And a hope for a more sustainable future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Green Chemistry 04/04/26, 18:32 Last updated: Published: 29/06/23, 11:33 And a hope for a more sustainable future Green Chemistry is a branch of chemistry that takes into consideration the design of synthetic reactions to minimise the generation of hazardous by-products, their impact on humans and the environment. Often reactions are designed to take place at low temperatures with short reaction times and increased yields. This is preferred as fewer materials are used and it is more energy efficient. When designing routes it is important to consider ‘How green is the process?’ in this way we are shifting focus to a more sustainable future where we are emitting fewer pollutants, using renewable feedstocks and energy sources with minimal waste. In 1998, Paul Anastas and John Warner devised the twelve principles of Green Chemistry. They serve as a framework for scientists to design innovative scientific solutions to existing and new synthetic routes. Scientists are looking into environmentally friendly reaction schemes which can simplify production as well as being able to use greener resources. It is impossible to fulfil all twelve principles at the same time but making attempts to apply as many principles as possible when designing a protocol is just as good. The twelve principles are: Prevention: waste should be prevented rather than treating waste after it has been created. Atom Economy: designing processes where you are maximising the incorporation of all materials so all reagents are in the final product. Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis : synthetic methods should be designed to be safe and the hazards of all the substances should be reviewed. Designing Safer Chemicals: designed to eliminate chemicals which are carcinogenic, neurotoxic, etc. essentially safe to the Earth. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries: using auxiliary substances and minimising usage of solvents to reduce waste created. Design for Energy Efficiency: designing synthetic methods where reactions can be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. Use of Renewable Feedstock: raw materials used for reactions should be renewable rather than depleting. Reduce Derivatives: reducing the steps required in a reaction by using catalysts/ enzymes and adding protecting or deprotecting groups or temporary modification of functionality. Extra steps require more reagents and generate a lot of waste. Catalysis: catalysts lower energy consumption and increase reaction rates. They allow for decreased use of harmful and toxic chemicals. Design for Degradation: chemical products should be designed so that they can break down and have no harmful effects on the environment. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention: analytical techniques required to allow monitoring of the formation of hazardous substances. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention: involves using safer chemical alternatives to prevent the occurrence of an accident e.g. fires; explosions. Some examples of areas where Green Chemistry is implemented: Computer Chips: the use of supercritical carbon dioxide as a step for the preparation of a chip. This has reduced the quantities of chemicals, water and energy required to produce chips. Medicine: developing more efficient ways of synthesising pharmaceuticals e.g. chemotherapy drug Taxol. Green Chemistry is widely being implemented in academic labs as a way to reduce the environmental impact and high costs. In 2026, green chemistry has evolved from a niche sustainability goal into a $1 trillion global industry. This branch in Chemistry is still fairly new and will likely be one of the most important fields in the future. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related article: The challenges in modern day chemistry Project Gallery

Launched in 2021, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is an astronomical observatory, designed to explore and observe the universe beyond the capabilities of its predecessor, the Hubble telescope. The JWST has primary mirror of 6.5m in diameter, the largest of any space-based telescope, and its advanced infrared technology, it can observe objects that were previously too faint, old, and distant for the Hubble telescope. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link James Webb Space Telescope: A Breakthrough in Space Exploration Last updated: 01/03/26 Published: 25/03/23 Launched in 2021, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is an astronomical observatory, designed to explore and observe the universe beyond the capabilities of its predecessor, the Hubble telescope. The JWST has a primary mirror of 6.5m in diameter, the largest of any space-based telescope; and with its advanced infrared technology, it can observe objects that were previously too faint, old, and distant for the Hubble telescope. The JWST’s aim is to revolutionise the exploration of the cosmos by studying the earliest galaxies and stars, and to detect light from the first objects that were formed in the universe. In its short deployment time, the JWST has already provided us with fascinating new insights and images of the deep space, pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the cosmos. History of James Webb Space Telescope • 1996: Next Generation Space Telescope project first proposed (8m) • 2001: NEXUS Space Telescope, a precursor to the Next Generation Space Telescope, cancelled • 2002: Proposed project renamed James Webb Space Telescope, (mirror size reduced to 6 m) • 2003: Northrop Grumman awarded contract to build telescope • 2007: Memorandum of Understanding signed between NASA and ESA[72] • 2010: Mission Critical Design Review (MCDR) passed • 2011: Proposed cancellation • 2016: Final assembly completed • 2021: Launch Achievements of James Webb Space Telescope In its short deployment, the JWST has been able to provide some exceptional data, ranging from beautiful pictures of galaxies and nebulas, the first of its kind image of an exo planet and details of exo planets atmosphere. Since its launch, scientists have been discovering galaxies far away and older than ever before, the launch of this observatory has truly made a breakthrough in space exploration. Some of its achievements are explained more in detail below: • To begin with, the JWST has been able to capture some of the most breath-taking and beautiful images of nebulae