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How diseases start and spread, the body’s defence system, vaccines, policies, and public opinion: unravel the maze of infection and immunity with these articles. Immunology Articles How diseases start and spread, the body’s defence system, vaccines, policies, and public opinion: unravel the maze of infection and immunity with these articles. You may also like: Biology , Medicine , Neuroscience , Chemistry COVID-19 misconceptions Common misconceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic Glossary of COVID-19 terms Key terms used during the COVID-19 pandemic A vaccine for malaria? A new hope for a vaccine for malaria The world vs. the next pandemic Can we see it coming? What steps do we need to take? Are pandemics becoming more severe? Arguments for and against Natural substances And how they can tackle infectious diseases A treatment for HIV? Can the CRISPR-Cas9 system be used as a potential treatment? The mast cell Key cells in the immune system Origins of COVID -19 How COVID-19 caused a pandemic Mechanisms of pathogen invasion How pathogens avoid detection by the immune system Astronauts in space How does little gravity affect the immune system? Ageing and immunity Ageing and its association with immune decline The impacts of global warming on dengue fever Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) Is the immune system 'selfish'? 'Selfish' genes from a Dawkins perspective, and the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

Your brain is truly an extraordinary structure, and it’s the reason you can do all the amazing things you do. This mass of wrinkly material weighs only about 1.3 kilograms, yet it controls every single thing you will ever do. It’s the engine that drives our behaviour and allows us to interact with the world.  Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Discovering the Wonders of the Human Brain Last updated: 18/11/24 Published: 13/04/23 Your brain is truly an extraordinary structure, and it’s the reason you can do all the amazing things you do. This mass of wrinkly material weighs only about 1.3 kilograms, yet it controls every single thing you will ever do. It’s the engine that drives our behaviour and allows us to interact with the world. Despite its relatively small size — the brain makes up only 2% of our body mass — it’s an incredibly energy-intensive organ. In fact, it consumes more than 20% of our oxygen supply and blood flow and uses more energy than any other tissue in the body. This is because it has a dense network of neurons, specialized cells that transmit signals throughout the nervous system. There are around 100 billion neurons in the human brain, each connected to thousands of other neurons, passing signals to each other via trillions of synapses. The human brain has more connections than there are stars in the Milky Way galaxy and it can process information at a speed of up to 120 meters per second! Even when you are asleep your brain never really “shuts off”! While you’re snoozing away, your brain is busy consolidating memories, processing emotions, flushing out harmful toxins and keeping your mind sharp and healthy. One more key feature that sets our brain apart is the cortex, the outer layer of the brain responsible for many of the higher cognitive functions that are unique to humans, such as abstract reasoning and language. While all mammals have a cerebral cortex, the human cortex is disproportionately large, accounting for 80% of our total brain mass, and it’s much more complex than any other animal. Now, have you ever wondered how the human brain compares to the brains of other animals? Some animals have much larger brains than we do. For instance, the brain of a sperm whale weighs around 8 kilograms, making it the largest brain of any animal on Earth. To put it into perspective, that’s about five times the size of a human brain! Similarly, the brains of elephants are also much larger than ours, weighing in at around 5 kilograms. Comparative neuronal morphology of the cerebellar cortex in afrotherians, carnivores, cetartiodactyls, and primates. We might not have the largest brain compared to other species however, the human brain is larger than most animal brains relative to body size. Why did humans evolve such large brains in the first place? The question has puzzled scientists for years, but there are a few theories that have gained traction. The “social brain” hypothesis suggests that our large brains evolved as a result of our ancestors’ increasingly complex social structures. As early humans began to live in larger groups, they needed to be able to navigate the complex social dynamics of their communities, for example cooperating for resources and maintaining social relationships. Another theory known as “ecological intelligence”, suggests that the pressure for larger brains was driven by environmental conditions. Our ancestors had to adapt to the challenges posed by the environment, such as finding food and shelter. Finally, the “cultural intelligence” hypothesis emphasizes the challenge of learning from different cultures and teaching their own. While each of these theories has some evidence to support it, there is still much debate among scientists about which theory (if any) is the most accurate. It is likely that all three theories played a role in the evolution of the human brain, to varying degrees. The human brain is a fascinating organ that has captivated scientists are researchers for centuries. Despite all our advances in neuroscience, however, there is still so much that we don’t know about how the brain works and what it is truly capable of. Written by Viviana Greco Related article: The brain-climate connection REFERENCES González-Forero, M., & Gardner, A., 2018. Inference of ecological and social drivers of human brain-size evolution. Nature, 557(7706), Article 7706. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0127-x Jacobs, B., Johnson, N. L., Wahl, D., et. al, 2014. Comparative neuronal morphology of the cerebellar cortex in afrotherians, carnivores, cetartiodactyls, and primates. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2014.00024

