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Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a growing concern for healthcare systems globally Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are we doing enough to fight anti-fungal resistance? 09/07/25, 10:54 Last updated: Published: 04/11/24, 15:29 Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a growing concern for healthcare systems globally Introduction to fungi Fungi are a fascinating yet relatively untouched area of microbiology. From growing in damp forest soil to the human body, these eukaryotes (surprisingly more closely related to animals than plants!) reproduce sexually and asexually, producing hyphae (long, branching filaments) to absorb nutrients. Even in the human body, fungal infections can range from athletes' foot to severe cases of invasive pneumonia. Despite its diverse and incredibly interesting nature, only 5% of all estimated fungal species worldwide have been discovered. There is a significant lack of knowledge regarding these amazing microorganisms. The challenge of antimicrobial resistance Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a growing concern for healthcare systems globally. AMR is the process by which microbes develop decreased sensitivity to antimicrobial drugs, meaning they can evade drug and immune response, creating the potential for superbugs (i.e. Multi-Drug Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus/MRSA). An increasing number of resistant fungal species are emerging, with more than 90% of Candida Auris strains in the US now fluconazole resistant. Microorganisms can confer resistance in various ways, such as the misuse of antimicrobial drugs and pesticides in healthcare and agriculture or random genetic evolution (secondary vs primary resistance). Biofilm formation can also contribute to this, particularly for those with inserted medical devices. This can be seen in Candidiasis, for example on inserted catheters, as can be seen in Figure 2 . AMR was thought to be responsible for 1.27 million deaths globally in 2019, with an 8% increase in resistant infections in the UK from 2021-22. Global efforts regarding resistance appear to focus on antibiotic resistance, much reflective of worldwide research efforts. This leaves us wondering, are we doing enough to fight antifungal resistance? Mechanisms of fungal resistance Fungal infections, although typically mild, often present most severely in the immunocompromised, particularly those with cancer or who have had recent organ transplants. Invasive infections are cleared using five classes of antifungal drugs: azoles, polyenes, allylamines, flucytosine, and echinocandins, the two most common being azoles and echinocandins. Azoles aim to inhibit ergosterol synthesis, which is crucial for cell membrane stability, whilst echinocandins interfere with beta-1,3-D-glucan synthesis (a major component of fungal cell walls). Fungi can come in two forms: mould fungi (multicellular units containing branching hyphae), and yeast fungi (unicellular with the ability to ferment carbohydrates). In yeasts, azoles target the Erg11 protein (or Cyp51A for mould fungi), which disrupts ergosterol synthesis and causes the build up of 14a-methyl sterols. In turn, this disrupts membrane activity. Azole resistance can develop through different pathways: changes in the Erg11 amino acid structure, changes in Erg11 expression, and alterations to drug efflux pathways. For Candida species, amino acid substitutions occurring at the Erg11 enzyme binding site often lead to azole resistance, whilst in Aspergillus fumigatus, changes occur at codons 54-220 in Cyp51A. Resistant Candida albicans can also overexpress Erg11, meaning a higher drug concentration is needed to combat infection. Some fungal species, such as Candida spp. confer azole resistance by utilising drug efflux systems, particularly the ABC transporter MDR1, where a gain of function mutation can lead to multidrug resistance. Loss of heterozygosity, for example, by aneuploidy, can lead to resistance if this occurs across Erg11 or MDR1 gene loci. Inhibition of the Hsp90 pathway (a component of the cellular stress response) can alleviate both azole and echinocandin resistance and regulate biofilm resistance. Hsp90 stabilises the terminal MAPK component, increasing cell wall integrity (most antifungal drugs target the fungal cell wall). Global nature of AMR Global schemes have emerged to combat AMR, with fungal efforts appearing to lag behind its bacterial equivalent; The WHO published its first priority bacterial pathogens list in 2017, which has been effectively used by pharmaceutical companies, researchers, and local health trusts to target bacterial species, asserting themselves as an increasing risk. WHO Fungal Priority lists didn’t emerge until 2022, which was the first global effort to establish fungal species of risk. The One Health approach, another global strategy, aims to combat AMR by emphasising collaboration between multiple sectors, increasing innovation and creating clear communication. Its main aims lay in identifying knowledge gaps, involving policymakers, creating networks and sharing data. In addition to global strategies, national ones exist. The UK government made its own five year AMR-combatting plan, implementing a OneHealth approach; Previous plans have proven successful; antimicrobial exposure was reduced by 8%, with a further 81% reduction in antibiotic sales for food-producing mammals. It is clear AMR (particularly fungal resistance) is becoming an increasingly worrying issue. In 2019, UK deaths directly arising from drug resistant infections nearly matched those from stomach cancer, with an estimated further 35,000 deaths indirectly resulting from resistant infections. Hence, measures must be in place to contain its potential for worldwide damage. Insufficient action against AMR was predicted to have long-lasting effects like the COVID-19 pandemic every five years. Since drug-resistant fungi have the potential to cause significant burden on healthcare systems globally, what is currently being done to combat Fungal AMR? What more can we do? Fungal infections are the fifth leading cause of death worldwide, yet less than 1.5% of infectious disease funding goes towards research of fungal infections. This could be because fungal infections present mildly in most healthy people. However, we cannot ignore the fatal consequences for those with pre-existing illnesses or the devastating effects that could ensue if we do not make significant efforts to eliminate fungal resistance. In its most recent five-year plan, the UK government stated its support for initiatives to increase agrochemical stewardship, particularly focussing