and galaxies, in both visible light and infrared spectrum. The new pictures have changed the way we had observed these subjects, giving us a deeper insight into the formation stars in these nebulae due to its higher resolutions. Some of the most iconic pictures from the JWST so far have been the pictures of the pillars of creation and the southern ring nebula. • Studying exoplanets have always been a challenge for scientists, as due to their size exoplanets are only visible through analysis of dips in luminance of its host star. But for the first time, the JWST using its infrared spectrometer and primary lens, was able to capture an image of an exoplanet directly. • During its observations, the JWST has been able to study and explore many star systems and in some cases, the exoplanets as well- going as far as studying their atmospheres in some detail, giving the research teams an insight into what these worlds may look like. • The JWST, while observing the deep space, has been able to capture the oldest galaxies known to mankind, dated as old as 13.4 billion years, 350 million years after the Big Bang. Future of Space Exploration and JWST The launch of the JWST marks a significant milestone in the field of space exploration. Not only has it opened up a new era of scientific discovery, but it has also introduced a new era for large space structures. The JWST, being the first self-assembling telescope launched in space, has proven that the only viable option for launching such a massive instrument is to make it segmented and assemble it in orbit. As we move forward, the ability to launch large structures in space that can be reassembled will undoubtedly lead to even more significant discoveries. With 6000 hours allocated for different observation missions, the JWST will enable researchers to work towards solving more of the unanswered questions regarding the cosmos. From deep space observation to exoplanet analysis, the possibilities are endless. Written by Zari Syed Related article: Lonar Lake

Since 2006 when the link between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal degeneration and TDP-43 mutations was demonstrated by Arai et al., it has remained a focus in neurological academia. This is for good reason; the research boom around the role of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration has elucidated links between TDP-43, parkinsonism and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link TDP-43 and Me: the Neurodegenerative Impact of Gene Misplacement in Parkinsonism Last updated: 08/03/26 Published: 06/04/23 Practice and Progress in Neurology Since 2006 when the link between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal degeneration and TDP-43 mutations was demonstrated by Arai et al., it has remained a focus in neurological academia. This is for good reason; the research boo m around the role of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration has elucidated link s between TDP-43, parkinsonism and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The link between point mutations, deletions and loss of gene function in PRKN has long been established, but has yet to lead to the development of a targeted therapeutic treatment. PRKN is involved in the tagging of excess or faulty proteins with ubiquitin, which leads to degradation of the proteins in the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS)- a system characterised in medical neurology by its potential to cause serious neurological disorders. This places parkinsonism in a domain of neurodegenerative disorders sharing a common root in UPS dysfunction, including Alzheimer’s Disease, multiple sclerosis and Huntington’s Disease. Panda et al. (2022) demonstrated how the dysfunction of the UPS due to PRKN aberration inhibits the breakdown of the damaging TDP-43 aggregates which develop in human brains in response to mutation or stress. In healthy people, autophagic granules would attack and kill off these TDP-43 aggregates as an end result of the UPS , but due to aberrations in PRKN the UPS is inhibited in those afflicted with parkinsonism, causing neurodegeneration. The discovery of how TDP-43 and parkinsonism are linked could lead to the development of a treatment mimicking the organic catalyst of the TDP-43 aggregate breakdown to replicate UPS, reducing TDP-43 aggregate volume and by proxy, inhibiting neurodegeneration. In 2007, research by Esper et al. catalysed recognition of drug-induced Parkinsonism as severely underdiagnosed, with evidence proving even neurologists fail to effectively remember which medications cause parkinsonism. Fast halting of the inciting agent is necessary for the reversal of all parkinsonism symptoms, but in some patients, cognitive symptoms may persist for a time after the medication is stopped. In response to the novel discoveries of Panda et al. (2022), it is likely due to the aggregation of TDP-43. Another possibility is that permanent cognitive symptoms after inciting agent cessation in DIP may be due to large TDP-43 aggregates unable to be destroyed by the UPS. Further research will demonstrate whether TDP-43 aggregates become more resistant to UPS or autophagy through the progression of DIP, whether due to size or other extraneous factors. As of late 2025, findings demonstrate that TDP-43-associated missplicing is common in Parkinson's disease brains, giving more weight to the theory. The implications of such a promising lead in neurotherapeutics for refractory parkinsonism cannot be understated. Surgical therapies have long since remained the industry standard in treating refractory parkinsonism, though this option remains prone to risk since many of those afflicted with parkinsonism are elderly, with drug-induced parkinsonism from treatment with antipsychotics, calcium channel blockers or other medications always heightening the number of the geriatric population requiring care for parkinsonism . Furthermore, the adequate treatment of those with parkinsonism in their youth could inhibit their progression to a refractory disease state in old age. Overall, the future looks very promising for those around the world suffering from all different forms of parkinsonism. Written by Aimee Wilson Related articles: A common diabetes drug treating Parkinson's disease / Lifestyle and PD risk

