In some cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Vertigo Last updated: 25/08/26, 13:59 Published: 03/07/25, 08:00 In some cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis Vertigo is a symptom characterised by the sensation of spinning or movement, affecting either the individual or their surroundings. Unlike dizziness, which involves a floating sensation, or imbalance, which reflects unsteadiness, vertigo conveys a distinct sense of motion. While it is not a condition in itself, vertigo often indicates an underlying issue and can range from mild to debilitating, significantly impairing balance and daily activities. Physiology of vertigo Physiologically, vertigo is primarily linked to the inner ear and the vestibular system, which is responsible for maintaining balance and spatial orientation. The vestibular apparatus consists of semicircular canals and otolith organs, which detect angular and linear movements, respectively. Dysfunction in these structures, or their neural pathways to the brainstem and cerebellum, can disrupt normal sensory input, causing vertigo. Symptoms ( Figure 1 ) may include a spinning sensation, nausea, vomiting, nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), sweating, and difficulty with balance. Triggers vary widely and may include head movements, changes in position, or even psychological stress. The underlying causes can be peripheral, such as inner ear disorders, or central, involving the brain or central nervous system. Causes and prevalence Vertigo is particularly common among middle-aged and older adults, where it presents a considerable risk of falls and associated injuries. This demographic is especially vulnerable due to age-related changes in the vestibular system, such as a decline in vestibular hair cells and neurons, as well as alterations in central pathways. Vestibular disorders are among the most frequent causes of vertigo episodes in the elderly, often contributing to a cycle of psychological distress and physical limitation. Anxiety and depressive syndromes further exacerbate this cycle by increasing fear of attacks and falls, ultimately limiting daily activities and lowering perceived quality of life. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of vertigo and is featured in multiple studies within the literature ( Figure 2 ). BPPV is typically triggered by changes in head position, leading to brief episodes of intense vertigo. Despite its prevalence, management can be challenging due to the nonspecific nature of symptoms and the diverse underlying causes. Recent research has also identified a strong association between vitamin D deficiency and recurrent BPPV, as vitamin D plays an important role in calcium metabolism and the maintenance of the calcium crystals (otoconia) within the inner ear. In some patients, correcting vitamin D deficiency may help reduce the risk of recurrence. Other common vestibular disorders include labyrinthitis and vestibular neuritis, which are usually caused by viral infections such as the common cold or influenza. These conditions result in inflammation of the inner ear or vestibular nerve and can cause sudden, severe vertigo lasting several days, often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and imbalance. Vestibular migraine is another increasingly recognised cause of recurrent vertigo and may occur with or without a typical migraine headache, making diagnosis challenging. The COVID-19 pandemic has also highlighted Long COVID (Post-COVID Condition) as an emerging cause of persistent dizziness and vertigo. Some individuals continue to experience balance disturbances and vestibular symptoms for weeks or months following their initial infection, contributing to ongoing functional impairment. Polypharmacy, or the use of multiple medications, has also emerged as a significant factor in vertigo among older adults. Prescriptions involving several drugs, particularly antihypertensives and sedative hypnotics, have been linked to an increased likelihood of vertigo. Careful assessment of medication interactions and side effects during medical consultations is therefore essential. Metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and hypoglycaemia, also contribute to vertigo in some individuals. Although the majority of vertigo cases originate from disorders of the inner ear, neurological conditions should also be considered. Stroke and other central nervous system disorders account for an estimated 10–20% of vertigo presentations in acute care settings and are more likely when vertigo is accompanied by symptoms such as slurred speech, facial weakness, numbness, double vision, severe headache, or difficulty walking. These features require urgent medical assessment to exclude a potentially life-threatening cause. However, in a proportion of cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis and the importance of a comprehensive clinical assessment. Conclusion As one of the most common and disabling symptoms in the elderly, vertigo requires comprehensive and individualised care. Understanding its underlying physiological mechanisms, as well as recognising the multifactorial influences such as medication use, psychological health, and metabolic disorders, is essential for effective management. By adopting an integrated approach that prioritises accurate diagnosis and targeted interventions, clinicians can improve both symptom control and overall quality of life for individuals affected by vertigo. Further research is needed to enhance treatment strategies and address the remaining gaps in knowledge. Written by Maria Z Kahloon Project Gallery

Comparative oncology Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What can our canine friends tell us about cancer? 14/07/25, 16:12 Last updated: Published: 02/07/24, 11:04 Comparative oncology Comparative oncology is a field of study within cancer that has been adopted to study cancer and develop new therapies. It involves studying cancer in animals to uncover similarities between human and animal cancers. By combining scientific findings across a range of species, including companion animals such as dogs and horses or non-human primates such as monkeys, comparative oncology will advance cancer research and help develop effective novel therapies. This approach not only explores cancers in both animals and humans but also aims to bridge the gap between human and veterinary medicine. By examining similarities and differences in cancer biology, progression and treatment responses across species, comparative oncology provides valuable insights that can benefit both fields. Understanding how cancer behaves in animals can offer new perspectives and potential therapies for human patients. Conversely, while findings in human oncology can inform veterinary medicine, leading to improved diagnostics and treatments for animals. ( Figure 1 summarises the aims of comparative oncology). This article aims to explore this field of oncology further by discussing what it entails, the methodologies utilised, some recent advancements, and finally, things to look out for in the future. Comparative oncology has been developed and expanded into two areas of study. This includes spontaneous oncology and experimental oncology. Spontaneous oncology focuses on naturally occurring tumours in animals by investigating aspects of carcinogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. It provides unique insights by drawing