on fungicides. The efforts outlined include establishing a pharmaceutical monitoring programme, funding research into AMR-driving chemicals, and a pilot AMR surveillance scheme. This is significant progress, however, it focuses on environmental fungal resistance, with a tendency to ignore research efforts and failing to actively address fungi in most sections. To move forward, more efforts are needed to drive antifungal research - whether in expanding the number of antifungal classes available to patients or improving existing antifungal therapies (e.g. improvements in pharmacokinetics and efficacy). This is evidenced by the sheer number of antibiotics and respective classes compared to fungal counterparts; bacterial infections can be treated with a whopping two-fold more drug classes than their fungal equivalent. Moreover, the OneHealth approach emphasises the importance of diagnostics and testing; whilst most modern fungal testing methods are very sensitive and specific, some tests can only report positive results very late into disease progression (read more about OneHealth ). Hence, fungal diagnostic and testing approaches need to be optimised. This all can be achieved by pushing more funding towards fungal research and development, encouraged with government spending, and an emphasis on collaboration between academia and industry. How can we relay the importance of stewardship in agriculture, or bring more treatments to the bedside without collaboration and education? Written by Eloise Nelson Related article: The increasing threat of anti-microbial resistance REFERENCES Gaya E., Fungarium: Welcome to the Museum, 2019. Kundu R, Srinivasan R. Cytopathology of Fungal Infections. Current Fungal Infection Reports. 2021;15(3):81-92. The Role of Plant Agricultural Practices on Development of Antimicrobial Resistant Fungi Affecting Human Health: Proceedings of a Workshop Series.: Hearing before the National academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (05.04.2023, 2023). Government U. Confronting antimicrobial resistance 2024 to 2029. In: Care DoHaS, editor. 2024. Fisher CM, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Berman J, Bicanic T, Bignell ME, Bowyer P, et al. Tackling the emerging threat of antifungal resistance to human health. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2022;20(9):557-71. Cowen EL, Sanglard D, Howard JS, Rogers DP, Perlin SD. Mechanisms of Antifungal Drug Resistance. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 2015;5(7):a019752. Fisher CM, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Berman J, Bicanic T, Bignell ME, Bowyer P, et al. Tackling the emerging threat of antifungal resistance to human health. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2022;20(9):557-71. WHO fungal priority pathogens list to guide research, development and public health action. WHO; 2022. Greener M. Why have we neglected fungal infections? Prescriber. 2022;33(8-9):20-3. Baker J, Denning WD. The SSS revolution in fungal diagnostics: speed, simplicity and sensitivity. British Medical Bulletin. 2023;147(1):62-78. Project Gallery

The endowment effect Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Behavioural Economics II 31/10/25, 12:46 Last updated: Published: 22/03/24, 19:51 The endowment effect This is article no. 2 in a series on behavioural economics. Next article: Loss aversion . Previous article: The role of honesty . In microeconomics, we say preferences are reversible. If you would pay £2 for a bar of chocolate, then you would be happy to sell a bar of chocolate for £2, especially if I gave it to you for free. Sounds reasonable? Well, in fact, this is not the case. Once again, consumers, just like you and me, are irrational, and thanks to what’s known as the endowment effect, classical economics falls flat once again. The endowment effect In an experiment conducted by Knetsch, participants were randomly allocated into three different categories. The first were given a coffee mug, the second were given some candy, and the third were given nothing. We say that the first two groups were endowed; they were given an item for free at no cost to them. Then the participants in the first two groups were given the option to either swap their item for either the mug or the candy or keep the item they were endowed with. The third group, treated as a control, was given the option to choose between the two and keep which they preferred the most. In the control group, we saw that about half of the participants chose the mug and half chose the candy. But in the endowed groups, an overwhelming majority decided to keep the item they were given rather than swapping! Therefore, as we can clearly see, when someone is endowed with an item, their perception of its utility (or benefit) seems to increase, so when given the opportunity to switch items, they often decline. Clearly, from an economic perspective, when endowed with an item, your utility curve for that item differs from when given the opportunity to choose. But why might that be the case? When you are endowed with an item, you own that item and, in a sense, hold responsibility over it. You become possessive, and this sense of ownership seems to have its own psychological value; therefore, the act of giving it up for something of equal worth is no longer treated as a fair trade-off. Whereas when not endowed, you have no sentiment value attached to the items, and for the most part, people are indifferent between them! A good example of this could be an old, run-down car. Buyers of this car see it for what it is—something that is barely functional. But owners of the car who have driven it for 20 years see it as more than that. There is an emotional attachment to the car that makes it more valuable in their eyes. Is the endowment effect always true? List conducted a similar experiment. A survey was undertaken by both unexperienced and experienced 'traders', and then after the survey, they were given trading cards as a reward. They were then given the opportunity to trade their cards if they wanted to. Non-experienced traders were subject to the endowment effect, so they kept the cards they worked hard for, but experienced traders knew that some cards may be more valuable, even if only slightly, which meant that they were able to overcome this effect. Additionally, what was found was that when participants were aware and went into the experiment knowing that there would be a trade, they had the intention to trade, which also managed to remove the endowment effect. In essence, the endowment effect serves as a reminder of the complexities inherent in human psychology and decision-making. There are many limitations in traditional economic models, which emphasises the need for behavioural economics and the inclusion of multidisciplinary thinking. To discover more about behavioural economics and in particular how honesty plays a big role in restructuring economic thinking, click here to read my prior article, and be sure to look out for more articles to come in the future! Written by George Chant Related articles: Explaining altruism / Mathematical models in cognitive decision-making References: Knetsch, Jack L. “The Endowment Effect and Evidence of Nonreversible Indifference Curves.” The American Economic Review 79, no. 5 (1989): 1277–84. John A. List, Does Market Experience Eliminate Market Anomalies?, The Quarterly Journal of Economics , Volume 118, Issue 1, February 2003, Pages 41–71,33 Project Gallery