From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The fundamental engineering flaws of the Titan Submersible Last updated: 14/03/26, 20:23 Published: 03/04/25, 08:00 From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design On June 18, 2023, the Titan submersible made headlines when the expedition to visit the wreck of the Titanic ended in tragedy. In the North Atlantic Ocean, 3,346 metres below sea-level, the underwater vessel catastrophically imploded along with its five passengers. Two years on, this article deep dives into the key points of failure in engineering and reflects on what we can learn from the fatal incident. The Titanic and OceanGate’s mission The Titanic wreck lies around 3800 metres below sea level in the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately 370 miles off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. Since the wreckage was finally discovered in September 1985, over seven decades after the boat sank from an iceberg collision on the 15th of April 1912, less than 250 people have personally viewed the wreckage. Despite many discussions to raise the wreckage back to the surface, the complete Titanic structure has become too fragile after over a century underwater and will likely disintegrate completely over the next few decades. Hence, viewing the Titanic in person is only possible with an underwater vessel, a feat which has been achieved successfully since 1998 by a range of companies seating historians, oceanographers, and paying tourists. The Titan submersible is one such vessel developed by OceanGate Expeditions. Titan has been attempting dives to the Titanic wreck since 2017 and was first successful in 2021, when it went on to complete 13 successful dives. According to the passenger liability waiver however, this was only 13 out of 90 attempted dives (a 14% success rate), as a result of communication signal failures, structural concerns, strong currents, poor visibility, or logistical issues. On the many failed attempts, the mission was either cancelled or aborted before the Titan reached the depth of the Titanic wreck. Despite concerns raised by engineers, poor success rates in testing and simulation, as well as previous instances of the Titan spiralling out of control, OceanGate continued with their first planned dive of 2023, leading to its catastrophic implosion that claimed five lives. The Titan is the first fatality of a submersible dive to the Titanic. What went wrong: structural design When designing an underwater vessel to reach a certain depth, the body of the vessel called the hull, would need to be capable of withstanding an immense amount of pressure. For 10 metres of depth, the pressure on the submersible’s hull increases by one atmosphere (1 bar or 101kPa). To reach the wreck of the Titanic 3800 metres underwater, the hull would be required to withstand the pressure of over 38 MPa (see Figure 1 ). For perspective, this is around 380 times the pressure we feel on the surface and about 200 times the pressure of a standard car tyre. Over one square inch, this equates to nearly 2500kg. To withstand such high hydrostatic pressure, a submersible hull is normally constructed with high-strength steel and titanium alloys in a simple spherical, elliptical, or cylindrical shell. At this point we discover some of the key points of failure in the Titan. The Titan’s hull was made from Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), i.e., multiple layers of carbon fibre mixed with polymers. Carbon fibre is a high-tech and extremely desirable material for its tensile strength, strength-to-weight ratio, high chemical resistance, and temperature tolerance. The material has proven itself since the 1960’s in the aerospace, military, and motorsport industries, however the Titan was the first case of using carbon fibre for a crewed submersible. At first glance, the use of a carbon fibre hull suggests the advantage of significantly reducing the vessel's weight (50-75% lighter than titanium) while maintaining tensile strength, which will allow for a greater natural buoyancy. Without the need for added buoyancy systems, the hull would be able to hold space for more passengers at one time. As carbon fibre is cheaper than titanium and passengers pay $250,000 a seat, carbon fibre may appear to be a better business plan. However, although carbon fibre performs extremely well under tension loads, it has no resistance to compression loads (as with any fibre) unless it is infused with a polymer to hold the fibres together (see Figure 2 ). The polymer in the CFRP holding the fibres in alignment is what allows the material to resist compressive loads without bending by distributing the forces to all the fibres in the structure. This means the material is an isotropic: it is much stronger in the direction of the fibres than against (the same way wood is stronger along the grain). Therefore, individual layers of the CFRP must be oriented strategically to ensure the structure can withstand an expected load in all directions. A submersible hull intending to reach the ocean floor must withstand a tremendous compressive load, much higher than carbon fibre is typically optimised for in the aviation and automotive racing industries, and carbon fibre under such high compressive load is currently an under-researched field. Although it is likely possible for carbon fibre to be used in deep-sea vessels in the future, it would require rigorous testing and intensive research which was not done by OceanGate. Despite this, the Titan had apparently attempted 90 dives since 2017 and the repeated cycling of the carbon fibre composite at a high percentage of its yield strength would have made the vessel especially vulnerable to any defects reaching a critical level. Upon simple inspection, the Titan also raises other immediate structural concerns. Submersible hulls are usually spherical or slightly elliptical, which would allow the vessel to receive an equal amount of pressure at every point. The unique tube-shape of the Titan’s hull (see cover image) would not equally distribute pressure, and this issue was ‘addressed’ with the use of separate end-caps. The joints that attach the end-caps to the rest of the hull only introduced further structural weaknesses, which made the vessel especially vulnerable to collapsing from micro-cracks. The Titan’s glass viewpoint was another structurally unsound feature [Figure 3]. David Lochridge, the former director of OceanGate’s marine operations between 2015 and 2018 who was fired for raising concerns about the submersible’s safety features, claimed the company that made the material only certified its use down to 1300m (falling over 2000 metres short of