These articles range from astrophysics and space science to nuclear physics, harmonic motion, and thermodynamics. Physics Articles These articles range from astrophysics and space science to nuclear physics, harmonic motion, and thermodynamics. You may also like: Maths, Technology , Engineering The liquid viscosity of castor oil An experiment determining the liquid viscosity of castor oil using spheres Summary of a pendulum experiment An experiment on the pendulum and its relation to gravity Female Nobel Prize winners in physics Who were they and what did they achieve? The Northern Lights in the UK What determines the Northern Lights to be seen in your country? The James Webb Space Telescope And its significance in space exploration Geoengineering Will it work to save the environmental crisis? The Lyrids meteor shower What is it and when does it happen? Nuclear fusion Unleashing the power of the stars Colonising Planet Mars Which fuel would be used to colonise Mars? Superfluids And their incredibly slippery nature Total solar eclipses A description of them Mercury The closest planet to the Sun The DESI instrument DESI stands for the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument Cumulus clouds How they form and their link to the weather Hubble Tension The cause of the Hubble Tension discrepancy is unknown Artemis The lunar south pole base A room-temperature superconductor? The search for one Physics in healthcare Incorporating nuclear medicine The Crab nebula In the constellation of Taurus The physics of LIGO LIGO stands for Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory Next

Richard Dawkins's work and the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Is the immune system ‘selfish’? – a Dawkins perspective Last updated: 22/09/25, 10:59 Published: 25/09/25, 07:00 Richard Dawkins's work and the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis Evolution and Dawkins’ perspective Charles Darwin introduced the unprecedented theory of evolution by natural selection in his famous work ‘On the Origin of Species’, published in 1859. Gregor Mendel, who explained the concept of Mendelian genetics (the inheritance of genes), was a contemporary of Darwin, but his research was recognised much later on, beyond his time. In the 20 th century, the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis was formed and gave a foundation for how biological life has formed as we see it today. The Modern Evolutionary Synthesis is widely accepted and strongly supported by experimental and observational evidence across an array of life. Human beings have even leveraged these concepts for hundreds of years through artificial selection, imposing our own sometimes superficial selective pressures on organisms to express characteristics that we desire (such as the case of the Belgian Blue cattle, with a mutation in the myostatin gene making it a muscular, lean beef, or perhaps artificial selection in dog breeding). Richard Dawkins’ breakout book, ‘The Selfish Gene’, published in 1976, took him from an unknown voice at the University of Oxford passionate about the works of evolution across all animals, to a lauded voice in the scientific community. His concept of genes being selfish is the idea that natural selection works at the gene level, whereby genes over time become better at replication, with the organism acting as a ‘survival machine’ built to help genes propagate. It is important to note that the term ‘selfish’ is not meant metaphysically or philosophically. Figure 1 explains what ‘selfish’ means. Taking this further, it can be argued that genes helping organisms resist pathogenic attack are more likely to survive and propagate. This means the immune system does not exist to protect the body holistically but rather to protect its genes individually. The immune system evolved through the gene-centric lens As previously mentioned, the immune system has become integral to all complex organisms responding to pathogens as a selective pressure. Those genes that have conferred a greater ability to combat or resist a particular pathogen allow the organism an improved survival chance until reproductive age has been achieved. The window whereby the organism has reached reproductive maturity and is reproducing is what the genes have been selected to get, which is why many genetic pathways end up becoming detrimental to an organism in old age (explained by the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis- APT- and the disposable soma theory). This remains especially true for the immune system. One must also understand that only vertebrates are biologically equipped with an adaptive immune system (allowing for memory and effective response to previous pathogens), with Figure 2 explaining this difference. This supports that the immune system is a ‘selfish system’, as while many organisms survive without adaptive immunity, more complex organisms have evolved to include it because of our prolonged individual survival and delay in reproductive maturity (indicating that survivability until our reproductive window is an intense selective pressure). Immune imperfection through the ‘Selfish System’ lens We now understand there is a compelling point to be made that the immune system has evolved with the reproductive window in mind and to allow as much gene propagation in a population as possible. If we accept this point of view, it explains many of the trade-offs and imperfections of the immune system when we look at the potential harm caused by immunity. Allergies are one such example, whereby hypersensitivity causes an immune response to harmless substances, which, through the gene-centric lens, may have evolved to detect pathogens such as parasites. This further supports the ‘selfish system’ idea as reproductive success on a population scale is not impaired by a significant amount by allergies. One such study showed that women with allergies and asthma, despite having systemic inflammation, did not have a reduced fertility rate when analysing the relationship between an increase in allergic diseases in the 20 th century and a decrease in fertility globally. Chronic inflammation through persistent immune activation in old age (a concept termed inflammaging) is another such example. We previously mentioned that past reproductive age natural selection weakens, meaning that our genes are selected for early life immune optimisation, even if that means they cause problems later in old age. Processes such as cellular senescence, inflammasome activation, oxidative stress, immune cell dysregulation and so on begin to occur, leading to an increased risk of age-related diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, dementia, sarcopenia and so on. Immune evolution is therefore a ‘selfish system’ because it seems to care more about gene propagation in the young to middle-aged years in comparison to long-term organism health, as many immune systems rapidly decline and become detrimental. Conclusion This perspective of the immune system as a ‘selfish system’ allows us to understand that it is not a protector of the organism throughout its life span, as we may perceive it to be, but rather that it is a mechanism evolved and optimised to propagate genetic material during the organism’s reproductive window (expanding beyond humans). This analysis of the immune system through Richard Dawkins' lens of the “selfish gene” helps us to understand many of the limitations of the immune system. Working on treatments to preserve and maintain the immune system’s healthy state, which reflects young adult life, appears to be a promising approach for future clinical prevention plans for old age diseases. There are many currently being researched and emerging treatments with this principle in mind, such as senotherapeutics and mTOR inhibitors (such as rapamycin and other rapalogs), making this an interesting field to keep up to date with. Written by Yaseen Ahmad Related article: Darwin and Galápagos Tortoises Project Gallery