When misfolded proteins lead to disease Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unfolding prion diseases and their inheritance 22/04/25, 14:11 Last updated: Published: 06/03/24, 11:32 When misfolded proteins lead to disease This is article no. 5 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Neuromyelitis optica . Previous article: Epitheliod hemangioendothelioma . Prion proteins are found abundantly in the brain; their function is unclear, but they are involved in a multitude of physiological mechanisms, including myelin homeostasis and the circadian rhythm. Correctly folded prion proteins in the cellular form are termed PrP C , while their infectious isoform is called PrP Sc . As shown in Figure 1, the misfolded PrP Sc is largely made up of β-pleated sheets instead of α-helices; PrP Sc is prone to forming aggregates that cause transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Prion diseases can be categorised by their aetiology: acquired, sporadic, and hereditary. Acquired prion diseases are caused by the inadvertent introduction of PrP Sc prions into an individual. Sporadic prion diseases are the most common type, where PrP C misfolds into PrP Sc for an unknown reason and propagates this misfolding within other prion proteins. Hereditary prion diseases are caused by genetic mutation of the human prion protein gene (PRNP), which causes misfolding into the infectious isoform. Consequently, these mutations can be passed to offspring, resulting in the same misfolding and disease. Interestingly, different types of PRNP mutations cause different types of prion diseases. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a type of TSE found in humans which causes mental deterioration and involuntary muscle movement; symptoms tend to worsen as the disease progresses, making it a degenerative disorder. Familial CJD (fCJD) is a rare type of hereditary prion disease and can sometimes result in a faster rate of disease progression compared to sporadic cases. Due to a dominant inheritance pattern, relatives of fCJD patients are often also affected by the disease. The most common mutation observed in familial CJD is an E200K mutation denoting the substitution of glutamic acid with lysine in the prion protein. Other common mutations resulting in fCJD include mutations at positions 178 and 210 on the prion protein. However, there are, less frequently, a multitude of other mutations correlated with familial CJD development. Familial CJD can be caused by STOP codon mutations, which result in a truncated protein, some of which show similar pathology to Alzheimer’s disease, such as Q16OX and Q227X. fCJD can also be caused by insertional mutations, possibly caused by unbalanced crossover and recombination. The prion protein consists of a nona-peptide (made up of nine amino acids) followed by four repeats of an octa-peptide (made up of eight amino acids). During insertion mutations, additional repeats of the octa-peptide are present in the prion protein. Interestingly, different numbers of inserts result in different pathological characteristics; patients with 1, 2 or 4 extra repeats show similarity to sporadic CJD, while those with 5-9 extra repeats show similarity to Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome. Hereditary prion diseases are important to study in order to develop an understanding of not only prion misfolding diseases but also diseases associated with misfolding of other proteins, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Understanding the mechanisms of hereditary prion diseases will aid the development of treatments for such conditions. In particular, observing and investigating particular genetic mutations observed to play a part in prion misfolding is crucial alongside using genetic information to infer the risk of disease an individual may have. Written by Isobel Cunningham Project Gallery

Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101 29/04/25, 16:10 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 11:32 Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Epilepsy is a condition that affects millions of people worldwide, often causing unprovoked seizures due to irregular brain activity. But what exactly happens in the brain when someone has epilepsy? It is important to establish that not everyone with seizures has epilepsy. While epilepsy can start at any age, it often begins in childhood, or in people over the age of 60. Epilepsy can be due to genetic factors - 1 in 3 people with epilepsy have family history- or brain damage from causes like stroke, infection, severe head injury or a brain tumour. However, around half of epilepsy cases have an unknown cause. Now, imagine your brain as a big city with lots of lights. Each light represents a part of your brain that controls things like movement, feelings, and thoughts. Epilepsy is like when the lights in the city start flickering or shut completely. There are three main types of epilepsy, and each affects the lights in different ways: 1) Generalized epilepsy: when all the lights in the city flicker or go out at once, affecting the whole brain. There are two main kinds: Generalized Motor (Grand Mal) Seizures: Imagine the lights in the city going wild, making everything shake. This is like the shaking or jerking movements during myoclonic or tonic-clonic seizures. Generalized Non-Motor (Absence) Seizures: Picture the lights suddenly pausing, making everything freeze. During these seizures, a person might stare into space or make small, repeated movements, like lip-smacking. 