the Titanic’s depth). The immense forces on materials without the properties to withstand the compressive pressure made the Titan’s failure inevitable. Cutting corners in the interest of business The foundation of the implosion’s cause was OceanGate’s insistence on cutting corners in Titan’s design to save time and money. The Titan was not certified for deep-sea diving by any regulatory boards and instead asked passengers to sign a waiver stating the Titan was ‘experimental’. As underwater vessels operate in international waters, there is no single official organisation to ensure ship safety standards, and it is not essential to have a vessel certified. However, many companies choose to have their ships assessed and certified by one of several organisations. According to The Marine Technology Society submarine committee, there are only 10 marine vessels capable of reaching Titanic level depths, all of which are certified except for the Titan. According to a blog post on the company website, OceanGate claimed the way that the Titan had been designed fell outside the accepted system - but it “does not mean that OceanGate does not meet standards where they apply”. The post continued that classification agencies “slowed down innovation… bringing an outside entity up to speed on every innovation before it is put into real-world testing is anathema to rapid innovation”. According to former engineers and consultants at OceanGate, the Titan’s pressure hull also did not undergo extensive full-depth pressure testing, as is standard for an underwater vessel. Carbon fibre - the primary material of the Titan’s hull - is extremely unpredictable under high compressive loads, and currently has no real way to measure fatigue. This makes it an unreliable and dangerous material to be used for deep-sea dives. OceanGate CEO Stockton Rush, who was a passenger on the Titan during its last fatal dive in 2023, described the glue holding the submersible’s structure together as “pretty simple” in a 2018 video, admitting “if we mess it up, there’s not a lot of room for recovery”. Having attempted 90 dives with a 14% success rate since 2017, it was inevitable that micro-cracks in the Titan from repeated dives, if not for the extremely sudden failure modes of carbon fibre composites, would result in the vessel's instantaneous implosion. On the 15th of July 2022 (dive 80), Titan experienced a "loud acoustic event" likely form the hull’s carbon fibre delaminating, which was heard by the passengers onboard and picked up by Titan's real-time monitoring system (RTM). Data from the RTM later revealed that the hull had permanently shifted following this event. Continued use of the Titan beyond this event without further testing of the carbon fibre - because the hull was ‘too thick’ - prevented micro-cracks and air bubbles in the epoxy resin from being discovered until it was too late. Another fundamental flaw lies in the Titan’s sole means of control being a Bluetooth gaming controller. While this is not an uncommon practice, especially in the case of allowing tourists to try controlling the vessel once it has reached its location, it is essential that there are robust secondary and even tertiary controls that are of a much higher standard. The over-reliance on wireless and touch-screen control, particularly one operating on Bluetooth which is highly sensitive to interference, was a dangerous and risky design choice. Although it was unlikely to have caused the implosion on its own, cutting corners in the electronics and controls of a vessel that needs to be operated in dangerous locations is irresponsible and unsafe. Submersibles operating at extreme depths require robust fail-safes, including emergency flotation systems and locator beacons. Again, OceanGate cut corners in developing Titan’s emergency recovery systems, using very basic methods and off-the-shelf equipment. In the event of catastrophic failure, the absence of autonomous emergency measures is fatal. With the extent of damage and poor design to the vessel’s carbon fibre hull, it was unlikely that even the most advanced emergency systems could prevent the magnitude of the implosion. Still, the carelessness displayed in almost every aspect of the submersible’s design was ultimately the cause of the fatal Titan tragedy. Conclusion In a 2019 interview, OceanGate’s former CEO Stockton Rush said: There hasn’t been an injury in the commercial sub industry in over 35 years. It’s obscenely safe because they have all these regulations. But it also hasn’t innovated or grown — because they have all these regulations. In the world of engineering, shortcuts can be catastrophic. Whilst risk-taking is undeniably essential to support innovation, Titan’s fatal tragedy was entirely preventable and unnecessary if the proper risk management techniques were employed. OceanGate had the potential to revolutionise the use of carbon fibre in deep-sea industries but consistently cutting corners and not investing in the required real-world testing, as well as the arrogance to ignore expert warnings, is what ultimately led to Titan’s story fatefully echoing the overconfidence of Titanic’s “she is unsinkable!”. Whilst regulations on submersibles tighten and research into carbon fibre is increased, it is important to take the fundamental cause of the tragic implosion as a wake-up call. Assumptions are deadly: trust the science, invest in the proper research, test every bolt, and never underestimate the ocean’s relentless power. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Engineering case study- silicon hydrogel / Superconductors / Building Physics Project Gallery