Discussing eutrophication and industrial activities Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How human activity impacts the phosphorus cycle Last updated: 27/12/25, 17:55 Published: 15/01/26, 08:00 Discussing eutrophication and industrial activities Phosphorus is one of the most important chemical elements in biology because it is a component of nucleic acids, ATP, and the phospholipid bilayers that make up our cell membranes. Like carbon and nitrogen, there is a limited amount of phosphorus on Earth, which is continually cycled between inorganic, organic, terrestrial, and aquatic sources. However, human activity disrupts the phosphorus cycle, resulting in some places having too much phosphorus and others having too little. This article will describe what the phosphorus cycle is and how we are affecting it. What is the phosphorus cycle? The phosphorus cycle involves phosphate ions (PO 4 3- ) moving between rocks, living organisms, and water bodies. Phosphate enters ecosystems when wind and rain break off tiny pieces of phosphate rock, primarily apatite, in a process called weathering. Weathered phosphate rock enters soil, where micro-organisms transform it into a form that plants can absorb through their roots (see my previous article on this process, called phosphate solubilisation). Plants convert inorganic phosphate into organic phosphorus compounds, such as DNA, ATP, and phosphoproteins, which are then transferred along the food chain. At each step of the food chain, phosphorus is returned to the soil by excretion from living organisms or decomposition of dead organisms. I call this the ‘organic mini-cycle’ from soil, to plants, to animals, and back to soil. Occasionally, phosphorus leaves the organic mini-cycle and enters water bodies by leaching or soil erosion. Phosphorus settles on the seabed and turns back into phosphate rock over hundreds of millions of years, completing the cycle. An overview is shown in Figure 1 . Humans disrupt the phosphorus cycle by eutrophication Deforestation, farming, and sewage overload water bodies with nutrients like phosphorus in a process called eutrophication. Agriculture is a big source of eutrophication, specifically fertilisers, organophosphorus pesticides, and animal feed. When it rains, they are carried from farm soil to water bodies by surface runoff and soil erosion. Human-caused deforestation exaggerates eutrophication because without tree roots, soil erosion increases, so more agricultural phosphorus enters water bodies. The other big eutrophication source is domestic sewage, which is dumped directly into water bodies. Fertilisers, pesticides, animal feed, and sewage provide algae with excess nutrients, so they overgrow into an algal bloom ( Figure 2 ). Algal blooms block sunlight from reaching submerged aquatic plants, so they cannot photosynthesise, and may produce toxins that kill aquatic life. Once the algal bloom dies, it is decomposed by bacteria, which use up oxygen in the water. With oxygen used up and no photosynthesis to replace it, fish and other aquatic animals die. Therefore, human phosphorus inputs like fertilisers and domestic waste can destroy aquatic ecosystems. Industrial activity depletes non-renewable phosphate rock While human activities overload water bodies with phosphorus, they deplete land of phosphate rock. Phosphate rock is mined and chemically reacted with sulfuric acid to produce fertiliser. Since phosphate rock is non-renewable, mining it permanently removes a crucial phosphorus input from the local ecosystem. 85% of phosphate rock is found in only 5 countries (China, Morocco, South Africa, Algeria, and Syria), so these countries are being depleted of phosphorus, only to overload another ecosystem with fertiliser thousands of miles away ( Figure 3 ). Scientists have suggested using agricultural waste and domestic wastewater as an alternative phosphorus source for fertiliser production. This would rebalance the phosphorus cycle on both ends: reducing the demand for non-renewable phosphate rock, and preventing eutrophication. Phosphorus can be recovered from waste and reused in fertiliser production in a variety of ways – acid leaching, isolating iron phosphate using a magnet, metal precipitation, and polyphosphate-accumulating micro-organisms, which use and store phosphate in their cells. However, the pollution and diseases present in sewage and farm waste make them difficult to recycle. Conclusion Phosphorus is an essential element for plant growth, so humans have manufactured fertilisers to provide their crops with extra phosphorus. However, fertiliser production depletes some ecosystems of phosphate rock, while fertiliser application causes eutrophication in other ecosystems. Along with domestic sewage and deforestation, agriculture has disrupted the natural cycle, which transports phosphate between plants, animals, micro-organisms, the soil, water bodies, and rocks. Therefore, making fertiliser by recycling the phosphorus in our waste products could keep the human population fed without compromising natural ecosystems. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Meet the microbes that feed phosphorus to plants REFERENCES Schipanski ME, Bennett EM. Chapter 9 - The Phosphorus Cycle. In: Weathers KC, Strayer DL, Likens GE (eds) Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science (Second Edition) . Academic Press, pp. 189–213. R. Jupp A, Beijer S, C. Narain G, et al. Phosphorus Recovery and Recycling – Closing the Loop. Chemical Society Reviews 2021; 50: 87–101. Khan MN, Mohammad F. Eutrophication: Challenges and Solutions. In: Ansari AA, Gill SS (eds) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control: Volume 2 . Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–15. Akinnawo SO. Eutrophication: Causes, consequences, physical, chemical and biological techniques for mitigation strategies. Environmental Challenges 2023; 12: 100733. Liu L, Zheng X, Wei X, et al. Excessive Application of Chemical Fertilizer and Organophosphorus Pesticides Induced Total Phosphorus Loss from Planting Causing Surface Water Eutrophication. Sci Rep 2021; 11: 23015. Project Gallery

Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does anxiety run in families? Here's what genetics tells us Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:26 Published: 19/06/25, 07:00 Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side Have you ever noticed anxiety can pop up in several members of the same family? Maybe your sister worries constantly, or your brother gets nervous around people. It might feel like anxiety is passed down through generations. But is that really how it works, or is it just a coincidence? Here's what science has to say. Your DNA can affect anxiety Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side. That means you're more likely to have anxiety if someone in your family, like your mum, dad, sibling, or even a grandparent, has it too. But this doesn't mean anxiety is certain. Instead, genes increase your chances, accounting for about 30% to 40% of your risk. Scientists work this out by comparing identical and fraternal twins and by following anxiety diagnoses across generations; those studies repeatedly find that roughly one-third to two-fifths of a person’s risk is genetic. So, if genetics only make up part of the picture, what's the rest? That's where your environment steps in. Your life experiences matter a lot. Things like your relationships, stressful situations, and even your physical health can tip the scales one way or another. Genes set the stage, but they don't control the outcome. Think of your genes as nudging you towards anxiety rather than pushing you into it completely. The rest depends on what happens to you. How genes shape your brain Scientists have pinpointed several genes linked to anxiety. One of these genes affects serotonin, a brain chemical that helps regulate your mood and manage stress. When serotonin works well, you feel calm and can handle stressful events better. But if your genes make serotonin less effective, stress hits you harder. This can make anxiety more likely during tough times, even when others around you seem okay. There's another important point: your brain structure. Genes influence parts of your brain, especially the amygdala. Think of the amygdala as your internal alarm system. It warns you when something feels dangerous. In people with certain genes, the amygdala is extra sensitive. That means their "alarm" goes off more easily, causing anxiety even when there's no real danger present. However, not everyone with these genetic variations experiences anxiety. Your brain adapts throughout life, changing how genes affect you. This ongoing flexibility is called neuroplasticity: experience can strengthen or weaken neural circuits and can even add or remove chemical tags, such as DNA methylation, that switch genes on or off, reshaping how your stress system responds. Anxiety isn't just genetic; here's why It's tempting to blame your genes entirely if anxiety runs in your family. But life is more complicated. Even if you inherit genes that make anxiety more likely, the disorder usually develops when certain environmental conditions come into play. Stressful life events like losing a loved one, ongoing conflict at home, bullying, or trauma can trigger anxiety symptoms. Someone might have anxiety-related genes but never experience anxiety if their life stays relatively stress-free. On the other hand, someone without these genes can still develop anxiety if they experience severe stress or trauma. Lifestyle choices also make a big difference. Regular exercise, healthy eating, good sleep, and support from friends and family can protect against anxiety. Studies show these lifestyle habits are powerful, even if your genes are pushing in the opposite direction. Can you change your genetic destiny? Understanding that anxiety has a genetic basis can help. It means anxiety isn't just a character flaw or personal weakness. It's something partly built into your biology, something real and valid. Realising this can reduce shame and make people more willing to seek help. And here's another benefit: knowing your family history allows you to spot anxiety sooner. If you understand that anxiety might run in your family, you can pay attention to early signs, like trouble sleeping, excessive worry, or panic in social settings. Catching anxiety early means getting support earlier, making treatments like therapy or lifestyle changes more effective. Anxiety might run in your family, but you get to decide how far it goes. Written by Rand Alanazi Related articles: Depression / South Asian mental health / Physical and mental health / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES National Institute of Mental Health. Anxiety disorders [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Mental Health; 2024 [cited 2025 May 29]. Available from: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders Mayo Clinic. Anxiety disorders [Internet]. Rochester (MN): Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2018 [cited 2025 May 29]. Available from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/syc-20350961 Leyfer O, Woodruff-Borden J, Mervis CB. Anxiety disorders in children with Williams syndrome, their mothers, and their siblings: implications for the aetiology of anxiety disorders. J Neurodev Disord . 2009 Feb 13;1(1):4-14. Martin EI, Ressler KJ, Binder EB, Nemeroff CB. The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: brain imaging, genetics, and psychoneuroendocrinology. Psychiatr Clin North Am [Internet]. 2009 Sep;32(3):549-75. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3684250/ McEwen BS, Eiland L, Hunter RG, Miller MM. Stress and anxiety: structural plasticity and epigenetic regulation as a consequence of stress. Neuropharmacology . 2012 Jan;62(1):3-12. Xie S, Zhang X, Cheng W, Yang Z. Adolescent anxiety disorders and the developing brain: comparing neuroimaging findings in adolescents and adults. Gen Psychiatry [Internet]. 2021 Aug 4;34(4):e100542. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8340272/ Zhang K, Ibrahim GM, Venetucci Gouveia F. Molecular pathways, neural circuits and emerging therapies for self-injurious behaviour. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2025 Feb 24;26(5):1938. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/5/1938 Chaves T, Fazekas CL, Horváth K, Correia P, Szabó A, Török B, et al. Stress adaptation and the brainstem with focus on corticotropin-releasing hormone. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1;22(16):9090. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/16/9090 Project Gallery