2) Focal epilepsy: when only the lights in one part of the city flicker or go out. This means only one part of the brain is affected: Focal Aware Seizures: The lights flicker, but people in that part of the city know what’s happening. The person stays aware during the seizure. Focal Impaired Awareness Seizures: The lights flicker, and people lose track of what’s going on. The person might not remember the seizure. Focal Motor Seizures: Some lights flicker, causing strange movements, like twitching, rubbing hands, or walking around. Focal Non-Motor Seizures: The lights stay on, but everything feels strange, like sudden change in mood or temperature. The person might feel odd sensations without moving in unusual ways. 3) ‘Unknown’ epilepsy: ‘Unknown’ epilepsy is like a power outage where no one knows where it happened because the person was alone or asleep during the seizure. Doctors might later figure out if it's more like generalized or focal epilepsy. Some people can even have both types. But how do doctors find out if someone has epilepsy? A range of tests could be used to look at the brain’s activity and structure, including: Electroencephalogram (EEG): detects abnormal electrical activities in the brain using electrodes. This procedure can be utilised in Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG), a more invasive method where the electrodes are placed directly on or within the brain to locate the abnormal electrical activities more precisely. Computerized Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): form images of the brain to detect abnormal brain structures such as brain scarring, tumours or damage that may cause seizures. Blood tests: test for genetic or metabolic disorders, or health conditions such as anaemia, infections or diabetes that can trigger seizures. Magnetoencephalogram (MEG): measures magnetic signals generated by nerve cells to identify the specific area where seizures are starting, to diagnose focal epilepsy. Positron emission tomography (PET): detects biochemical changes in the brain, detecting regions of the brain with lower-than-normal metabolism linked to seizures. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): identifies seizure focus by measuring changes in blood flow in the brain during or between seizures, using a tracer injected into the patient. The seizure focus in this scan is seen by an increase in blood flow to that region. So, how does epilepsy affect the brain? For most people, especially those with infrequent or primarily generalised seizures, cognitive issues are less likely compared to those with focal seizures, particularly in the temporal lobe. The following cognitive functions can be affected: Memory : seizures can disrupt the hippocampus in the temporal lobe, responsible for storing and receiving new information. This can lead to difficulties in remembering words, concepts, names and other information. Language : seizures can affect areas of the brain responsible for speaking, understanding and storing words, which can lead to difficulties in finding familiar words. Executive function: seizures can impact the frontal lobe of the brain which is responsible for planning, decision making and social behaviour, leading to challenges in interacting, organising thoughts and controlling unwanted behaviour. While epilepsy itself cannot be cured, treatments exist to control seizures including: Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDs): suppress the brain’s ability of sending abnormal electrical signals - effective in 70% of patients. Diet: ketogenic diets can reduce seizures in some medication- resistant epilepsies and in children as they alter the chemical activity in the brain. Surgery: 1) Resective Surgery: removal of the part of the brain causing the seizures, such as temporal lobe resection, mainly for focal epilepsy. 2) Disconnective Surgery: cutting the connections between the nerves through which the seizure signals travel in the brain, such as in corpus callosotomy, mainly for generalised epilepsy. 3) Neurostimulation device implantation (NDI): insertion of devices in the body to control seizures by stimulating brain regions to control the electrical impulses causing the seizures. This includes vagus nerve stimulation and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS). Even though epilepsy can be challenging, many people manage it successfully with the right treatment. Continued research offers hope for even better, long lasting treatments in the future. Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Different types of epilepsy seizures / Alzheimer's disease / Parkinson's disease / Autism REFERENCES D’Arrigo, T. (n.d.). What Are the Types of Epilepsy? [online] WebMD. Available at: https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/types-epilepsy [Accessed 5 Aug. 2024]. Epilepsy Foundation. (n.d.). Thinking and Memory. [online] Available at: https://www.epilepsy.com/complications-risks/thinking-and-memory [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. GOSH Hospital site. (n.d.). Invasive EEG monitoring. [online] Available at: https://www.gosh.nhs.uk/conditions-and-treatments/procedures-and- treatments/invasive-monitoring/ [Accessed 9 Aug. 2024]. My Epilepsy Team.com. (2016). Epilepsy: What People Don’t See (Infographic) | MyEpilepsyTeam. [online] Available at: https://www.myepilepsyteam.com/resources/epilepsy-what-people-dont-see- infographic [Accessed 29 Aug. 2024]. National institute of Neurological Disorders and stroke (2023). Epilepsy and Seizures | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. [online] www.ninds.nih.gov . Available at: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health- information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. NHS (2020). Epilepsy. [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/ [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. Project Gallery

In wound care Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The bright future of smart bandages 04/07/25, 12:57 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 16:30 In wound care Although wounds may seem miscellaneous to the naked eye, they can pose a great threat to the healthcare system, by overburdening health services through infections. Thus, it is essential to navigate wound care thoroughly to reduce burden and increase patient quality of life. Wounds can be caused by an array of different reasons and pose such a great threat because of the limited ways we’ve had to treat them which has resulted in issues such as antibiotic resistance, allergic reactions and so on. In recent times to enable higher quality treatment, a new invention known as the “smart bandage” has been made which uses nothing but light-emitting diode (LED) at its disposal to promote wound healing! The smart bandage is wireless and uses ultraviolet C radiation light (UVC) to sterilise wounds and prevent the risk of infection. This in turn decreases the chances of nosocomial incidences as well as opening doors for disinfection other than antibiotics or chemical based methods. The smart bandage is embedded with light emitting