Molecular gastronomy Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring food at a molecular level 05/06/26, 21:25 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 15:46 Molecular gastronomy Imagine taking a bite of your favourite dish, not just savouring the flavours, but peering into the very essence of its existence. That's the realm of molecular gastronomy, a fascinating exploration of food through the lens of science. This article takes you on a journey at the microscopic level of what fuels the human body. The foundation of all food lies in macromolecules, large molecules formed from the intricate assembly of smaller ones. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are the main players, each with unique structures and roles. Carbohydrates: These sugary giants, like starches and sugars, provide our bodies with energy. Imagine them as long chains of sugar molecules linked together, like beads on a necklace. Proteins: The workhorses of the cellular world, proteins are responsible for countless functions. They're built from amino acids, each with a distinct side chain, creating a diverse and essential cast of characters. Lipids: Fats and oils, these slippery molecules store energy and form cell membranes. Think of them as greasy chains with attached rings, like chubby tadpoles swimming in oil. The symphony of cooking and the final dance Applying heat, pressure, and chemical reactions, chefs become culinary alchemists at the molecular level. Water, the universal solvent, facilitates the movement and interaction of these molecules. As we cook, proteins unfold and rearrange, starches break into sugars, and fats melt and release flavours. Maillard Reaction: This browning phenomenon, responsible for the delicious crust and crunch on your food, arises from the dance between sugars and amino acids. Imagine them waltzing and exchanging partners, creating new flavorful molecules that paint your food with golden hues. Emulsification: Oil and water don't mix, but lecithin, a molecule found in egg yolks, acts as a matchmaker. It bridges the gap between these unlikely partners, allowing for the creation of creamy sauces and fluffy cakes. Think of lecithin as a tiny cupid, shooting arrows of attraction between oil and water droplets. Saponification: Techniques like spherification use alginate and calcium to create edible spheres filled with liquid, transforming into playful pearls that burst with flavor in your mouth. A world of potential Understanding food at the molecular level unlocks a treasure trove of possibilities. It can help us create healthier, more sustainable food choices, develop personalized nutrition plans, and even combat food-borne illnesses. By peering into the microscopic world of our meals, we gain a deeper appreciation for the magic that happens on our plates, bite after delicious bite. So next time you savor a meal, remember the intricate dance of molecules that brought it to life. From the building blocks of carbohydrates to the symphony of cooking, food is a story written in the language of chemistry, waiting to be deciphered and enjoyed. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Emotional chemistry on a molecular level / Food prices and malnutrition / Vitamins / Junk food advertising References and further readings: Chapter 2: Protein structure . (2019, July 10). Chemistry. https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch450-and-ch451-biochemistry-d efining-life-at-the-molecular-level/chapter-2-protein-structure/ Gan, J., Siegel, J. B., & German, J. B. (2019). Molecular annotation of food - Towards personalized diet and precision health. Trends in Food Science & Technology , 91 , 675–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.016 Grant, P. (2020, August 4). Sugar, fiber, starch: What’s A carbohydrate? — Pamela Grant, L.Ac , NTP. Pamela Grant, L.Ac , NTP . https://pamela-grant.com/blog-ss/sugar-fiber-starch Helmenstine, A. (2022, October 25). Examples of carbohydrates . Science Notes and Projects. https://sciencenotes.org/examples-of-carbohydrates/ Project Gallery

Causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hypertension: a silent threat to global health Last updated: 08/10/26, 18:58 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Introduction Did you know that hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a leading cause of premature death, affecting 1.28 billion adults aged 30-79 worldwide? According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), two-thirds of these individuals live in low and middle-income countries. Despite its widespread prevalence, many people remain undiagnosed as most cases are asymptomatic, and individuals are unaware they have the condition. Hypertension can lead to serious clinical manifestations such as heart disease. It can also cause eye retinopathy, causing vision problems and kidney damage, including proteinuria. It also contributes to vascular contributions like atherosclerosis, leading to stenosis and aneurysms. It also significantly raises the risk of stroke and heart failure (Figure 1 ). Addressing hypertension through early diagnosis, improved access to treatment and lifestyle changes is essential to reducing its global burden. This article aims to explore the causes, diagnosis and treatments. What drives hypertension? Hypertension is characterised by persistently elevated BP in the systemic arteries. Blood pressure is typically presented as a ratio: systolic BP, which measures the pressure on arterial walls during heart contraction, and diastolic BP, which reflects the pressure when the heart is at rest. Hypertension is diagnosed when the systolic blood pressure is 130 mmHg or higher and/or diastolic blood pressure exceeds 80 mmHg based on multiple readings taken over time ( Figure 2 ). In contrast, secondary hypertension occurs only in 5% of cases and is caused by an underlying condition, such as kidney disease, hormonal imbalances, or vascular problems. This form of hypertension is often reversible if the underlying cause is treated. Common causes of secondary hypertension include chronic kidney disease, polycystic kidney disease, hormone excess (such as aldosterone and cortisol), vascular issues like renovascular stenosis and certain medications. Drugs that can cause secondary hypertension include chronic use of non-steroidal inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antidepressants and oral contraceptives. Hypertension, regardless of its cause, can be exacerbated by certain health behaviours, including excessive dietary salt, a sedentary lifestyle, heavy alcohol consumption, and diets low in essential nutrients, such as potassium. These factors contribute to the development and worsening of high blood pressure. However, blood pressure can be improved by reversing these behaviours, as well as following a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, which helps to mitigate the negative impact on blood pressure. Spotting hypertension: how it is diagnosed Hypertension is usually detected when blood pressure (BP) is measured during regular checkups. Since it often doesn’t show symptoms, all adults must check their BP regularly. The most common way to diagnose hypertension is by measuring BP several times in a doctor’s office. To get an accurate reading, BP must be measured carefully. Since BP can vary throughout the day, multiple