comparisons with human oncology research. These results can then be extrapolated to human oncology to gain a better understanding of cancer. This is because the similarities and differences observed in naturally occurring tumours across species provide valuable insights into underlying mechanisms within tumours and treatment responses. Experimental oncology serves as a distinct discipline where there are specialisations such as studying viral, chemical, and radiation oncogenesis alongside studying environmental factors such as pollution residues and food additives. This area involves studying both spontaneous tumours in animals and lab settings, where controlled conditions are used to explore different parts of cancer biology and treatment strategies. Additionally, the primary methodology utilised in comparative oncology involves studying spontaneous tumours in animals. Unlike artificially induced tumours in lab animals, these spontaneous tumours in pets closely mimic the complexity and heterogeneity of human cancers. For example, canines will live in similar living environments and experience similar external stimuli to their owner, such as pollution. The nature of these external stimuli means that they develop cancer in similar ways caused by epigenetic alterations, metabolic, and immune changes. (Figure 2 illustrates this process). Furthermore, comparative oncology uses advanced imaging techniques, genetic analysis, and immunological studies to predict pathways that may be shared among animals and humans which, could drive cancer development. Overall, these methods will allow the identification of promising therapies which directly target cancer and expand on current treatment choices such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy. One of the recent advancements in comparative oncology relates to osteosarcomas. This refers to cancer cells which begin to grow in the bones. For this specific form of cancer, molecular signatures were identified to predict clinical outcomes for both humans and canines, which can help improve treatment outcomes. Led by Amy K. LeBlanc, scientists have identified gene activity patterns in osteosarcoma tumours in nearly 200 dogs, revealing distinct groups with varying prognoses. These findings help us understand the biology behind osteosarcomas further and can potentially help us develop targeted therapies that take advantage of the immune system to treat the disease in both species. This potentially includes a range of therapies including PD-L1 inhibitors and cancer vaccines targeting the immune system. Moreover, breakthroughs in immunotherapies such as checkpoint inhibitors and CAR-T cell therapy are effective in treating haematological malignancies in both humans and canines. Furthermore, studies in canine melanoma reveal similar gene expression changes to human melanoma, such as in the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK pathways, even when the driver mutations are different. (Figure 3 shows how the pathway contributes to cancer). Useful data was provided in trials using companion animals with spontaneous tumours, providing an insight into safety, dosage, and efficacy, which have paved the way to develop treatments for both species. To conclude, it is clear with comparative oncology, researchers will be able to identify new molecular targets, assess novel drugs, and identify patient populations which will benefit the most from these therapies. It holds great promise in helping streamline cancer diagnosis further and even plays a role in preventing cancer. While the field shows great potential, more studies still need to be conducted to understand the similarities and differences in cancers between animals and humans. Additionally, more collaboration is needed amongst oncologists, veterinarians, and researchers across these disciplines to harness collective expertise to address questions relating to cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Ultimately, this field will help us identify new avenues of treating and diagnosing cancer whilst improving healthcare outcomes for humans and animals alike. Written by Harene Elayathamby Related articles: Why blue whales don't get cancer / Rare zoonotic diseases REFERENCES Schiffman, J.D. and Breen, M. (2015) ‘Comparative oncology: What dogs and other species can teach us about humans with cancer’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 370(1673), p. 20140231. doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0231. Oh, J.H. and Cho, J.-Y. (2023) ‘Comparative oncology: Overcoming human cancer through companion animal studies’, Experimental & Molecular Medicine , 55(4), pp. 725–734. doi:10.1038/s12276-023-00977-3. Al, B. and C., C. (2007) ‘Chapter 1 COMPARATIVE ONCOLOGY ’, in Comparative oncology . Bucharest (RO): The Publishing House of the Romanian Academy, p. 1. Vail, D.M., LeBlanc, A.K. and Jeraj, R. (2020) ‘Advanced cancer imaging applied in the comparative setting’, Frontiers in Oncology , 10. doi:10.3389/fonc.2020.00084. New findings highlight shared features of human and canine osteosarcoma (2023) Center for Cancer Research . Available at: https://ccr.cancer.gov/news/article/new-findings-highlight-shared-features-of-human-and-canine-osteosarcoma (Accessed: 02 March 2024). Mochel, J.P. et al. (2018) Car T-cell immunotherapy in human and veterinary oncology: Changing the odds against hematological malignancies [Preprint]. doi:10.20944/preprints201811.0525.v1. LeBlanc AK, Mazcko CN, Khanna C. (2016) ‘Defining the Value of a Comparative Approach to Cancer Drug Development’, Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research , 22(9). p. 2133-2138. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-15-2347 FIGURE REFERENCES Boddy, A.M., Harrison, T.M. and Abegglen, L.M. (2020) ‘Comparative oncology: New insights into an ancient disease’, iScience , 23(8), p. 101373. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101373. Oh, J.H. and Cho, J.-Y. (2023) ‘Comparative oncology: Overcoming human cancer through companion animal studies’, Experimental & Molecular Medicine , 55(4), pp. 725–734. doi:10.1038/s12276-023-00977-3. Rascio, F. et al. (2021) ‘The pathogenic role of PI3K/Akt pathway in cancer onset and drug resistance: An updated review’, Cancers , 13(16), p. 3949. doi:10.3390/cancers13163949. Project Gallery

Its significant role in immunity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The mast cell 14/07/25, 15:57 Last updated: Published: 05/08/23, 10:55 Its significant role in immunity The mast cell The mast cell is the first white blood cell to respond to infection or injury; they are located in many connective tissues throughout the body, especially in areas that introduce foreign bodies such as the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory epithelium and the skin. Mast cells are a crucial part in adaptive and innate immunity- in response to pathogens, allergens and toxin exposure they release chemicals and recruit other immune cells. They are created from pluripotent progenitor cells of myeloid lineages; these cells differentiate due to exposure and influence of stem cell factors. There are two types of mast cells in the human body, the first is called TC mast cells and contains tryptase, proteases and chymotryptic proteinase, the second is know as a T mast cell which contains only tryptase. The two types of mast cells are mucosal and connective tissue mast cells: mucosal mast cell are found mostly in