diodes called LEDs which emit UVC wavelength around 265-285nm using a controller. The smart bandage operates by effectively manipulating UVC’s germicidal and antimicrobial properties. Researchers produced a coil which is inductive and flexible so that the technology would easily be inserted into conventional fabric bandages. Wireless power via magnetic resonance is used by the coil so that the UVC LED’s can be powered without batteries being used. A second coil wirelessly transmits power to the inductive coil via electrical mains so that the LED is continuously receiving power supply till the required bacteria in the wound are eradicated. Scientists tested this technology on pathogens like Pseudoalteromonas sp , which are bacteria associated with bloodstream infections, surgical areas as well as wounds. Once the bacteria were cultured and grown, UVC LEDs were exposed to the culture which in turn resulted in the decreased growth of bacterial cells and within six hours completed stopped their growth by causing DNA damage leading to apoptosis of the bacterial cells. Currently, many wound treatment protocols involve the use of antibiotics which over time can lead to antibiotic resistance, thus straining health services by increasing hospital stays. The use of UVC based bandages not only decreases the risk of these consequences but is also environmentally friendly due to its low operating cost and reusability. Figure 4 also demonstrates added advantages of this technology. Looking forward, the revolutionary ability of smart bandages is undeniable. Currently, there is ongoing research being conducted into integrating a monitoring device which also has the capacity to send live data to healthcare professionals regarding the wound being treated. However, the results from this study are still to be replicated and tested in clinical studies. Although these innovations exhibit much promise by providing more flexible and higher quality care for patients, it is still in its infancy. But, it cannot be left unstated that the power of LED’s is remarkable, not only in their ability to treat but also in being economically beneficial. Written by Irha Khalid Related article: Virtual reality in healthcare Project Gallery

A vital fluid Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Blood 20/03/25, 12:02 Last updated: Published: 07/09/23, 10:16 A vital fluid A comprehensive guide to the human blood system and alternatives Human blood Blood is a vital fluid for humans and vertebrates. It transports nutrients, including oxygen, to cells and tissues. Blood is made of different components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) contain haemoglobin, which gives blood its red colour. Haemoglobin helps to carry oxygen to the body from the lungs. White blood cells (also called leukocytes) defend the body against infections. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell, and the two types are T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. T lymphocytes target infected cells and regulate the function of other immune cells. B lymphocytes create antibodies, which are proteins that can destroy foreign substances like bacteria and viruses. Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are small cell fragments. They are essential in blood clotting, a process known as coagulation. They also help wounds heal and contribute to the immune response. Plasma is the liquid component in blood, made of water, ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes and gases. Its main role is transporting substances such as blood cells and other nutrients throughout the body. Artificial blood There are two main types of artificial blood: haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). HBOCs are synthetic solutions designed to carry oxygen. They are usually a smaller size than RBCs. The haemoglobin is modified and covered with carriers to ensure the HBOCs do not break down inside the body. They can be used for blood transfusions that need to be done immediately or when there is too much blood loss. PFCs are derived from fluorine-containing and carbon-containing chemicals. They have a high capacity for carrying and delivering oxygen. Advantages and disadvantages of artificial blood Artificial blood can be beneficial because it can be used for any patient who needs a blood transfusion, regardless of their blood type, if the substitute has the universal O blood group. There is also less chance of diseases being passed to patients using artificial blood. However, artificial blood has been shown to have adverse side effects, including high blood pressure and a higher chance of heart attacks. The future of artificial blood As of 2022, there have been experiments in the NHS with laboratory-grown RBCs in the RESTORE randomised controlled clinical trial. With further research, artificial blood can be refined and used more, especially when there is low blood availability for transfusions or for people with blood-related diseases. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Sideroblastic anaemia / Kawasaki disease Project Gallery

An extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you.  Discover Your Next Great Read Deep Dive into STEM Books Here you can explore an extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid or complement your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you. Our Curated Selections: Intern Blues by Robert Marion, M.D. The Emperor of All Maladies by Siddhartha Mukherjee

Pioneering progress in biomaterials, imaging and cancer therapeutics, and cancer-cell surfaces Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Women Leading the Charge in Biomedical Engineering 14/07/25, 15:19 Last updated: Published: 22/03/24, 18:21 Pioneering progress in biomaterials, imaging and cancer therapeutics, and cancer-cell surfaces In collaboration with Kameron's Lab for International Women's Month I was launched into the world of biomedical engineering by following my dreams. I met Dr. Ayanna Howard, an American roboticist and entrepreneur, and after hearing about my aspirations to become a surgeon but also loving robotics, she suggested the subject to me. Biomedical engineering is like a new dawn, seamlessly blending medicine, technology and engineering. It is a dawn that is illuminated by the brilliant dedication of the women who lead and innovate in the field. In a male-dominated industry like engineering, it is refreshing to see that the discipline of biomedical engineering constitutes of 40% women. This article celebrates the women who are redefining the boundaries of this interdisciplinary field. Changing lives with their discoveries, contributions and innovations. By sharing their stories, I aim to not