measurements are needed. Doctors have recently started using home BP monitoring (HBPM) and ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) to check BP outside of the office. ABPM records BP every 20-30 minutes over 24 hours, while HBPM lets patients measure BP at home. These methods help identify conditions like 'white coat hypertension' (high BP in the doctor’s office but normal at home) or 'masked hypertension' (normal BP at the doctor’s office but high at home). When diagnosing hypertension, doctors also look for other health issues related to high BP, such as heart disease or kidney problems. If high BP is sudden or difficult to control, doctors may suspect secondary hypertension, which is caused by another condition, like kidney disease or hormonal imbalances. A thorough medical history is essential. This includes asking about past BP readings, medications, and lifestyle factors such as smoking and diet. Doctors also check for other risk factors like diabetes or high cholesterol, increasing heart disease risk. A physical exam helps confirm the diagnosis of hypertension and checks for any damage to organs like the heart and kidneys. BP should be measured on both arms and if there's a significant difference in readings, further tests may be needed. If necessary, doctors may also check for conditions like atrial fibrillation or perform ultrasounds to look for heart or kidney problems. Blood tests can also help identify risk factors, confirm or rule out secondary hypertension, and assess overall heart health. Managing hypertension, from lifestyle changes to medications Studies show that weight loss can reduce systolic blood pressure by 5 to 20 mmHg, making it an effective strategy for managing hypertension. However, the exact "ideal" body weight or Body Mass Index (BMI) for controlling blood pressure is not clearly defined, but small weight reductions can make a difference. Reducing salt intake, staying active, and managing sleep apnoea also help. While smoking does not directly raise blood pressure, quitting reduces long-term heart risks. Overall, lifestyle changes alone can cut cardiovascular events by up to 15%. Most national and international guidelines recommend the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), calcium channel blockers (CCBs), and thiazide or thiazide-like diuretics as first-line pharmacological treatments for hypertension. Conclusion Hypertension is a prevalent and often silent condition with serious health consequences, including heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure. Its widespread impact on global health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, underscores the importance of early diagnosis and proactive management. While lifestyle modifications are crucial in managing blood pressure, medications remain essential for many individuals. By raising awareness, promoting regular blood pressure checks, and ensuring access to both preventative and therapeutic measures, we can reduce the burden of hypertension and improve long-term health outcomes globally. Written by Michelle Amoah Related articles: Related mechanisms of hypertension / Cardiac regeneration REFERENCES Iqbal, A. M., and Jamal, S. F. (2023). Essential hypertension. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from [ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539859/ ] Schmieder, R. E. (2010). End Organ Damage In Hypertension. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2010.0866 Touyz, R. M., Camargo, L. L., Rios, F. J., Alves-Lopes, R., Neves, K. B., Eluwole, O., Maseko, M. J., Lucas-Herald, A., Blaikie, Z., Montezano, A. C., and Feldman, R. D. (2022). Arterial Hypertension. In Comprehensive Pharmacology (pp. 469–487). Elsevier. World Health Organization. (2023). Hypertension. Retrieved [24th January 2025], from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hypertension Project Gallery

A hereditary neurodegenerative disorder Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Huntington's disease 25/03/26, 16:52 Last updated: Published: 18/10/23, 17:12 A hereditary neurodegenerative disorder Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder causing cognitive decline, behavioural difficulties, and uncontrollable movements. It is a hereditary disease that has a devastating effect on the individual’s life and unfortunately is incurable. Genetic component What may come as a surprise, is that in everyone’s genetics there are two copies (one from each parent) of the Huntingtin’s gene coding for the Huntingtin protein. This gene is coded by CAG repeats. In healthy genes, the CAG sequence is repeated between 10 and 26 times. However, if the gene is faulty, CAG repeats over 40 times resulting in a dysfunctional Huntingtin protein. The disease is autosomal dominant meaning regardless of gender, if either parent is a carrier, their child has a 50% chance of inheriting the faulty gene. REMINDER: because the gene is dominant, it means those who inherit even one copy will develop the disease Effect on the brain The faulty Huntingtin protein accumulates in cells, leading to cell death and damage to the brain. If you were to look at the brains of individuals with Huntington’s Disease, you would see a reduction in volume of the caudate and putamen. These areas are part of the striatum, which is a subdivision of the basal ganglia, involved in fine tuning our voluntary movements, i.e., reaching out to grab a cup. As the disease progresses, this atrophy can extend to other areas of the brain including the thalamus, frontal lobe, and cerebellum. Symptoms The symptoms normally manifest in three categories: motor, cognitive and psychiatric. We know that the basal ganglia is involved in our voluntary movement, so the damage causes one of the most visible symptoms in HD- uncontrollable and jerky movements. Cognitive symptoms include personality changes, difficulties with planning and attention. There can also be impairments to how those with HD recognise emotions- all these symptoms can interact to make social interaction more difficult. Finally, the psychiatric symptoms often seen include irritability and aggression, depression, anxiety, and apathy. Impact on life and family At the age when diagnosis usually occurs (around 30 years old), patients are often buying houses, getting married and either having children or deciding to start a family. The diagnosis may change people's outlook on having children and can put a great psychological burden on them if they have unknowingly passed