Beyond sugarcane fields and dreamy beaches, Mauritius secures first place in mobile connectivity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Mauritius's rise as African leader of mobile networks Last updated: 08/06/25, 11:12 Published: 05/06/25, 07:00 Beyond sugarcane fields and dreamy beaches, Mauritius secures first place in mobile connectivity Background: GSMA ranking In the bustling capital city of Port Louis, commuters check the latest news updates using mobile data on their phones. Across the busy, connecting streets, a handful of tourists video call their family back home, asking them what souvenirs they would like- also on mobile data. Apart from idyllic holiday scenes and solid sugar exports, the island nation of Mauritius has recently become number one in Africa for mobile connectivity- as scored by the Global System for Mobile Communications Association (GSMA). The small island is now at the forefront of telecommunication development, with the increasing rollout of 5G networks. How did this touristic country become a leader in mobile connectivity? On the 13th of August 2024, the GSMA announced its yearly index for mobile connectivity. The GSMA looks at 41 African countries and ranks them based on: internet accessibility, prices of mobile devices, relevant services and political environments. Scoring 62.7 points out of the possible 100, Mauritius took the first spot, in front of South Africa. This result also places the island country 76th in the world. Remarkably, this is the third consecutive year that Mauritius is leading in mobile connectivity in Africa. Moreover Mauritius, with a population of 1.26 million, boasts an average of 1.7 phones per person, compared to only 1.2 phones per person in the US (according to 2023 data). Connecting the island: 5G is nearly everywhere Three companies provide mobile phone networks on Mauritius island: Emtel, MTML (Chili) and state-owned My.t. At present, 5G is widely available in Mauritius, thanks to Emtel supplying it to approximately 80% of the island for both residential and commercial usage. Though Emtel is the biggest network in the country, My.t is the most popular provider currently, and it also offers 5G to its users. A closer look at 4G and 5G 3G (and 3G High-Speed Packet Access, HSPA), 4G (Long Term Evolution, LTE) and 5G are wireless mobile networks, where the ‘G’ in these networks means ‘generation’ and indicates the strength of the signal on the mobile device. Hence, each mobile network is an improvement since the last generation of network. These mobile networks aim for high quality, reliable communication, and are based on radio signals. Each generation has evolved to achieve this. Table 1 compares the differences between all of these networks. The original 1G network from 1979 used analogue radio signals, while subsequent network generations use digital radio signals. Table 1: A comparison of 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G mobile networks 2G 3G HSPA+ 4G LTE 5G Speed 64Kbps 8Mbps 50Mbps 10Gbps Bandwidth 30- 200 kHz 15- 20 MHz 100 MHz 30- 300 GHz Features Better quality video calls than before Can send and receive larger emails Higher speeds and capacities Much faster speeds and capacities; high resolution video streaming SMS and MMS Larger capacities Low cost per bit Low latency Interactive multimedia, voice, video Allows remote control of operations e.g. vehicles, robots, medical procedures It is evident from Table 1 that not only have speeds and capacities increased with each generation, but new features have also been implemented such as video calls, interactive multimedia, streaming, and remote control of operations. Introduced in 2019, 5G is thought to be the most ambitious mobile phone network- almost revolutionary in its benefits since 1G. Usually, mobile carriers operate on a 4G LTE and 5G coexistence. This means that 5G phones can switch to 4G if 5G isn’t available in the region. Top of the tower- how? Since the 5G rollout in 2021, Mauritius has been enjoying the larger capacities and speeds of the network. The same question arises: how did this touristic country become a leader in mobile connectivity? There are several factors: - Tourist hotspot - Government initiatives - Improving local infrastructure - General advancements in mobile network technologies - High penetration rates and mobile ownership - Increasing number of connections - Geography Each factor will be considered in turn. Factor 1- Tourist hotspot Every year, Mauritius attracts visitors far and wide to enjoy its mesmerising beaches, luscious escapes and tantalising wildlife. Therefore, over time, mobile network technology has had to improve to meet the communicative needs of tourists. Put differently, tourism significantly supports the telecom industry on the island. Factor 2- Government initiatives As well as providing free, public WiFi hotspots around the island, the government is committed to bridging the digital divide and increasing access to all of its population. Thus, it was announced that, eligible citizens between the ages of 18 and 25 will receive a free, monthly mobile data package (with 4G and 5G capabilities)- starting from the 1st of September 2024. It is an endeavour to include young people in the government’s digital plans, i.e. digital inclusion. Factor 3- Improvements in local infrastructure In recent years, My.t and EmTel have been upgrading their equipment to ensure better coverage and access to 5G in the country. Infrastructure must have improved so that the three mobile operators on the island were granted the license for 5G rollout in June 2021. The current goal is to fully expand 5G coverage in Mauritius. Factor 4- General advancements in mobile network technologies Since its inception in 2019, 5G has had a profound impact on consumers around the globe with its low latency, high resolution streaming, and insanely high speeds and capacities. This pioneering mobile network has rolled out to millions of people, including the citizens of Mauritius island. The government has utilised this new technology to empower its people and pave a way for the country to become a leader in mobile connectivity. Factor 5- High penetration rates and mobile ownership Early 2025 data shows that the East African nation has over 2.1 million active mobile connections, when its population is half of that, a mere 1.261 million. (More mobile connections is not a usual thing as people may have separate connections for personal and work use, for example. Embedded SIMs – eSIMs- have made this possible recently). With this statistic, Mauritius has a high degree of mobile ownership and network connection density. Factor 6- An increase in the number of connections Another recent event is that the number of mobile connections in the nation has been increasing gradually: between 2024 and 2025, the number has increased by 1.9%. Factor 7- Geography It is known that less land- especially less rural land- makes deployment of cell phone towers and installation of masts much easier. Therefore, spanning an area of 2,040 squared kilometres, the main island of Mauritius can enjoy adequate mobile coverage- being one of the smallest African countries. Small island, big signal. To summarise, the above factors contribute to the number one ranking in mobile connectivity for Mauritius. What does Mauritius’s rise mean for the future? If these advancements in infrastructure and technology continue on the island, then there is a brighter outlook for the future. 5G coverage in Mauritius is on its way to completion, ensuring all districts have access to the latest mobile network. Geography, government initiatives, improvements in infrastructure by mobile operators, high number of mobile connections and ownership, are some of the factors that enabled 5G rollout in Mauritius in the first instance. Mauritius is leading by example to the other countries in Africa and is additionally performing well on the global stage for mobile networks. This small island country, usually known for its exotic sights and sugarcane landscape, is quickly overtaking its African neighbours in the race to become the leader in mobile phone connectivity. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: The future of semiconductor manufacturing / Wireless electricity Project Gallery

