (ART) can help manage the virus by interfering with viral replication and helping the body manage the viral load, it fails to eliminate the virus altogether. The reason for this is due to the presence of latent viral reservoirs where HIV can lay dormant and reignite infection if ART is stopped. Whilst a cure has not yet been discovered, a promising avenue being explored in the hopes of eradicating HIV has been CRISPR/Cas9 technology. This highly precise gene-editing tool has been shown to have the ability to induce mutations at specific points in the HIV proviral DNA. Guide RNAs pinpoint the desired genome location and Cas9 nuclease enzymes act as molecular scissors that remove selected segments of DNA.  Therefore, CRISPR/Cas9 technology provides access to the viral genetic material integrated into the genome of infected cells, allowing researchers to cleave HIV genes from infected cells, clearing latent viral reservoirs. Furthermore, the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing tool can also prevent HIV from attacking the CD4 cells in the first place. HIV binds to the chemokine receptor, CCR5, expressed on CD4 cells, in order to enter the WBC. CRISPR/Cas9 can cleave the genes for the CCR5 receptor and therefore preventing the virus from entering and replicating inside CD4 cells. CRISPR/Cas9 technology provides a solution that current antiretroviral therapies cannot solve. Through gene-editing, researchers can dispel the lasting reservoirs unreachable by ART that HIV is able to establish in our bodies. Recent phase 1 and 2 trials for treatment involving CRISPR/ Cas9 (e.g. EBT-101-001) showed promising safety and efficacy, as CRISPR successfully targeted latent HIV in vivo. However, further research and clinical trials are still required to fully understand the safety and efficacy of this approach to treating HIV, before it can be implemented as a standard treatment. Written by Bisma Butt Related articles: Antiretroviral therapy / mRNA vaccines Project Gallery

Properties of space Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Topology in action 17/02/25, 14:51 Last updated: Published: 29/09/23, 21:09 Properties of space Let’s say I put a sphere in front of you. I’m sure you could go through and tell me the basic facts and formulas surrounding it, many if which containing Pi. And even better, if you were a bit more fluent in maths, you could go further and start telling me about the geometry of the shape, say how the gradient had to disappear at a certain point or an assortment of many other things. But if we dive a little deeper into pure maths, it starts getting a little more complicated. When labels like Hausdorff get casually thrown about (meaning you can always separate two distinct points with an open boundary, which you certainly can do on a sphere!) it can really build up and become quite hard, especially if someone then puts in front of you two spheres stuck together. This is where the study of topology comes in and starts helping out, allowing us to start to categorise certain spaces without having to worry about all the small details that could catch you out. Topology is certainly found in the purer side of maths, generally seen as one of the more abstract modules to be taking at undergraduate level (as seen by the exam scores). But thinking of it just as some far away concept disconnected with the rest of the world would be foolish. Thinking back to what I said before about gradient fields on a sphere, this is more commonly known in maths as the “Hairy Ball Theorem” named as such as if you had a ball of hair, you wouldn’t be able to smooth it all out without a cow’s lick. And in mathematical terms it means that a continuous vector field has to disappear at a certain point. And maybe not readily apparent but this comes up in loads of places, the most obvious of which is that two points on the Earth will always have the exact temperature! But moving to Biology we see a lot more applications, even as early as in A-level study. Just thinking about how a protein will fold is all to do with the topological properties of them. DNA is a bit more complex understandably, with more base pairs it becomes incredibly flexible, able to bend into many shapes, but like topological spaces this flexible has limits. It doesn’t pass through itself nor tear, so it allows us to start applying our theorems to it. A key one of these is Knot theory, which of course is the study of knots. Knots in maths are defined as having no open ends and being complex, which helpfully is exactly like DNA! As you hopefully know, its coiled form has no open ends, and in order to untangle it we have to go through the process of cutting at double points. The amount of times this is needed to untangle is called the 'unknotting number' in topology and this mathematical modelling of the process allows biologists to move away from the microscope and still get a more accurate look on what’s happening. Written by Tom Murphy Related article: Quantum chemistry Project Gallery