the respiratory tract and the gut. Mast cells are found in three forms, granulated, spreading and intact. Intact mast cells lay in the epithelial tissue, the less common spreading mast cells are found in the connective tissues, and granulated mast cells are those which have released their mediators. These mediators reside in the cytoplasm of the mast cell- these include tryptases, heparin, histamine, cytokines, chymase, leukotrienes, TNF- alpha and many more. Mast cells are coated in IgE antibodies that crosslink (bind) to allergen proteins, which ultimately triggers degranulation. Mast cell disorders Abnormal growth of mast cells leads to a variety of issues. Mast cell activation syndrome in its primary state is caused by mast cell clone overproduction resulting in mastocytosis. This can lead to hives, gastric symptoms, and anaphylaxis. In some cases aggressive mastocytosis can lead to death. Cutaneous mastocytosis causes redden lesions of the skin and is most common in infants; systemic mastocytosis is most common in adults, led by the accumulation of mast cells in the intestines, organs, and bone marrow. Systemic mastocytosis includes the rare leukaemia and sarcoma forms. Mast cell activation syndrome in its secondary state is in an IgE -mediated hypersensitive response to external factors, that contributes to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increases blood flow. However, it is too abundant, as the mast cells trigger far more granulation than that which is required. Idopathic mast cell activation is severe responses to the exposure of pathogens, toxins and other triggers. In idiopathic mast cell activation many patients can develop anaphylactic allergic reactions, which can present as difficulty breathing, swelling and hives. Conclusion Mast cells play a crucial role in biological defence and are derived from stem cells in the bone marrow. They come in different forms and locations, delivering an efficient response to injury and infection. When unregulated, they can lead to the development of disorders- ranging from mild rashes to severe anaphylaxis. Written by Lauren Kelly Project Gallery

A vital fluid Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Blood 03/05/26, 18:35 Last updated: Published: 07/09/23, 11:16 A vital fluid A guide to the human blood system and alternatives Human blood Blood is a vital fluid for humans and vertebrates. It transports nutrients, including oxygen, to cells and tissues. Blood is made of different components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) contain haemoglobin, which gives blood its red colour. Haemoglobin helps to carry oxygen to the body from the lungs. White blood cells (also called leukocytes) defend the body against infections. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell, and the two types are T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. T lymphocytes target infected cells and regulate the function of other immune cells. B lymphocytes, on the other hand, create antibodies, which are proteins that can destroy foreign substances like bacteria and viruses. Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are small cell fragments. They are essential in blood clotting, a process known as coagulation. Platelets also help wounds heal and contribute to the immune response. Plasma is the liquid component in blood, made of water, ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes and gases. Its main role is transporting substances such as blood cells and other nutrients throughout the body. Artificial blood There are two main types of artificial blood: haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). HBOCs are synthetic solutions designed to carry oxygen. They are usually a smaller size than RBCs. The haemoglobin is modified and covered with carriers to ensure the HBOCs do not break down inside the body. They can be used for blood transfusions that need to be done immediately or when there is too much blood loss. PFCs are derived from fluorine-containing and carbon-containing chemicals, and have a high capacity for carrying and delivering oxygen. Advantages and disadvantages of artificial blood Artificial blood can be beneficial because it can be used for any patient who needs a blood transfusion, regardless of their blood type, if the substitute has the universal O blood group. There is also less chance of diseases being passed to patients using artificial blood. However, artificial blood has been shown to have adverse side effects, including high blood pressure and a higher chance of heart attacks. The future of artificial blood There have been experiments in the NHS with laboratory-grown RBCs in the RESTORE randomised controlled clinical trial, which aims to see if RBCs produced from stem cells in a lab can survive longer in the body than normal donated cells. As part of the trial, scientists created lab-grown RBCs to be given to healthy volunteer participants in small doses. In February 2026, the final batch of RBCs produced as part of the trial was given to volunteers. This trial highlights the potential for artificial blood to be used in clinical settings, especially when supply is low or for patients with rare blood types, diseases, or complex transfusion requirements. The results of this trial are planned to be shared in late 2026 or early 2027. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Sideroblastic anaemia / Kawasaki disease Project Gallery

From confusion to career opportunities Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unlocking the power of statistics 14/03/26, 19:56 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 17:23 From confusion to career opportunities During my time studying maths there was always one topic that would trip me up: statistics. Being an A-level physics student, I could understand why calculus is useful in real life, using differentiation to calculate the velocities of projectiles. And I could look and see how geometry is used in buildings and structures. However, statistics often made me feel unrelatable and lost, as I was unable to see real-world applications. But today, I wish to alter my old perspective. First and foremost, you might be pleasantly surprised to learn that statistics opens doors to some of the most lucrative careers available today. We'll delve into roles such as quantitative analysts, who boast a national average salary of £130,000 per year. But if finance is not your cup of tea, there are many other rewarding career paths to explore, from becoming a data scientist to forecasting the weather as a meteorologist. In this article, I wish to unveil the world of statistics, revealing its importance and shedding light on its real-life applications. My hope is to not only inspire those who are already passionate about statistics but also to ignite motivation in individuals who, like me, found themselves in a similar predicament a few years ago. The Actuary Less well known when compared to a banker or engineer, an actuary’s sole purpose is to analyse risk for multiple different scenarios. It may sound simple on first inspection, but being an actuary is a very well-established career requiring many years of learning followed by some of the most challenging exams in the job market. An actuary attempts to quantify the risk of an event happening so that financial decisions can be made with an objective view. A good and close-to-home example of this is being either accepted or rejected from a