Arginine, the key to metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Linking arginine and tumour growth: a breakthrough in cancer research Last updated: 20/02/25, 15:29 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Arginine, the key to metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer Unpicking the secrets of tumour growth: arginine, the key to metabolic reprogramming in liver cancer. We will look at how unleashing the power of arginine and elevating levels of this amino acid drive metabolic reprogramming and fuel tumour growth. Introduction In recent years, the field of cancer research has made significant progress in unravelling the complexities of this devastating disease. Scientists at the University of Basel have made a groundbreaking discovery regarding the role of the amino acid arginine in promoting tumour growth. Their findings shed light on the mechanisms underlying metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells and present new avenues for improving liver cancer treatment. Elevated levels of arginine: a surprising revelation An intriguing aspect of the study conducted by the researchers is the observation that tumour cells accumulate high levels of arginine despite producing less or none of this amino acid. Through careful analysis of liver tumour samples from both mice and patients, the team discovered that the tumour cells achieve this accumulation by increasing the uptake of arginine and suppressing its consumption. The role of arginine in tumorigenicity Upon further investigation, the scientists at the University of Basel found that high concentrations of arginine bind to a specific factor, triggering metabolic reprogramming in the tumour cells. This reprogramming, in turn, promotes tumour growth by regulating the expression of metabolic genes. The tumour cells revert to an undifferentiated embryonic cell state, enabling them to divide indefinitely. Immune system escape: a beneficial effect for tumour cells Another fascinating discovery made by the researchers is the role of arginine in aiding tumour cells in evading the immune system. Immune cells rely on arginine to function properly. By depleting arginine in the tumour environment, the tumour cells can escape immune surveillance. This finding opens up new possibilities for targeted therapies. Targeting the arginine-binding factor: a novel approach Instead of depleting arginine levels overall, which can have unwanted side effects, the scientists propose targeting the specific arginine-binding factor responsible for promoting metabolic reprogramming. By inducing the degradation of this factor, the researchers were able to prevent metabolic reprogramming in liver tumours. This approach offers a promising alternative to liver cancer treatment. Metabolic changes as biomarkers for early cancer detection Furthermore, the study suggests that metabolic changes, such as increased arginine levels, may serve as biomarkers for the early detection of cancer. Early detection is crucial for successful cancer treatment and patient survival. This finding provides hope for the development of non-invasive diagnostic methods that can detect elevated arginine levels. By measuring arginine levels in patients, these diagnostic methods can potentially identify liver cancer at an early stage. By identifying the elevated levels of arginine in liver tumour cells, these diagnostic methods could potentially use metabolic changes, such as increased arginine levels, as biomarkers for detecting cancer. Therefore, this would be crucial for successful cancer treatment and patient survival, as early detection allows for prompt intervention and improved outcomes. Conclusion The discovery of the role of arginine in driving metabolic reprogramming and promoting tumour growth opens up new avenues for liver cancer treatment. Additionally, the elevated levels of arginine observed in liver cancer patients suggest the potential for using arginine as a biomarker for non-invasive cancer detection. Further research is needed to explore the full potential of arginine as a diagnostic marker and to develop targeted therapies that exploit the metabolic vulnerabilities of cancer cells. With continued advancements in our understanding of cancer metabolism and the role of arginine in tumour growth, further research is needed to explore the full potential of arginine as a diagnostic marker and to develop targeted therapies that exploit the metabolic vulnerabilities of cancer cells. By studying the specific arginine-binding factor and its role in promoting metabolic reprogramming, scientists may be able to develop new treatments that selectively target tumour cells while minimising harm to immune cells that rely on arginine. Additionally, investigating the metabolic changes associated with increased arginine levels may lead to new biomarker designs for early cancer detection, which is crucial for successful treatment and patient survival. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Immune signals and metastasis / Cancer research treatment / Prostatate cancer treatment REFERENCE MOSSMANN, D., MÜLLER, C., PARK, S., RYBACK, B., COLOMBI, M., RITTER, N., WEISSENBERGE, D., DAZERT, E., COTO-LLERENA, M., NUCIFORO, S., BLUKACZ, L., ERCAN, C., JIMENEZ, V., PISCUOGLIO, S., BOSCH, F., TERRACCIANO, L. M., SAUER, U., HEIM, M. H. & HALL, M. N. Arginine reprograms metabolism in liver cancer via RBM39. Cell . DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.09.011 Project Gallery

Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Building Physics Last updated: 03/04/25, 10:39 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future From the high rise establishments that paint the expansive London skyline to the new build properties nestled within thriving communities, buildings serve as a beacon of societal needs. The planned and precise architecture of buildings provides shelter and comfort for individuals, as well as meet business agendas to promote modern day living. Additionally, buildings serve a purpose as a form of protection where, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the design and construction of buildings is to create an environment suitable for human living: more favourable than the state of the natural environment outdoors construction and building protects us from: extremes of temperature moisture excessive noise To sustain these pivotal agendas, a comprehensive analysis of the physical factors within the environment of buildings, including temperature, light and sound are required for design and legislation for a building to function. The field of ‘Building Physics’ primarily addresses these physical factors to innovate ‘multifunctional solutions’, be more efficient, and build upon present designs, which can be adapted for future use. Moreover, the built environment is regarded as one of the biggest carbon emissions on the planet, so using building physics as an early design intervention can reduce energy consumption and minimise carbon emissions. This supports global manifestos of moving towards net zero and decreasing the likelihood of the detrimental effects caused by climate change. The main components of Building Physics Building Physics is composed of examining the functions of an interior physical environment, including air quality, thermal comfort, acoustics comfort (sound), and light : Air quality: Ventilation is needed for maintaining a safe environment and reducing the quantity of stale air - consisting of carbon dioxide and other impurities - within an interior environment. Air infiltration also contributes to a significant heat loss, where it is important to provide intentional ventilation to increase the efficiency of energy transfers within the building. Thus, good ‘airtightness’ of a building fabric, which can be considered as the building’s resistance to unintentional air infiltration or exfiltration, can enable planned airflows for ventilation. Thermal: The biggest influence within the field of Building Physics stems from an understanding of heat conductivity depending on the density and moisture content of the material, as well as heat transfers - conduction, convection, radiation and transition - to determine the suitability of materials used for construction. For example, a material such as a solid wood panel for walls and ceilings is favourable as it can be installed in layers, providing even temperature fields across the surface. It is important that a building has the ability to isolate its environment from external temperature conditions and have the correct building envelope - a barrier that separates the interior and exterior of a building. Acoustics: A regulated control of sound within buildings contributes towards maintaining habitable conditions for building users to make sure that sound is loud, undistorted, and the disturbances are reduced. Acoustics can be controlled and modified through material choices, such as installing sound-absorbing material. These materials can be adapted to reduce sound leakage, which are common in air openings, such as ventilators and doors, that are more likely to transmit sound than adjacent thicker walls. Light: Light provides an outlook of viewing an environment in an attractive manner, particularly using daylight as a primary source of enhancing the exterior of a building, whilst also functioning within a building. One strategy used to fulfil the purpose of light in buildings is designing windows for the distribution of daylight to a space. The window design has a divisive effect on the potential daylight and thermal performance of adjacent spaces, so it needs to be closely checked using the standardised methods, in order to be suitable for use. Additionally, as windows are exposed to the sky, daylighting systems can adapt windows to transmit or reflect daylight as a function of incident angle, for solar sharing, protection from glare and redirection of daylight. Overall, a key objective of sustaining a safe and eco-friendly building is to ensure that the space has proper heat and humidity aligning with a suitable degree of acoustic and visual comfort in order to sustain the health of the people using the building. Particularly within modern society, a combination of Building Physics principles and digitalised software, such as Building Information Modelling (BIM), can enhance the design process of a building to provide healthy environments for generations to come. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Titan Submersible REFERENCES Unsplash. A construction site with cranes [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://unsplash.com/photos/a-construction-site-with-cranes-mOA2DAtcd1w . Katunský D, Zozulák M. Building Physics . 2012. ISBN: 978-80-553-1261-3. Partel. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.partel.co.uk/resources/building-physics/#:~:text=According%20to%20WHO%20(World%20Health,%3A%20in%20contrast%2C%20allows%20productions . RPS Group. A day in the life of a senior building physics engineer [Internet]. [Accessed 4 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.rpsgroup.com/insights/consulting-uki/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-senior-building-physics-engineer/ . Cyprus International University. What is Building Physics and Building Physics Problems in General Terms [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: /mnt/data/What_Is_Building_Physics_and_Building_Ph.pdf. Centre for Alternative Technology. Airtightness and Ventilation [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://cat.org.uk/info-resources/free-information-service/eco-renovation/airtightness-and-ventilation/#:~:text=With%20good%20airtightness%2C%20effective%20ventilation,won't%20work%20as%20intended . KLH. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.klh.at/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/klh-building-physics-en.pdf . Watson JL. Climate and Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/98/1/Watson.pdf . Ruck N, Aschehoug Ø, Aydinli S, Christoffersen J, Edmonds I, Jakobiak R, et al. Daylight in Buildings - A source book on daylighting systems and components . 2000 Jun. Synergy Positioning Systems. How BIM Saves Time & Money for Construction Businesses [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://groupsynergy.com/synergy-positioning-news/how-bim-saves-time-money-for-construction-businesses . Project Gallery