only highlight the importance of diversity and representation in STEM but also to encourage more women to pursue their passions. Women leading biomedical innovation Speaking of women who are pioneering progress in biomedical engineering, this section highlights three of those women. Professor Elizabeth Tanner, Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam and Dr. Carcia Carson. Of course, this list is nowhere near exhaustive of the amazing contributions women have made to this field. I highly encourage you to learn more about the others who are forging a path for us all.... Professor Elizabeth Tanner, OBE, FREng, FRSE, PhD (Hon Caus), MA, DPhil, FIMMM, FIMechE, FIPEM, CEng, CSci Meeting Professor Tanner was like meeting a force to be reckoned with. In fact, I heard her name and about her contributions long before having the chance to meet her as a SEMS student ambassador. Professor Tanner is renowned for her work in biomaterials for bone and joint replacement. She is the Bonfield Professor of Biomedical Materials, Director of the Centre for Sustainable Engineering and the Director of the Institute of Bioengineering at Queen Mary University of London. Her significant contribution to developing HAPEX (hydroxyapatite polyethylene), the first of the bioactive composites used in patients, illustrates her commitment to blending scientific rigor with practical healthcare solutions. She left Queen Mary in 2007 to join the University of Glasgow where she started their Biomedical Engineering degree. This was the first in Scotland and she continued her research on bioactive composite materials there. Returning to Queen Mary in 2018, she has influenced countless students, including myself as my professor. She imparts not only knowledge in her lessons but also her passion. If you ever study biomedical engineering at Queen Mary, you can look forward to her engaging lecture on gait. Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam As a distinguished Professor of Biomedical Engineering and the Director of the Centre for Global Women’s Health Technologies, Dr. Ramanujam’s work represents meaningful innovation. Her work focuses on developing imaging and therapeutic tools for cancer, especially in women’s help. It is truly transforming the approach to cancer care and goes beyond the lab. She has made several global initiatives that aim to make a long lasting impact on health and education. One of the most well known is the Women Inspired Strategies for Health (WISH). Carcia Carson, PhD Dr. Carcia Carson is an inspiration for young black women in engineering. She hold the historic achievement of the first Black woman to earn a Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering at Vanderbilt University. Her success and journey exemplify the steps being made towards diversity and representation in STEM fields. She was introduced to medical physics through her studies at Fisk University. After her Ph.D, her professional research will center around developing translational research in cancer vaccines and personalised immunotherapy. Her research focuses on engineering cancer-cell surfaces with surface-conjugated nanomaterial drug carries to enhance immunogenicity of whole cell-based cancer vaccines. To break it down a bit, cell-surface conjugation permits co-localised delivery of both tumor antigens and immune-stimulatory adjuvants. She notes that while studying she ‘didn’t see anybody that looked like’ her. With this being the experience for many woman of colour in STEM, the need for representation and diversity remains imperative. The importance of representation With biomedical engineering progressing every day, the significance of representation cannot be overstated. Diversity in the field is not just about fairness and equity, it is about ensuring that the innovation includes people from a wide range of backgrounds. This way, problems are being solved for a multitude of cultures and needs, not just a cookie cutter solution. The 40% of women in biomedical engineering are more than a statistic, they are a testament to the rich and varied perspectives in this critical field. It is wonderful to see. Representation is profoundly important for several reasons, especially in healthcare. For example, the speculum has remained the same for over 150 years. This cold, uncomfortable device is used for the screening of cervical cancer. Until recently, it has remained untouched and led to women being put off the test entirely. In the UK, nearly 98% of cases are classed as preventable. Women bring valuable insights into women’s health issues through advocation, and creating inclusive healthcare solutions. A diverse workforce challenges the status quo and leads to novel approaches and thinking. Furthermore, the presence of women in leadership roles within biomedical engineering catalyses change and creates opportunities for the next generation. Young girls are more likely to pursue careers ins STEM if they see other women succeeding in them. This representation builds a pipeline of talent that is crucial for the sustained growth and evolution of biomedical engineering. The power of mentorship Outside of representation, the transformative power of mentorship is so important. Having a mentor is like the difference between navigating in the dark and having someone hold your hand with a comforting light. This mentorship can take a variety of forms: formal mentorship programs (sometimes provided by a university), organic relationships with friends and family and even virtually. A pivotal moment in my career was meeting my mentor, Dr. Carika Weldon. She was the first black Bermudian woman I met who was doing genetic research. But not only doing it, she was coming back home to share her success and giving back to the community. Conclusion Women’s invaluable contributions to biomedical engineering have made it clear that their involvement has been nothing short of transformative. Professor Elizabeth Tanner, Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam and Dr. Carcia Carson have had inspiring journeys of not only professional success but also in moving the field towards more diversity and inclusion. From launching the first biomedical engineering course in Scotland, to being the first black woman to hold a Ph.D in the field. These inspiring women serve as role models to us all. It is inspiring stories like theirs that we need as students with a passion for STEM. But many students find themselves unable to find mentors or someone in the STEM community to speak with. To learn from and to be inspired by. This is the reason that I launched my podcast, Kameron’s Lab| Dive In. I hope that it will be a platform for students to learn from the experts in the