credit card. As a younger person below the age of 21, the chances of you getting accepted for a credit card are extremely and quite painfully low. This is because banks, and more specifically, credit score providers, deem you to be a high-risk person to lend to. They think this because you have a very short credit history, are unaware of how responsible you are with money, and are more afraid to lend you their cash. In other words, they don’t want you to spend their money on going out and drinking booze. The insurance industry is, however, the biggest industry when it comes to actuaries. Both life and non-life actuaries work in teams with insurance providers to establish whether a client, company, or investment is worthwhile. Actuaries apply both statistics and actuarial science (similar to applied statistics) to real-life situations, evaluate whether to offer a premium to a customer, and then establish what that premium is. You may see in advertisements that life insurance costs as little as £10 a month for a 20-year-old compared to someone who is 65. This is because the younger you are, the less likely you are to claim against your policy. Actuaries put together vast amounts of information about people, lifestyle choices, and other factors to help determine the probability that someone may claim, suggesting a ‘fair’ premium that an insurance company may offer. Without the help of an actuary, insurance companies would either charge too much, making people disadvantaged, or charge too little, in which case they would have to default on their policy and be unable to pay out any claims. Although this seems very specific, the role of an actuary is becoming increasingly important as people live longer lives and insurance companies become more fearful of defaulting.To put it into perspective, actuaries on average earn £85,000 working in London, putting you well in the top 10% of earners in the UK. The Quantitative Analyst Similar to an actuary, quantitative analysts do exactly what is said on the tin. They use quantitative methods to analyse data. Often, companies like investment banks, hedge funds, and pension funds will hire front-office ‘quants’. The aim of the game is to send out trades as quickly as possible before all the other trading offices do. These big companies have links directly to the trading floor, so every millisecond counts, and it’s a quant's job to devise a trading strategy that beats the rest and operates in the least amount of time. Quants are masters of statistics and mathematics, and for this reason, high-frequency trading firms like Hudson River Trading offer salaries to top mathematical minds in excess of $500,000. The role of quantitative researchers is to explore the latest statistical articles being published by top universities and generate strategies that can be implemented in the stock market. This job is not one to be taken lightly, as salary is often based on performance, but someone who is motivated to explore the ins and outs of statistics may find themselves loving the life of a quant. The Meteorologist Meteorologists are the people that we incorrectly blame for the bad weather that we have. And they are also the people we blame when we forget to take a coat and get soaked on the long walk back home. But what do meteorologists actually do? And is it any more than just an educated guess? Meteorologists, along with climatologists, collect millions of pieces of information every hour of every day across their 195,000 weather stations spread all around the globe. These stations collect key pieces of information, including atmospheric pressure, temperature, speed, rain, humidity, and many other components of current weather conditions. With this information, meteorologists begin to paint a picture of what the current weather climate is like and then use forecasting methods and statistical models to estimate how the weather is going to change. The probability that it might rain is much more than an educated guess; it is the probability that if this situation happened 100 times, it would rain the estimated number of times (i.e., if there was an 80% chance of rain, it would rain 80 times out of the hundred over a large enough sample). As a forecaster, you will collect this information and input it into very advanced systems to analyse and give an outcome, but as a researcher, you will help derive these statistical forecasting models and improve them so that our apps and news channels are even more precise. Not only that, but you may also find yourself researching the effects of climate change from the data that you analyse, and maybe even how the weather affects the spread of pollution and disease. Meteorologists get paid a modest salary of around £33,000 per year, which may seem small when compared to that of a quant, but the quality of life is far more generous than some careers in finance. To conclude In conclusion, statistics, once a perplexing subject for many, can offer an exciting and rewarding career. From the meticulous work of actuaries, assessing risks and financial decisions, to the world of quantitative analysts, where every millisecond counts, and even to the indispensable role of meteorologists, who help us navigate the weather and climate change, statistics holds the power to transform lives and industries. As we've explored, statistics is not just about numbers and formulas; it's about making sense of the world, predicting outcomes, and creating informed decisions. So, whether you're a seasoned statistician or someone who, like me, once felt lost in its complexities, remember that statistics isn't merely a subject to conquer—it's a key that unlocks doors to some of the most intriguing and well-compensated careers out there. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

Exploring neuroplasticity after brain injury Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can we really ‘rewire’ our brain? Last updated: 06/05/26, 21:11 Published: 07/05/26, 08:00 Exploring neuroplasticity after brain injury Can the brain really rebuild what has been lost after a brain injury? This idea derives from neuroplasticity – the nervous system’s capacity to change and adapt, reorganising its connections and overall structure as a result of an experience. In other words, the brain strengthens, weakens, and forms new neural connections over time. In psychology, neuroplasticity is crucial for understanding learning, as repeated behaviours and thoughts can strengthen neural pathways, resulting in increased automatic responses. Neuroplasticity plays a large role in recovery following a brain injury. Joy & Carmichael (2020) found that after a stroke, the brain becomes temporarily plastic, during which new axons and synapses may form, functions can be reassigned to undamaged brain regions, and the brain becomes flexible to training, allowing for recovery. A key takeaway is that after a stroke, the brain not only repairs itself but also enters a temporary state of reorganisation and recovery. Repeated practice during rehabilitation supports the formation of new pathways, helping lost skills to be regained. This is a core psychological principle: learning requires repetition, and without it, new neural pathways will not be produced or maintained. This reorganisation is driven by cellular processes that modify neural connections. Specialised immune cells, known as microglia, reshape connections between neurons and assist in incorporating new cells