it along to those already born. Diagnosis also brings consequences to seemingly mundane, but incredibly important, issues such as gaining life insurance, with some companies not covering individuals with an official diagnosis. Subsequently this makes life harder for their families, as the patient will eventually be unable to work and there could be associated costs with the need for care facilities as the disease progresses. Unfortunately, this is a progressive neurodegenerative condition with no cure. The only treatment options available at present, are interventions which aim to alleviate the patients’ symptoms. Whilst these treatments will reduce the motor and psychiatric symptoms, they cannot stop the progression of Huntington’s disease. We have only scratched the surface on the impact Huntington’s disease has on a patient and their families. It is so important to understand ways in which everyone that is affected can be best supported during the disease progression, to give all those involved a better quality of life. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Related articles: A potential gene therapy for HD / Epilepsy Project Gallery

The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Creatio ex Nihilo: a Christian creation doctrine including physics Last updated: 09/11/25, 20:52 Published: 20/11/25, 08:00 The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies At first glance, physics seems like a fairly straightforward field. Maths is the language that explains how everything in the universe behaves in a particular way. But the more you delve into the field, the more you realise that it actually intersects with all other fields - biology, neuroscience, philosophy, religion, etc. The example covered in this article is the creation of the universe. One of the subfields of physics is cosmology - the study of the universe, or cosmos, including its origin, development and fate. The most famous piece of modern work to come out of this field is the Big Bang theory. This is the suggestion that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe started out as a very hot, very dense point smaller than the size of an atom before it suddenly and rapidly expanded - bang! Out of this came everything. Every atom for all known and unknown things in the universe, all of the laws of time and space, literally everything came into existence in a big explosion of energy. How do we know this? Well, there is evidence of the Big Bang theory all over the universe, as far as physicists can tell. Particles flying about the universe can provide information about where they came from. For example, if we study the light from other galaxies we can see that the light is ‘red-shifted’ - meaning that as the galaxies move away from us, it shows up differently on the light spectrum then it would if it was very close. Think of it like when you drop a stone in the middle of a pond. The ripples start out very close together, but as they move away from the center they stretch out. Light does the same thing and physicists can use this to determine how celestial objects are moving, which is how we know the universe continues to expand. Such evidence not only tells us a lot about the universe as it is now, but it also allows us to theorise about the universe’s beginning. Unfortunately, this then begs the question…what caused the Big Bang? Better yet, what was there before the Big Bang? Nothing? Perhaps, but then how did everything in the universe come into being from nothing? It is questions like these that create an opportunity for other fields to join the conversation. One suggested answer to this particular question comes from the long-held Christian doctrine ‘creatio ex nihilo’, which is Latin for creation from, or out of, nothing. This concept is found in Genesis 1:1, ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.’ The suggestion is that first, there was nothing (which physics cannot prove or disprove). Then, God the Creator began the act of creation, which physics describes as the Big Bang. Physics cannot prove or disprove God as Creator either. Therefore, the argument is that the creatio ex nihilo doctrine is technically a valid possibility. Regardless of whether these theories are true or not, the topic of creation is an example of how physics works with other fields like religion or philosophy. Physics cannot necessarily answer all of the big questions, but it can certainly help provide information about the universe we live in. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: The Anthropic Principle- Science or God? Project Gallery

Integrins are desirable to target cancer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Biochemistry of cancer: integrins, the desirable targets 20/03/25, 12:01 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 09:39 Integrins are desirable to target cancer Every year, eight million people worldwide pass away from cancer, and this number is expected to rise. Cancer can damage a wide range of organs in people of various ages. It is quite honest to say that Cancer is the most common and severe problem in clinical medicine. Cancer's fundamental problems shed light on the biochemical and genetic processes underlying the unchecked expansion of cancer cells. The extracellular matrix (ECM)'s biochemical and biomechanical properties affect how sensitive cells are. Cell health depends on different reactions, such as proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and differentiation. The tumour microenvironment also largely influences cancer metastasis, medication resistance, and recurrence. Transmembrane glycoproteins called integrins mediate connections between cells and the ECM and connect it to the cytoskeleton. They relay the information from the ECM through downstream signalling pathways and can hence control the properties of the cell. Mammals have so far been found to contain 24 different integrin heterodimers, formed by combining 18 α- and 8 β-subunits. A cell's ability to bind to specific ECM elements depends on the pattern of integrin expression, which also affects how a cell recognises and reacts to its surroundings. These same integrin-mediated pathways are used by tumour cells in the context of cancer to boost invasiveness and oncogenic survival as well as to create a host milieu that supports tumour development and metastatic dissemination ( Figure 1 ). Hence, Integrins are interesting targets for cancer therapy due to their role in tumour progression, and several