fields they aspire to be a part of. I remember only meeting a successful black woman in genetics when I was 16 years old. Students deserve to see people like them who are successful in the fields they love. My podcast aims to introduce them early by creating a library of professionals. Or as I like to call them, the Jedi Masters of STEM. Going back to the amazing women in biomedical engineering, their increasing presence is a sign of progress. But of course, more work needs to be done. We need to make sure that women not only enter this field, and other engineering fields, but also thrive and ascend to leadership positions. Only in these roles can they make the most significant change and shape the future of healthcare and technology. This narrative serves as not only a celebration of achievements, but also a call to action. To all aspiring female engineers, and scientists, it’s a showcase of possibilities and encouragement. To educators and industry leaders, it’s a reminder of the importance and benefits of a diverse workforce. As we continue to celebrate and support the achievements of women in this field, we are also moving closer to a future where the potential of every individual can be nurtured and realized for the benefit of all. Written by Kameron Young -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Kameron Young , Founder of Kameron's Lab, for this interesting article on the pioneering individuals in the field of biomedical engineering. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Follow @Kamerons_Lab on Instagram and @Kameron Young on Linkedin for more information. -- Check out the amazing work Kameron does and follow her social pages for latest content! -- Read more about the inspiring women mentioned in the article: Professor Elizabeth Dr. Nimmi Dr. Carcia -- Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics and in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research / The foremothers in gynaecology / Sisterhood in STEM REFERENCES Khan M. The success of women in Biomedical Engineering [Internet]. MedTech Foundation. 2023. Available from: https://www.medtechfoundation.org/post/the- success-of-women-in-biomedical-engineering Prof Elizabeth Tanner [Internet]. QMUL School of Engineering and Materials Science. Available from: https://www.sems.qmul.ac.uk/staff/k.e.tanner Young Lady bags PhD in Biomedical Engineering, sets record as the first-ever black person to achieve it in US university | Scholarship Region [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://www.scholarshipregion.com/young-lady-bags-phd-in-biomedical-engineering-sets-record-as-the-first-ever-black-person-to-achieve-it-in-us-university/ Carcia Carson [Internet]. Fisk-Vanderbilt Master’s-to-PhD Bridge Program. Available from: https://www.fisk-vanderbilt-bridge.org/carcia-carson How enduring use of 150-year-old speculum puts women off smear tests [Internet]. The Independent. 2022. Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/life- style/women/speculum-use-smear-tests-pain-sexism-b2105111.html Project Gallery

Uncovering the truth behind the origins of the virus Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Origins of COVID-19 10/07/25, 10:27 Last updated: Published: 08/10/23, 16:07 Uncovering the truth behind the origins of the virus The quest for the crime of the century begins now! Suspicion of the Wuhan Institute of Virology Since the early epidemic reports in Wuhan, the origin of COVID-19 has been a matter of contention. Was SARS-CoV-2 the outcome of spontaneous transmission from animals to humans or scientific experimentation? Although most of the recorded initial cases occurred near a seafood market, Western Intelligence Agencies knew that the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV) was situated nine miles to the south. Researchers at the biosafety centre combed Yunnan caves for bats harbouring SARS-like viruses. They have been extracting genetic material from their saliva, urine, and faeces. Additionally, bat coronavirus RaTG13 (BatCoV RaTG13) shared 96% of its genome with SARS-CoV-2. Suspicion increased when it was discovered that WIV researchers dealt with chimeric versions of SARS-like viruses capable of infecting human cells. However, similar "gain-of-function" studies in Western biosecurity institutions have shown that such slow virulence increases may occur naturally. The coincidence that the pandemic began in the same city as the WIV outbreak was too obvious to ignore. According to two Chinese specialists , "the likelihood of bats flying to the market was quite remote". Chan and Ridley's "Quest for the Origin of COVID-19" Chan and Ridley have created a viral whodunit titled "Quest for the origin of COVID-19" to excite the curiosity of armchair detectives and scientific sceptics. Both need clarification as to why a virus of unknown origin was detected in Wuhan and not in Yunnan, 900 kilometres to the south. The stakes could not be more significant; if the virus were deliberately developed and spread by a Chinese laboratory, it would be the crime of the century. They are prudent in not going that far. They are, however, within their rights to cast doubt on the findings since their concerns were shared by numerous coronavirus experts who openly discounted the possibility of a non-natural origin and declared that the virus displayed no evidence of design at the time. Is this the impartial and fair probe the world has been waiting for? They present no evidence for the development of SARS-CoV-2. For example, Chan asserts that it seemed pre-adapted to human transmission " to an extent comparable to the late SARS-CoV-2 outbreak ". This statement is based on a single spike protein mutation that appears to "substantially enhance" its potential to connect to human receptor cells, meaning it had "apparently stabilised genetically" when identified in Wuhan. Nonetheless, this is a staggeringly misleading statement. As seen by the alphabet soup of mutations, the coronavirus has undergone multiple alterations that have consistently increased its suitability. Additionally, viruses isolated from pangolins attach to human receptor cells more efficiently than SARS-CoV-2, indicating the possibility of additional adaptation. According to two virologists, although the SARS-CoV-2 virus was not wholly adapted to humans, it was "merely enough". Evidence for design of SARS-CoV-2 and possible natural origins of the virus Another concerning feature of SARS-CoV-2 is a furin cleavage site, which enables it to infect human cells by interfering with the receptor protein. The identical sequence is present in highly pathogenic influenza viruses and was previously utilised to modify the spike protein of COVID-19. Chan and Ridley