into preexisting networks, as demonstrated by Sandvig et al. (2018). This emphasises that recovery is not solely biological but also behavioural, as the way one interacts with their environment influences the way the brain reorganises itself. For example, when an individual performs a behaviour, such as moving their leg in rehab, neural pathways for that certain behaviour are activated frequently. Here, microglia respond to this activity by strengthening frequently used connections and removing unused ones, a process known as “use it or lose it”, in relation to neural pathways. So, can we really ‘rewire’ our brains? Yes, but to an extent! Neuroplasticity illustrates that the brain is capable of change, through reinforced behaviour and experience, though it should be noted that this process rarely results in complete normalcy. From a psychological perspective, neuroplasticity highlights that recovery is about how behaviour, experience, and learning intertwine to allow the brain’s ability to adapt. Written by Shreya Dhaliwal Related articles: Brain injury / Synaptic plasticity REFERENCES Cleveland Clinic. (2023, December 13). Brainwork: The Power of Neuroplasticity . https://health.clevelandclinic.org/neuroplasticity . Joy , M. T., & Carmichael, S. T. (2020). Encouraging an excitable brain state: mechanisms of brain repair in stroke. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 22 (1), 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-020-00396-7 . Kreber, L. (2025). Neuroplasticity . Centre for Neuro Skills. https://www.neuroskills.com/neuroplasticity/ . Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066 . Sandvig, I., Augestad, I. L., Håberg, A. K., & Sandvig, A. (2018). Neuroplasticity in stroke recovery. The role of microglia in engaging and modifying synapses and networks. European Journal of Neuroscience, 47 (12), 1414–1428. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.13959 Project Gallery

Characteristics, triggers and theoretical models of embarrassment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Psychology of embarrassment: why do we get embarrassed? 05/06/25, 11:07 Last updated: Published: 06/09/24, 12:07 Characteristics, triggers and theoretical models of embarrassment The six basic emotions proposed by Ekman and recognised worldwide are sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust- Ekman (1999). Recently, the list of basic emotions has expanded to include self-conscious emotions, such as embarrassment, pride and shame, as all of those emotions show evidence for cross-cultural and cross-species production and perception. According to Miller (1995), embarrassment is the self-conscious feeling individuals get after realising they have done something stupid, silly or dishonourable. Embarrassment is a social emotion that emerges at around 18 months of age and the development of which is related to self-recognition. Characteristics of embarrassment in humans are gaze aversion, downward head movements, controlled smile and face touching. Embarrassment has been linked to the two main personality dimensions proposed by Eysenck (1983): extraversion/introversion and neuroticism/emotional stability. Kelly & Jones (1997) found that neuroticism is positively associated with embarrassment, suggesting that the individuals who score highly in neuroticism are more prone to experiencing embarrassment. The same researchers also concluded that embarrassment is negatively related to extraversion, implying that introverted individuals are more likely to feel embarrassed than extroverted individuals. The three triggers of embarrassment, according to Sabini, Siepmann & Meyerowitz (2000), are faux pas, sticky situations and centre of attention. Faux pas causes embarrassment when an individual creates a social mistake that forces them to think of others’ evaluation, like misspelling a word in a presentation and only realising when presenting it to a supervisor. Sticky situations lead to embarrassment when they threaten an individual's role, not their self-esteem, such as a leader being challenged publicly by their second in command. Centre of attention describes an anomaly when embarrassment is not a result of failure but of increased attention, for example being at your own birthday party. The faux pas trigger aligns with the social evaluation model of embarrassment, whilst sticky situations are in line with the dramaturgic model of embarrassment. There are four prominent theories of embarrassment: the dramaturgic model, the social evaluation model, the situational self-esteem model and the personal standards model. The dramaturgic model proposed by Silver, Sabini and Parrott (1987) says that embarrassment is the flustered uncertainty that follows a poor public performance and leaves the individual at a loss of what to do. This model suggests that anxiety and aversive arousal trigger embarrassment after realising a performance has gone wrong (see Figure 4 ). In this model, concern about what others think accompanies embarrassment but does not cause it. Miller (1996) suggests that whilst the dramaturgic model has substantial support, it is difficult for a dramaturgic dilemma to cause embarrassment without simultaneously creating unwanted social evaluations, highlighting a limitation of this model. The social evaluation model of embarrassment put forward by Edelmann (1987) suggests that embarrassed individuals fear failure to impress others and feeling at a loss of what to do is a result of embarrassment, not the cause (see Figure 5 ). This model assumes that individuals are concerned about others’ opinions. Miller (1996) supports this theory, saying that negative evaluation from others is crucial to embarrassment. The situational self-esteem model by Modigliani (1971) proposes that the root cause of embarrassment is the temporary loss of self-esteem that results from public failures based on one’s own opinions of self and performance in faulty situations (see Figure 6). Miller (1995) does not support this theory, arguing that self-esteem plays a secondary role in embarrassment and states that susceptibility to embarrassment depends more on the persistent concern about others’ evaluations of us. The personal standards model of embarrassment introduced by Babcock (1988) presents the view that embarrassment is caused by the individual realising they have failed the standards of behaviour that they have set for themselves, implying that the situation does not matter and that individuals can feel embarrassment when they are alone (see Figure 7 ). Miller (1992) disagrees with this theory, saying that guidelines for self are linked to impressions made on other people and that embarrassment can happen due to poor audience reaction, not letting yourself down. Therefore, there are many plausible theories behind embarrassment that have been linked to various causes like dispositional, situational and personality factors. Whilst it is unlikely that one theory can perfectly explain such a complex social emotion like embarrassment, the consensus among psychologists in the recent years has created the most support for a combination of the dramaturgic and the social evaluation models. I agree with the consensus and think that the different theories behind embarrassment may all apply to a given situation. For instance, forgetting someone’s name may lead to embarrassment due to being at a loss of what to say (the dramaturgic model), unwanted social judgements (the social evaluation model), the negative effects of this situation on the self-esteem (the situational self-esteem model) and the painful realisation of letting yourself down (the personal standards model). Thus, like many subjects in psychology, embarrassment is a multidimensional concept that can be looked at from many different angles. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related articles: Chemistry of emotions / Unmasking aggression / Inside out: chemistry of depression REFERENCES Babcock, M. K. (1988). Embarrassment: A window on the self. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour . Edelmann, R. J. (1987). The psychology of embarrassment . John Wiley & Sons. Ekman, P. (1999). Basic emotions. Handbook of cognition and emotion , 98 (45-60), 16. Eysenck, H. J. (1983). Psychophysiology and personality: Extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. In Individual differences and psychopathology (pp. 13-30). Academic Press. Kelly, K. M., & Jones, W. H. (1997). Assessment of dispositional embarrassability. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 10 (4), 307-333. Lewis, M., Sullivan, M. W., Stanger, C., & Weiss, M. (1989). Self development and self-conscious emotions. Child development , 146-156. Miller, R. S. (1992). The nature and severity of self-reported embarrassing circumstances. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 18 (2), 190-198. Miller, R. S. (1995). On the nature of embarrassabllity: Shyness, social evaluation, and social skill. Journal of personality , 63 (2), 315-339. Miller, R. S. (1996). Embarrassment: Poise and peril in everyday life. Guilford Press. Modigliani, A. (1971). Embarrassment, facework, and eye contact: Testing a theory of embarrassment. Journal of Personality and social Psychology , 17 (1), 15. Sabini, J., Siepmann, M., Stein, J., & Meyerowitz, M. (2000). Who is embarrassed by what?. Cognition & Emotion , 14 (2), 213-240. Silver, M., Sabini, J., Parrott, W. G., & Silver, M. (1987). Embarrassment: A dramaturgic account. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour , 17 (1), 47-61. Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., & Tangney, J. P. (2007). The self-conscious emotions. New York: Guilford . Project Gallery

It's extremely pronounced in a technical environment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link You're not a fraud: battling imposter syndrome in STEM Last updated: 22/05/25, 11:01 Published: 17/04/25, 08:00 It's extremely pronounced in a technical environment Background If you work in STEM or take even a keen interest in the field, it’s highly likely you’d have heard of and possibly experienced the term 'imposter syndrome'. Despite the glamorised success stories and carefully curated achievements we see in professional circles and on social media, let’s take a realistic step back - people struggle no matter how qualified they are. It’s okay to admit that, and it’s time we remove the stigma of this common experience. Coming into the Scientist Training Programme, I felt a sense of excitement and pride in my achievement of having even managed to get a place on the programme. As I settled in, this quickly turned into something else – fear, anxiety, worry. Feelings that I may not be good enough or I’m not where I belong. I seemed like the only one in my department without a postgraduate qualification. I began feeling out of place. It was only until I was able to put a label on this feeling – imposter syndrome, that I could take active steps to fix it. So, what is imposter syndrome? Put simply, it's the persistent feeling of self-doubt and inadequacy despite evident success. It makes you question whether you truly deserve your accomplishments, fearing that at any moment, someone will expose you as a fraud. This is extremely pronounced in a technical environment where your success is largely measured by your ability to tackle complex problems. Understanding its purpose While frustrating, imposter syndrome stems from a mechanism designed to keep us grounded and striving for growth. As social beings, we evolved to be highly attuned to hierarchies and belonging, and self-doubt may have once served as a protective mechanism, preventing reckless decisions. However, in today’s world, particularly in STEM fields, this innate caution can turn into chronic self-evaluation. The role of social media Imposter syndrome can be exacerbated through the often-unrealistic lens of social media. As I scroll through various social media platforms, I encounter countless posts showcasing often unrealistically flawless careers. Despite what you see in those 'day in the life' posts, not every STEM professional wakes up at 4am and has a cold shower. Rarely do we see the setbacks, rejections, or moments of self-doubt behind those polished posts, yet they exist for everyone. The distortion of what we see online is undoubtably a catalyst for imposter syndrome, but we can take a sensible step back and look at things through a realistic lens. Comparison truly can be the thief of joy if you let it. Coping strategies The good news is, it’s not all doom and gloom and there are strategies we can employ to handle our mischievous minds. As STEM professionals, sometimes we become isolated in our work, deeply ingrained in fixing a problem and not realising there are countless others to share your thoughts and feelings with. This is something I pushed myself to do and as I reached out to the wider community of trainee scientists, I quickly realised that I wasn’t alone. Almost everyone I had spoken to had shared a similar sentiment of having experienced imposter syndrome to some extent. It is important to remember that imposter syndrome is something that has been a universal experience for a very long time. It is certainly not a feeling that is exclusive to those in the early stages of their career as I surprisingly found out having networked with senior figures in the STEM community. My supervisor – a consultant clinical scientist with over 40 years of experience still experiences imposter syndrome as he tackles new challenges in the ever-evolving world of science. I have found that keeping a journal has been incredibly beneficial in logging my achievements -whether personal or career-related. Having a record of successes, no matter how small, serves as a tangible reminder that progress is being made, even when self-doubt tries to convince me otherwise. But the most effective tool I’ve discovered is something I’m still learning myself - self-compassion instead of self-criticism. It’s easy to be too hard on yourself, especially in STEM, where learning new things daily is the norm. The pressure to always have the right answers can make mistakes feel like failures rather than part of the learning process. But the reality is that growth comes from pushing through discomfort, not from perfection. Learning to extend yourself the same kindness you would offer a friend can make a world of difference in battling imposter syndrome. Reframing its meaning If you have experienced imposter syndrome I do have some good news for you – you’re pushing yourself out of your comfort zone in some way and challenging yourself. That is something to be proud of and its important to realise that experiencing imposter syndrome can sometimes simply be a mandatory byproduct of self-growth. You are exactly where you need to be. Even the greatest of minds can experience imposter syndrome. Albert Einstein