'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Pangolins: from poached to protected Last updated: 27/03/25, 11:15 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China This is article no. 4 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: How Gorongosa National Park went from conflict to community . Previous article: Beavers are back in Britain Pangolins are a group of eight scaled mammal species from Asia and Africa. They are being poached mainly for their scales and meat, driving them to dangerously low numbers. Although commercial trade is banned for all species, pangolins are the most illegally trafficked animals in the world. One pangolin species has a fascinating story because of its appeal to traditional medicine and demand in a populated country. That species is the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla , and this article will describe its threats and conservation efforts. About pangolins in China Manis pentadactyla is the dominant pangolin species in China, living south of the Yangtze River ( Figure 1 ). The Sunda pangolin Manis javanica has a tiny habitat in southwest China ( Figure 1 ). Pangolins prefer natural forests, with an ambient temperature of 18-27°C and plenty of termites and ants to eat. Both Chinese species were classified as critically endangered in 2014, though accurately estimating pangolins' distribution and population size is complex. This is because they are nocturnal, solitary, and live underground. Pangolins also make no obvious sounds, or leave no apparent traces, for scientists to detect their presence. Despite these challenges, Chinese scientists are learning more about pangolin habitat to improve conservation strategies. Threats facing Chinese pangolins Chinese pangolins are critically endangered for various human-caused reasons ( Figure 2 ). The biggest reason is poaching because pangolin meat is a local delicacy, and its scales, bones, and blood are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Pangolin scales have recently been removed from the official list of ingredients for Chinese medicine, but that has not stopped hospitals from selling them. In a recent study, only a third of Chinese hospitals selling roasted pangolin scales had the required permit. Permits are also needed to sell or manufacture patented medicines containing pangolin scales, considered the gold standard for treating many conditions. Because these medicines and pangolin meat are so revered, one hunted pangolin sells for up to 90,000 yuan (≈£9800). This has incentivised the hunting and illegal trafficking of non-native pangolin species into China - where they could outcompete, or spread diseases to native species. Thus, illicit trade for traditional medicine threatens Chinese pangolins. Habitat destruction has made Chinese pangolins more vulnerable to poaching. Natural forests are being destroyed to grow crops, grow economic trees like rubber, or build human infrastructure. Farms or rubber plantations have fewer ants and termites than natural forests, so pangolins cannot survive there. As a result, in some parts of China, the pangolin geographical range halved in 30 years. With acres of this unsuitable habitat separating fragments of forest, pangolins may struggle to find mates, and inbreeding could be an issue. Thus, habitat loss is contributing to the decline of the Chinese pangolin. Conservation Conservation measures were taken in the last few decades in response to the pangolin population decline. In China, hunting pangolins was first restricted in 1987, and they were given legal protection in 1989. The Chinese government tightened this protection in 2020 after suggestions that pangolins were an intermediate species for SARS-CoV-2 to transmit from bats to humans. In addition to national restrictions, international authorities restricted pangolin trade, and the Chinese government ran public awareness campaigns about their endangered status ( Figure 3 ). Pangolins also have 100,000 squared kilometres of protected habitat in China, though this is only 9% of what models predict as a suitable pangolin habitat. Habitat protection and trade restrictions are essential to protect pangolins because captive breeding has either failed or acted as a front for illegal trafficking. Although Chinese pangolin conservation has come far in the last 40 years, more can be done. Conclusion Humans have driven Chinese pangolins to near extinction, mainly by hunting for traditional medicine ingredients and destroying native habitats. Conservation efforts have primarily involved legal and habitat protection, but pangolins are challenging to monitor and impossible to breed in captivity. Hopefully, public awareness and a clampdown on illegal trafficking will help to save this unique mammal species. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine iguanas / Galapagos tortoises REFERENCES Challender, D. et al. (2013) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Manis pentadactyla . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Available from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/en (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And Flora (2017) Appendices I, II and III valid from 4 October 2017 . Available from: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/app/2017/E-Appendices-2017-10-04.pdf . Mammoser, G. (20th February 2017) Chinese Police Go After ‘Pangolin Princess’ Who Proudly Eats Endangered Species. VICE . Available from: https://www.vice.com/en/article/chinese-police-go-after-pangolin-princess-who-proudly-eats-endangered-species/ (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Wang, Y., Turvey, S.T. & Leader-Williams, N. (2023) The scale of the problem: understanding the demand for medicinal pangolin products in China. Nature Conservation . 52: 47–61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.52.95916 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Xinhua News Agency (2015) Opinions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on Accelerating the Construction of Ecological Civilization . Beijing: The Central Government of the People’s Republic of China. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-05/05/content_2857363.htm (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Chen, Y., Tang, X., Xi, F., Cen, P., Pan, Z., Ye, W. & Wu, S. (2024) Predicting the distribution and characteristics of Chinese pangolin habitat in China: Implications for conservation. Global Ecology and Conservation . 51: e02907. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989424001112 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wang, W., Mahmood, A., Wu, S., Li, J. & Xu, N. (2021) Observations of Chinese pangolins ( Manis pentadactyla ) in mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 26: e01460. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100010X (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wu, S. & Cen, P. (2022) The past, present and future of the pangolin in Mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 33: e01995. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100545X (Accessed 19th October 2024). Project Gallery