A rare disease that causes inflammation in the blood vessels Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Understanding and detecting Kawasaki disease on time Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:31 Published: 06/02/25, 08:00 A rare disease that causes inflammation in the blood vessels What is Kawasaki disease? Kawasaki disease is a rare type of vasculitis that damages blood vessels through inflammation and is prevalent in children under the age of five. Kawasaki disease is predominantly found in children of Asian races–mainly in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Asian races in the US–and is the leading cause of acquired heart disease in children in most developed countries. What causes Kawasaki disease? There is no known cause of Kawasaki disease, however, studies suggest a link between genetics and the disease, noting a high incidence between siblings and in children with a parental history of Kawasaki disease. Another study provided further evidence of genetic susceptibility, stating that variation in the expression of CASP3 and ITPKC—genes heavily involved in T cell function—leads to an overexpression of T cells.This can be attributed to the inflammatory symptoms of the disease. There are speculations that it may be caused by an airborne agent originating in Central Asia which moves across different geographical regions. This study suggests that through winds, the airborne agent is able to cause Kawasaki disease via infection of the respiratory tract–further investigation is needed regarding this hypothesis. Diagnosing Kawasaki disease Symptoms of Kawasaki disease, which are often accompanied by a fever, are classified into three phases: acute, subacute, and convalescent. The acute phase usually lasts between two to three weeks and symptoms include: Carditis Mucosal inflammation (cracked and dry lips, strawberry tongue, swollen lymph nodes) Polymorphous rash Coronary artery aneurysms The subacute phase also lasts up to three weeks and includes symptoms such as: - Perineal and periungual desquamation - Arthralgia - Myocardial disease The convalescent phase is when most clinical signs dissolve and usually lasts up to three months. It is important to note that while most symptoms clear up during this phase, cardiac issues may still persist in some patients. Misdiagnosing Kawasaki disease is very common as its symptoms are similar to that of many diseases like scarlet fever or toxic shock syndrome. With that being said, confirming its diagnosis is often a case of ruling out these diseases. In addition to identifying symptoms linked to other diseases, conducting laboratory tests such as CRP, CBC, and ESR can help confirm a diagnosis of Kawasaki disease. Additionally, echocardiograms and electrocardiograms can help assess coronary abnormalities as well as overall heart function. Treating Kawasaki disease Following diagnoses, patients are first administered an IVIG and a high dose of aspirin to reduce inflammation as well as eliminate pain, swelling and fever. Patients are then administered lower doses of aspirin which helps prevent blood clotting. Roughly 25% of untreated patients are at a higher risk of developing coronary artery aneurysms and lasting cardiovascular issues in general. This risk drops down to 5% when treated appropriately. IVIG is proven to be effective in treating approximately 85-90% of cases when administered within the first ten days of the illness which is why it is imperative that patients are treated early. X-rays are regularly conducted on patients as they can help visualise blood vessels and potential heart abnormalities that may suggest further complications. It can also observe the effectiveness of treatment over time. Post-recovery, an echocardiogram is recommended periodically to detect any coronary abnormalities that may have developed much later on. Summary Kawasaki disease is a rare disease that causes inflammation in the blood vessels. It normally develops in children under the age of five and is yet to have a known cause. It is often hard to diagnose as its symptoms are similar to that of other diseases, which is why it is important to identify its symptoms (polymorphous rash, mucosal inflammation, desquamation, etc) as well as conduct tests such as CBC, CRP, ESR, an electrocardiogram, etc to help rule out other diseases. It is essential that children with Kawasaki disease are diagnosed and treated early as this can help treat coronary artery aneurysm and prevent lasting coronary and cardiovascular abnormalities. Written by Sherine Latheef Related articles: Sideroblastic anaemia / Blood / Inflammation therapy REFERENCES Onouchi, Y., Ozaki, K., Buns, J.C., Shimizu, C., Hamada, H., Honda, T., Terai, M., Honda, A., Takeuchi, T., Shibuta, S., Suenaga, T., Suzuki, H., Higashi, K., Yasukawa, K., Suzuki, Y., Sasago, K., Kemmotsu, Y., Takatsuki, S., Saji, T. and Yoshikawa, T. (2010). Common variants in CASP3 confer susceptibility to Kawasaki disease. Human Molecular Genetics , 19(14), pp.2898–2906. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddq176 . Agarwal, S. and Agrawal, D.K. (2017). Kawasaki Disease: Etiopathogenesis and Novel Treatment Strategies. Expert review of clinical immunology , [online] 13(3), pp.247–258. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1744666X.2017.1232165 . Wolff, A.E., Hansen, K.E. and Zakowski, L. (2007). Acute Kawasaki Disease: Not Just for Kids. Journal of General Internal Medicine , [online] 22(5), pp.681–684. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-006-0100-5 . Oh, J.-H., Cho, S. and Choi, J.A. (2023). Clinical Signs of Kawasaki Disease from the Perspective of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Recruiting Erythrocytes: A Literature Review. Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine , 24(4), pp.109–109. doi: https://doi.org/10.31083/j.rcm2404109 . Team, H.J. (2018). Kawasaki Disease - Causes, Signs, Symptoms,Treatment . [online] Health Jade. Available at: https://healthjade.com/kawasaki-disease/ . Project Gallery

Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101: what are the different types of epilepsy seizures? Last updated: 29/04/25, 17:09 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness After previously covering a very generic overview into epilepsy – what it is, its different types, methods of diagnosis and treatment, it would be a good idea to really delve deeper into the different types of seizures. Are they just convulsions, shaking and losing consciousness? Or is there more to it? Read more to find out! But before we begin, it is important to cover some key terms and prefixes, to help us with understanding what the different types of seizures are: Myo-: muscle Clonic: repeated jerking Tonic: muscle stiffness Atonic: muscles become limp Motor: movement From our previous article , we know that the two main types of epilepsy are generalised and focal epilepsy. Each type of epilepsy has different types of seizures associated with it. Generalised epilepsy – it consists of 2 main types of seizures (motor and non-motor seizures): 1) Generalised Motor Seizures: Involves changes in muscle activity, where they either move abnormally, or don’t move at all. This includes: Myoclonic seizures: sudden body jerks (especially the hands or the legs) as if someone had been jolted with electricity. Tonic - Clonic (Grand mal) seizures: This seizure has 2 main phases – a tonic and clonic stage:- Initial tonic (stiffness) phase is followed by a clonic (repeated, uncontrolled jerking of the limbs) phase. During the 'tonic' phase, the person may become unconscious and fall to the floor. In the 'clonic' phase, the person might struggle to breathe or uncontrollably bite their tongue. This is probably the ‘typical’ seizure everyone thinks of when they hear about epilepsy! Atonic seizures: The muscles become limp, and the person might even collapse. 2) Generalised non-motor seizures: They are usually also referred to as 'absence seizures', and they don’t include any changes in muscle activity. Instead, the person might stare into space, and might have a pause in activity, or a repetition in movements, such as lip-smacking for around 15 seconds or less. The individual may not remember what happened during the seizure; however their normal state of alertness is regained immediately after. People might easily confuse this type of seizure with daydreaming! Focal epilepsy- This is split into 4 main types based on whether the person is aware of their seizure, and if there are any changes in muscle activity involved: 1) Focal awareness seizures: Patient is fully aware of what is happening during a seizure, even if they are unable to move or respond. Some people might experience an "aura" as a warning before this seizure. This could feel like a strange sensation, fear, euphoria, a sense of déjà vu, feeling that something bad is about to happen, visual changes or even tingling or stiffness in their body. 2) Focal impaired awareness seizures: The person isn’t aware of their seizure, nor can they remember having it, and can’t respond to anyone during the seizure. The seizure can include movements such as moving their hands and legs or making random noises. 3) Focal Motor Seizures: involves random muscle activity, such as twitching, stiffness, limpness, or other movements such as rubbing hands, lip-smacking and walking around. 4) Focal Non-motor Seizures: no muscle movements or stiffness (as this is a non-motor seizure), but there is a change in a patient’s feelings and thoughts, causing strange feelings, a racing heart, and waves of heat or cold. Now that we’ve covered the key seizures, what triggers epilepsy seizures, causing those lights in the city (which in this case, is our brain) to start flickering or shut completely? There are many different causes, and they vary from one person to another. They could include: Stress Lack of sleep Drinking alcohol Consuming illegal drugs Not taking your anti-seizure medication (ASMs) Some types of medication Menstrual Cycle and hormonal changes Flashing lights (for individuals with photosensitive epilepsy) Photosensitive epilepsy is epilepsy that is triggered by flashing of lights, causing seizures such as myoclonic seizures. It is interesting to see how many people hold the misconception that seizures are mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness, when in fact there’s a huge variety of seizure! It is important that we know what different seizures look like, so we could help these individuals appropriately. Don’t be afraid to read further about epilepsy and seizures, and how to help people out there! Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Epilepsy 101 (overview) / Traumatic brain injuries REFERENCES Dhanyamraju, S. (2019). What is a Seizure? - Lone Star Neurology . [online] Lone Star Neurology. Available at: https://lonestarneurology.net/seizures/seizures/ . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Ditki medical & biological sciences. (n.d.). Neurological System Glossary: Tonic-Clonic Seizure . [online] Available at: https://ditki.com/course/neurological-system/glossary/eeg-findings/tonic-clonic-seizure . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Epilepsy action (2022). Focal seizures | Epilepsy Action . [online] www.epilepsy.org.uk . Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/seizures/focal-seizures [Accessed 18 Dec. 2024]. John Hopkins Medicine (n.d.). Generalized Seizures . [online] Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/generalized-seizures#:~:text=Generalized%20seizures%20include%20absence%2C%20atonic [Accessed 17 Dec.2024]. NHS (2020). Symptoms - Epilepsy . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/symptoms/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2024]. Project Gallery

Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The game of life 11/07/25, 11:03 Last updated: Published: 20/11/23, 11:22 Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! I am a Maths graduate, a Maths teacher, and an all-rounder academic, yet in my twenties, when I began the process of buying a home, I had no idea where to start. I did not know how to get a mortgage, what shared ownership was, or when to get a solicitor involved. This is a problem, and this, I believe, is what needs to be taught from 16-18 years of age. The skills, opportunities, and options for young adults to simply move forward in this world. My suggestion: (for those who do not take A-Levels) To create a well-structured, virtual reality, cross-curricular running project about life, a little bit like an AI version of the ‘game of life.’ Students can begin the project in a virtual reality world of choice, and then slowly branch out depending on their interests. They can learn CV building skills , go to an AI job centre, choose the job they want to do and learn the skills for it by conducting research and completing online courses . At the same time within the project, students can be given a budget according to the job they are training for, in which they can forecast their savings and plan for the route that they would take in purchasing a property. Students would need to learn about shared ownership, the pros and cons of renting, the deposits needed for mortgage, all within a game format, like a PS5 game. This aspect of the project would be heavy with Maths. Students would be expected to write a final assessment piece summarising each of their decisions and why, which would include high levels of the English curriculum. To differentiate the project, we could ask students to use Geography, to find a country in the world where their skills may be more in demand and ask them to consider the possibility of relocating to another country for work, which would broaden the horizon of the project massively. They could look at tax laws in different countries, such as Dubai, and how that would benefit them in terms of salary, but what the importance of tax is in a country too. Students would get to explore countries which have free healthcare and schooling vs which countries do not. This would work on their analysis and deeper thinking skills. The game-like format of this project would be ideal for disengaged students who did not thrive with the traditional style of teaching in schools. We could include potential for earning points in the ‘game’ for each additional piece of research they conduct, and a real-life benefit to earning those points too, such as Amazon vouchers, as rewards. A project like this would enable all curriculums to get involved in, for students to understand the world better and a massive scope for AI, potentially asking Meta to design it, who are at the forefront of virtual reality. To make it work, the project would require teachers from all fields to come together to form a curriculum that is inclusive, considers British Values and mirrors the real-life that we live in today. There is potential for psychologist to be involved to ensure we are considering mental health implications as well as parents/guardians, who would need to be onboard with this too. In conclusion, I believe that 16-18 years do need guided learning that is standardised, but I do not think it is as simple as pushing Maths on to them. The future generation and their society will benefit from a holistic guided route to life, which will make them informed and educated individuals in topics that matter to THEM, based on THEIR lives, not chosen by us. Give students control over their education, over their lives... Written by Sara Altaf Project Gallery