explain that this is the kind of insertion that would occur in a laboratory-modified bat virus. As a result, 21 leading experts have concluded that the furin sequence is insufficient. Coronaviruses have been shown to possess " near identical " genomes that often can infect humans and animals. Because the furin cleavage site characteristic is not seen in known bat coronaviruses, it is possible that it evolved naturally. Surprisingly, Chan and Ridley do not suggest that the SARS virus's high human infectivity feature was inserted on purpose since "there is no way to determine". There is also no way to determine if a RaTG13 is the pandemic virus's progenitor since history is replete with pandemics that began with zoonotic jumps. This argument is based on the strange fact that WIV researchers retrieved the bat isolate in 2013 from a decommissioned mine shaft in Yunnan. Six people were removing bat guano from the cave that year when they suffered an unexplained respiratory ailment. As a consequence, half of them perished. The 4% genetic diversity between RaTG13 and SARS-CoV-2, on the other hand, is similar to 40 years of evolutionary change. While exploring caves in northern Laos, researchers discovered three more closely related bat coronaviruses, which have a higher affinity to attach to human cells than the early SARS-CoV-2 strains. This indicates an organic origin, either through another animal host or directly from a bat, maybe when a farmer went into a cave. This is arguably the most reasonable explanation since it is consistent with forensic and epidemiological data. The food sample isolates collected from the Wuhan seafood market are similar to human isolates, and the majority of original human cases had a history of market exposure, in contrast to the absence of an epidemiological connection to the WIV or any other Wuhan research institution. Lack of evidence for a laboratory origin If scientists could demonstrate prior infection at the Wuhan market or other Chinese wildlife markets that sell the most likely intermediary species, including pangolins, civet cats, and raccoon dogs, the case for a natural origin would be strengthened. Although multiple animals tested positive for sister human viruses during the SARS epidemic, scientists have yet to find evidence of earlier infections in animals in the instance of Sars-CoV-2. Nonetheless, the absence of evidence does not confirm the absence and may indicate that samples were not taken from the appropriate animal. The same may be said of the lab leak argument's lack of evidence. However, even though history is littered with pandemics, no significant pandemic has ever been traced back to a laboratory. In other words, the null hypothesis is a zoonotic occurrence; Chan and Ridley must demonstrate otherwise. The irony is their drive to construct a compelling case for a laboratory accident. They are oblivious to the much more pressing story of how the commerce in wild animals, global warming, and habitat degradation increase the likelihood of pandemic viral development. This is the most plausible origin story that should concern us. Summary Although Chan and Ridley's "Quest for the Origin of COVID-19" has cast suspicion on the Wuhan Institute of Virology, there is still insufficient evidence to support the lab leak theory. There is, however, growing evidence for a natural origin of SARS-CoV-2, with multiple animals testing positive for sister human viruses during the SARS epidemic and the discovery of more closely related bat coronaviruses in northern Laos. As such, we should be more concerned with the increasing likelihood of pandemic viral development due to the commerce in wild animals, global warming, and habitat degradation. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Project Gallery

The slippery property of a superfluid is caused by its ability to flow very easily Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The incredibly slippery nature of superfluids 03/04/25, 10:33 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 08:53 The slippery property of a superfluid is caused by its ability to flow very easily Slipperiness is a property that we often associate with everyday objects like ice, soap, and banana peels. However, there is a substance that is even more slippery than these: superfluids. A normal liquid becomes a superfluid when it is cooled down below a certain temperature. This temperature is unique to all fluids, for example for helium it is 2.17 K. Below this temperature, the superfluid will behave in completely unique ways. For example, if a container of water at room temperature was spun, you’d expect the water to also spin around, creating a whirlpool. Whereas a superfluid in a spinning container doesn’t spin at all, until it reaches a certain speed! The slippery property of a superfluid is caused by its ability to flow very easily. Usually it’s safe to leave a glass of water on a countertop (unless of course you’ve got a particularly excitable dog), but if you were to leave a glass of superfluid on a table, the liquid would creep out and escape. The tiny changes in temperature or pressure in the container cause it to flow, seemingly defying gravity. Unfortunately, superfluids cannot just be bought in the local supermarket! To produce a superfluid, devices known as cryostats can be used to cool a substance down to low temperatures. Using the ideal gas model, pressure, and volume can be related, so by reducing the pressure, the temperature of the device can also be decreased. The pressure is reduced using a vacuum pump, which works by removing particles from the cryostat. The applications of superfluids are limited as, due to the typically very low temperatures needed for a normal fluid to transition to a superfluid, there is difficulty in producing superfluids. Currently, scientists are working on finding fluids that enter a stable superfluid state at room temperatures. However, superfluids are used within many fields of physics to explain certain phenomena. One theory is that the core of collapsed large stars (neutron stars) is a superfluid, despite the very hot temperatures. The idea is that below a certain temperature, it uses less energy for the core to behave like a superfluid which cools the star down at an increased rate. The superfluid theory of neutron stars is just a hypothesis, however hints at the role superfluids play in all areas of physics. Written by Madeleine Hales REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING: https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200601/history.cfm#:~:text=In%201927%20Willem%20Keesom%20and,helium%20I%20and%20helium%20II . https://physicsworld.com/a/neutron-star-has-superfluid-core/ Project Gallery