integrin antagonists, including antibodies and synthetic peptides, have been successfully used in clinics for cancer therapy. Unligated integrins may have a detrimental effect on tumour survival. They are generally unligated in adherent cells, which leads to the cleavage of caspase 8, which in turn causes tumour cells to undergo apoptosis through a process known as integrin-mediated death (IMD) ( Figure 2 ). Integrins' precise chemical signals and the mechanical environment of the ECM control how cancer cells behave. A key role is also played by the ECM's physicochemical environment. Chemically altered substrate surfaces have been used to study this interaction, but topology and functionality control are still difficult to achieve. Modifying a cell's local chemical environment does offer a viable method for selectively controlling the behaviour of cancer cells. Together, targeted external cue presentation has the potential to enhance existing intracellular cancer therapy approaches. When combined with other targeted therapies (tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-growth factor antibodies) for anticancer treatment, integrin inhibition may be used as a potential target for drug development. However, it needs to be thoroughly evaluated in the pre-clinical phase, possibly taking into account all of the plausible escape mechanisms by which tumour cells can develop. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Why whales don't get cancer / Breast cancer and asbestos / MOFs in cancer drug delivery / Anti-cancer metal compounds REFERENCES Hamidi, H., Pietilä, M., & Ivaska, J. (2016). The complexity of integrins in cancer and new scopes for therapeutic targeting. British Journal of Cancer, 115(9), 1017–1023. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2016.312 Jacob, M., Varghese, J., Murray, R. K., & Weil, P. A. (2016). Cancer: An Overview (V. W. Rodwell, D. A. Bender, K. M. Botham, P. J. Kennelly, & P. A. Weil, Eds.). Access Medicine; McGraw-Hill Education. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1366§ionid=73247495 Li, M., Wang, Y., Li, M., Wu, X., Setrerrahmane, S., & Xu, H. (2021). Integrins as attractive targets for cancer therapeutics. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2021.01.004 Yoshii, T., Geng, Y., Peyton, S., Mercurio, A. M., & Rotello, V. M. (2016). Biochemical and biomechanical drivers of cancer cell metastasis, drug response and nanomedicine. Drug Discovery Today, 21(9), 1489–1494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2016.05.011 Zhao, H., F. Patrick Ross, & Teitelbaum, S. L. (2005). Unoccupied αvβ3Integrin Regulates Osteoclast Apoptosis by Transmitting a Positive Death Signal. Molecular Endocrinology, 19(3), 771–780. https://doi.org/10.1210/me.2004-0161 Project Gallery

Common questions and answers- along with helpful resources- regarding the International Baccalaureate programme. International Baccalaureate (IB) Are you a student currently studying the IB Diploma Programme (IBDP), or about to commence it? You're in the right place! You may also like: Personal statements , A-level resources , University prep and Extra resources What is the IB? Jump to resources The IB is an International Academic Program which is another alternative to A levels. This is a highly academic program with final exams that prepare students for university and careers. You select one subject from each of the five categories, which include two languages, social sciences, experimental sciences, and mathematics. You must also choose either an arts subject from the sixth group or another from the first to fifth groups. How is the IB graded? Subjects might differ from schools and countries but these are the ideal subjects given in the IB. IB is graded through a point system (7 being the highest and 1 being the lowest) and the highest mark you can achieve in total is 45. For the 6 subjects you study you can achieve a maximum of 42 points. Theory of Knowledge and Extended Essay are combined to gain 3 extra bonus points. These 2 subjects will be marked from A (highest) to E (lowest) and then will be converted to points. What are the benefits of studying the IB? Even though there are a lot of subjects, this programme is great for students to gain new skills and be an all- rounder. IB also helps students to have a better idea of how work will be in university especially with coursework and that is one of the main things you will work on when studying IB- it is known as Internal Asssessment (IA). Doing CAS is also a great opportunity for students to be independent and find activities/ services to do outside of school to build up their portfolio on CAS as well as their CV/ personal statement when applying for university. The marking matrix used in the IB. How do universities use the IB to select students? All universities around the world accept the IB as a qualification gained in secondary school. Depending on the degree you are applying to, universities mainly focus on your Higher Level (HL) subjects. Each university has their own requirements for students applying to study a course at their institution. The most common way is considering your total point score out of 45, and your total point score of your HL subjects. Another way is requiring applicants to achieve a certain grade in a particular grade at HL or at standard level (SL). If you complete the IB programme well enough, universities may prefer you over the other qualifications e.g. A-levels. Benefits of completing the IB programme. Resources for revision Websites to help Official IB website and the IB Bookshop Maths IA ideas Maths Analysis and Approaches SL and HL practice questions Maths resources in general / Worksheets and more Biology- BioNinja Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Maths- Revision Village / Save My Exams Biology, Chemistry, Maths- IB Dead IB Psychology IB Computer Science resources EE, IA, TOK and essay help YouTube channels to help Chemistry- Richard Thornley Physics- Chris Doner Textbooks for both HL and SL Bio: Oxford IB Diploma Programme: Biology Course Biology for the IB Diploma by Brenda Walpole Chem: Chemistry Oxford IB Diploma Programme: Chemistry Course Chemistry for the IB Diploma Coursebook with Cambridge Elevate Enhanced Edition b y Steve Owen Physics: Physics Oxford IB Diploma Programme: Physics Course Physics for the IB Diploma with Cambridge by T. A. Tsokos Maths: Maths Oxford IB Diploma Programme- IB Mathematics: analysis and approaches / applications and interpretations