himself once remarked: The exaggerated esteem in which my lifework is held makes me very ill at ease. I feel compelled to think of myself as an involuntary swindler. So, remember, you’re not alone in this struggle. When to seek help While imposter syndrome is something that a large majority of people experience, you should know when to seek help. If it manifests into something much more than occasional self-doubt, there is no shame in reaching out for help. Speaking to trusted friends or family about how you’re feeling is crucial to keep your mind in the right place. A qualified therapist will be well equipped to help you deal with imposter syndrome and keep you grounded. There are a wealth of online resources that can be used to help you; such as articles, self-help guides, and professional development communities – including the team here at Scientia News who offer strategies to build confidence and reframe negative thinking. Acknowledging imposter syndrome is the first step, but learning to challenge it is what truly allows you to move forward. And the next time you begin to doubt yourself, take a step back and think about your achievements and how they themselves were born from the ashes of self-doubt. Written by Jaspreet Mann Related articles: My role as a clinical computer scientist / Mental health strategies / Mental health in South Asian communities REFERENCES “Imposter Syndrome: A Curse You Share with EinsteinThesislink « Thesislink.” Thesislink, 10 July 2018, https://thesislink.aut.ac.nz/?p=6630 . NHS Inform (2023) ‘Imposter syndrome’, NHS Inform. Available at: https://www.nhsinform.scot/healthy-living/mental-wellbeing/stress/imposter-syndrome . Mind (2022) ‘Understanding imposter syndrome’, Mind. Available at: https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/imposter-syndrome/ . Healthline (2021) ‘What is imposter syndrome and how can you combat it?’, Healthline. Available at: https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/imposter-syndrome . Psychology Today (2020) ‘Overcoming imposter syndrome’, Psychology Today. Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/think-well/202002/overcoming-imposter-syndrome . beanstalk. Feel Like a Fraud? How to Overcome Imposter Syndrome - Employee and Family Resources . 1 Jan. 2023, https://efr.org/blog/feel-like-a-fraud . Ling, Ashley. “3 Ways to Get Past Imposter Syndrome.” Thir.St , 13 Aug. 2024, https://thirst.sg/3-ways-to-get-past-imposter-syndrome/ . Project Gallery

Navigating the silence Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unveiling the underreported challenges of endometriosis 09/03/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 25/11/23, 11:22 Navigating the silence What is endometriosis? Endometriosis is a chronic, neuro-inflammatory disease that affects 1 in 10 women in the UK. It is associated with debilitating chronic pelvic pain caused by tissue alike the lining of the womb (uterus) grows outside the uterus in other places like the ovaries and fallopian tubes. Endometriosis can affect any woman of reproductive age with a lifelong impact and can even lead to infertility. During a normal menstrual cycle, the body undergoes monthly hormonal changes. Natural hormonal release causes the uterus lining to thicken in preparation of a fertilised egg. If there is no pregnancy, the uterus lining will break down and bleed and is then released from the body in the form of a period. In endometriosis, tissue alike to the uterus lining tissue behaves in the same way the uterus tissue behaves every month during the menstrual period: building up, breaking down then bleeding. Unlike the womb tissue broken down blood, this blood has no way to leave. The internal bleeding causes inflammation, debilitating pain, and scar tissue formation. The symptoms are: · Painful, heavy, long periods · Infertility · Pain during or after sex · Painful bowel movements · Mood disorders like anxiety or depression · Chronic fatigue · Chronic pelvic pain The challenges of endometriosis Contrary to popular belief, period pain is not normal and can be experienced by those without endometriosis. The main point is if your period pain is interfering with your daily life, please consult your doctor. There are many challenges behind endometriosis from the hard time a patient has to get a diagnosis, to the severely under-research of the condition. Unfortunately, since endometriosis shares symptoms with many other conditions, diagnosis can be delayed and strenuous with recent research showing the average time to get a firm diagnosis being 7.5 years. A 2021 focus group in the Netherlands also shows the many issues with diagnosing endometriosis. Many of the focus group reported having a hard time finding a doctor who does not dismiss their concerns, undermine their pain, or dismiss them with paracetamol or ibuprofen which patients have reported as not strong for the pain endometriosis causes. Little research has been done on how effective paracetamol or ibuprofen is with endometriosis pain, but anecdotal evidence suggests it is not effective. Many of them reported their concerns being unheard, told to come back when they want to have a child and that their pain is normal, so they don’t need to see a doctor. Research for endometriosis is heavily underfunded; women reproductive health disorders are generally underfunded. There is a huge gender disparity with disorders that mostly affect men being over-funded while disorders affecting mostly women being underfunded. A 2018 analysis by the UK Clinical Research Collaboration reported findings of only 2.1% of public funded medical research going towards childbirth and reproductive health which is down from 2.5% in 2014. A 16% funding decrease over a 4-year period. The UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) has funded just over 40 endometriosis-related projects since 2003. However, diabetes which has the same incident rate but affecting both sexes instead of one like endometriosis has been funded 1891 projects in the same time. Just over 1m was funded to 6 of the endometriosis projects compared almost 250 diabetes projected with more than 10 receiving funding greater than £10 million. In 2020 the UK’s All-Part Parliament Group (APPG) report on endometriosis calls the attention of the cause of the disorder being unclear: Historically, with limited investment in research into women’s health in general, there’s been so little investment in research into endometriosis that we don’t even know what causes it, and without knowing the cause, a cure cannot be found. The APPG called for more investment into the cause, diagnosis, treatment, and management options of endometriosis. Without investment in research, this condition will rob the next generation of women [of] the education, care, and support they deserve. With more awareness being brought up by endometriosis charities, researchers and the affected group, the hard work and motivation may pay off soon. That being said, relugolix combination therapy for this disease was approved in March 2025, with linzagolix being approved a few months later in May 2025- both under the NHS. Written by Blessing O. Related articles: Breakthrough in endometriosis treatment / Gynaecology Project Gallery

Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are hydrogen cars the future of the UK? 11/04/26, 16:14 Last updated: Published: 01/01/25, 13:50 Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen Introduction With the London debut of the first ever hydrogen powered racing car in June 2024, the new off-road racing series, Extreme H, is set to make waves in the motorsport and sustainability industries with its first season in 2025. The first ever hydrogen powered motorsport series was announced in 2022 to replace the carbon-neutral electric racing series Extreme E, with the intention of pioneering the potential of hydrogen fuel cells and diversifying the paths of sustainable mobility. Like its predecessor, Extreme H will continue to race off-road in a spec SUV car, where engineers and machinists from competing teams optimise the SUV for the different range of terrains and topographies. The hydrogen spec SUV, fittingly called the Pioneer 25 ( Figure 1 ), is promising for the rapid advancement of hydrogen fuel research, leading to the integration of hydrogen fuel cells vehicles on local roads. In line with the upcoming ban on the sale of new petrol, diesel, and hybrid cars across the UK in 2035, as well as the UK target of reaching carbon neutral by 2050, the need for sustainable and practical transport options is growing. So far however, electric cars have proved to not be a one-size-fits-all solution. Hydrogen fuel could potentially be the key to filling this gap. EVs vs. HFCVs Working mechanisms Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (HFCVs): Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The electricity produced is used to power an electric motor, which drives the car. The only byproduct of this process is water vapour. Electric Vehicles (EVs): A motor is powered directly from a charged battery, and equally produces no harmful emissions. As a result of large investments, electric vehicles have already established a strong footing in the UK market, prompting the declining cost of batteries as well as increasing availability of EV charging points in the UK. However, for many households and commercial uses, electric vehicles are not accessible forms of transport due to key barriers including the extensive charging time (around 8 hours), the weight of batteries for large vehicles, and performance decline in cold weather due to lithium-ion batteries being highly sensitive to temperature. HFCVs directly address these problems and present a sustainable and competitive alternative. As the refuelling process is the same as petrol and diesel cars, fuel tanks can be filled in the space of a few minutes and are notably weight efficient. A heavy-duty electric vehicle on the other hand can require a battery of around 7000 kg. Advantages of HFCVs: Significantly shorter refuelling times Can achieve 300-400 miles on a full tank Maintain performance in cold weather and under heavy loads Lighter and more energy-dense than electric vehicles Disadvantages: Expensive as they’re not yet widely available Lack of refuelling infrastructure The current primary method of hydrogen production produces CO2 as a byproduct Despite the key advantages hydrogen cars offer, there are currently only 2 available models of HFC cars in the UK, including the Toyota Mirai ( Figure 2 ) and the Hyundai Nexo SUV. As a result, there are currently fewer than 20 refuelling stations available nationwide, compared to the many thousands of charging points available across the country for electric vehicles. One of the main reasons why progress in hydrogen fuel production has been so delayed is because hydrogen, despite being the most abundant element in the universe, is only available on earth in compound form and needs to be extracted using chemical processes. The true sustainability of hydrogen production There are currently two main methods to extract hydrogen from nature, including steam-methane reforming and electrolysis. Hydrogen is colour-graded by production method to indicate whether it is renewable. Green/ yellow hydrogen The cleanest process for hydrogen production is electrolysis, where a current separates hydrogen from pure water. If the current is sourced from renewable energy, it’s known as green hydrogen. If it’s connected via the grid, then it’s called yellow hydrogen. The source of electricity is particularly important because the electrolysis process is about 75% efficient, which translates to higher costs yet cleaner air. Grey/ blue hydrogen Hydrogen can also be produced by treating natural gas or methane with hot steam. During this process, the methane splits into its four hydrogen atoms while one carbon atom bonds to oxygen and enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This is known as grey hydrogen. If the carbon dioxide can be captured and stored via direct air capture, it’s called blue hydrogen. About 95% of all hydrogen in Europe is produced by methane steam reforming (grey and blue hydrogen), as it is very energy efficient and uses up lots of natural gas in the process, a resource that is quickly diminishing in importance and value as more and more households switch from gas boilers to heat pumps. Two percent of the world’s carbon emissions comes from the grey hydrogen process to produce ammonia for fertiliser and for steel production. For context, this is almost the same as the entire aviation industry. For HFCVs to be a truly sustainable alternative to combustion engines, green hydrogen via electrolysis (or another clean process) needs to be more widely available and economically viable. The UK’s plans for hydrogen As part of the UK hydrogen strategy ( Figure 3 ), the UK aims to reach up to 10GW or low carbon hydrogen production by 2030 (or equivalent to the amount of gas consumed by 3 million households in the UK annually). The government has allocated £240 million to develop hydrogen production and infrastructure. This is particularly for industry uses in the production of steel and cement, and for heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). Plans were also made to extend the use of hydrogen to heat homes, starting with ‘hydrogen village trials’ in 2025, to inform how 100% hydrogen communities would work, although this has understandably been met with local opposition. With greater research, information, and development into hydrogen for domestic uses, the applications of hydrogen energy may extend from industry and transport to households. As car companies (particularly Toyota, Hyundai, and BMW) continue to develop hydrogen car makes, and further investment is made into increased refuelling infrastructure and hydrogen fuel cell research, as well as with the ban on the sale of new combustion engine cars by 2035, commercial hydrogen cars have the potential to be commonly found on UK roads by 2040. Conclusion For now, HFCVs remain in the early stages of development, however they present a promising opportunity for the UK to diversify its clean transport options, particularly in areas where EV technology faces limitations such as for heavy goods vehicles. Rather than being competitors, it is likely that EVs and HFCVs will soon coexist, with each technology serving different needs. The biggest barrier to the progress of HFCVs currently is developing a full hydrogen refuelling infrastructure, where the gas is produced and then transported to stations across the nation, which will take billions of pounds and a number of years to develop. If these initial hurdles could be overcome, HFCV technology can quickly become more practically and financially accessible. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Electric vehicles / Nuclear fusion Project Gallery