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Key facts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Apocrine carcinoma: a rare form of breast cancer 22/04/25, 14:13 Last updated: Published: 05/09/24, 10:20 Key facts This is article no. 7 in a series on Rare Diseases. Next article: Pseudo-Angelman Syndrome . Previous article: Neuromyelitis optica . Apocrine carcinoma (AC) is a rare form of breast cancer, accounting for approximately 1-4% of all breast cancer cases worldwide. It affects a wide range of patients from 19 to 92 years of age, with the reported mean age varying from 53 to 62 years. AC of the skin - primary cutaneous apocrine carcinoma - is the only other known cancer that arises from apocrine cells. This is a very rare cancer with limited research. AC is commonly classified into two subtypes: triple-negative AC (TNAC) and HER2+ AC. Another receptor not included in the ‘triple negative’ name is the androgen receptor (AR). A ‘pure’ apocrine carcinoma is ER-negative, PR-negative, but AR-positive. Among triple negative ACs, ones that are AR-positive have a better prognosis. AC is often associated with triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC), meaning that it does not express oestrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR), and produces very little to no HER2– all of which play key roles in the reproductive system. AC arises from apocrine metaplastic cells that are commonly located in the lobules of the breast. This disease can be aggressive and can metastasise to the lymph nodes and distant organs (eg. lungs, liver, and bone). What makes AC different is the appearance of cells which have abundant granular eosinophilic or cytoplasm with fine empty vacuoles. Despite its rarity, focal apocrine differentiation is relatively common (reported in approximately 60% of not otherwise specified [NOS] invasive ductal carcinoma) and shows clinical presentation and radiographic findings similar to that of invasive ductal carcinoma NOS. TNBCs are generally aggressive and present a poor prognosis. However, studies show apocrine breast cancer to have a better prognosis and low proliferative nature, despite its poor response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Treatment of AC may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or targeted therapy. The problem with TNACs is that therapies targeting the hormone receptors are ineffective. Conversely, targeted therapy is seen to work relatively well with HER2-positive ACs despite them being more aggressive than TNACs. ACs can be diagnosed through a series of tests—usually a mammogram, ultrasound, biopsy, and finally immunohistochemistry. The latter makes it possible to know the status of the ERs and PRs. As with most breast cancers the earlier the detection and treatment implementation, the better the prognosis for the patient. ACs can be hard to diagnose due to its rarity and non-specific presentation. AC has a low proliferative nature, which is shown in its low Ki-67 index. Ki-67 has a higher presentation in cells that have a high division rate. Slower division rates result in slower growth rates of the tumour, and may imply that there is a better prognosis. This could be one of the reasons why apocrine triple-negative breast cancers have a better prognosis than other types of TNBCs. There is promise in the future for AC, however this is not without its challenges. Due to its rarity there are limited patients to participate in clinical trials which are essential in new treatment development. Written by Henrietta Owen & Sherine A Latheef Related article: Epitheliod hemangioendothelioma REFERENCES Apple, S.K., Bassett, L.W. and Poon, C.M. (2011) ‘Invasive ductal carcinomas’, Breast Imaging, pp. 423–482. doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-5199-2.00022-9. Bcrf (2024) Types of breast cancer: BCRF, Breast Cancer Research Foundation. Available at: https://www.bcrf.org/blog/types-of-breast-cancer/ (Accessed: 05 June 2024). Hu, T. et al. (2022) ‘Triple-negative apocrine breast carcinoma has better prognosis despite poor response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy’, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(6), p. 1607. doi:10.3390/jcm11061607. Suzuki, C., Yamada, A., Kawashima, K., Sasamoto, M., Fujiwara, Y., Adachi, S., Oshi, M., Wada, T., Yamamoto, S., Shimada, K., Ota, I., Narui, K., Sugae, S., Shimizu, D., Tanabe, M., Chishima, T., Ichikawa, Y., Ishikawa, T., & Endo, I. (2023). Clinicopathological Characteristics and Prognosis of Triple-Negative Apocrine Carcinoma: A Case-Control Study. World Journal of Oncology, 14(6), 551-557. Vranic, S., Feldman, R. and Gatalica, Z. (2017) ‘Apocrine carcinoma of the breast: A brief update on the molecular features and targetable biomarkers’, Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 17(1), pp. 9–11. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2016.1811 Xiao, X., Jin, S., Zhangyang, G., Xiao, S., Na, F. and Yue, J. (2022). Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes status, programmed death-ligand 1 expression, and clinicopathological features of 41 cases of pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast: a retrospective study based on clinical pathological analysis and different immune statuses. Gland Surgery, 11(6), pp.1037–1046. doi:https://doi.org/10.21037/gs-22-248. Project Gallery

In today's fast-paced and often overwhelming world, taking care of our mental well-being is more crucial than ever. In this article, we will explore practical strategies that can easily be incorporated into our day-to-day lives, allowing us to establish a solid foundation for our mental well-being and sustain it in the long run. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Empowering your mental health journey with practical strategies Last updated: 22/05/25 Published: 18/05/23 In today's fast-paced and often overwhelming world, taking care of our mental well-being is more crucial than ever. In this article, we will explore practical strategies that can easily be incorporated into our day-to-day lives, allowing us to establish a solid foundation for our mental well-being and sustain it in the long run. 1. Embracing mindfulness Mindfulness is a powerful practice that helps us stay present, cultivate awareness, and manage stress. Imagine starting your day by dedicating a few minutes to mindful breathing or meditation, allowing yourself to set a calm and focused tone for the day. Engage in activities with a mindful mindset, whether it's taking a peaceful walk in nature, relishing a cup of tea, or fully immersing yourself in the present moment. 2. Exercise Physical activity is another essential self-care strategy that not only benefits our physical health but also plays a profound role in nurturing our mental well-being. Find an exercise routine that that brings you joy and that easily fits into your life. Whether it's walking, jogging, yoga, or any other form of movement that resonates with you, the key is to find something you enjoy and can stick to. Even small bursts of exercise throughout the day, like a short walk during your lunch break or opting for the stairs instead of the elevator, can make a significant difference in your overall well-being. 3. Sleep Hygiene Adequate sleep is vital for mental and emotional wellbeing. Establishing good sleep hygiene is crucial. Maintain a consistent sleep schedule by going to bed and waking up at the same time each day. Create a relaxing bedtime routine that signals to your body that it's time to unwind. Consider reading a book, taking a warm bath, or practicing gentle stretches to prepare your mind and body for restful sleep. Ensure your bedroom provides an optimal sleep environment by keeping it dark, quiet, and cool, and minimize exposure to screens before bed. 4. Online mental health platforms In our digital age, online mental health platforms have become invaluable resources for supporting our mental well-being. Platforms like Headspace , Better Help , and Calm offer a range of services, including meditation exercises, therapy sessions with licensed professionals, and stress reduction tools. Exploring these platforms can provide the support and guidance needed on your mental health journey. Self-care apps that can be installed on phones Prioritising self-care is essential for maintaining good mental health. By incorporating these practices into your daily routine, you can nurture your mind, body, and soul. By investing time and energy into yourself, you are fostering a stronger foundation for a happier and healthier life. Written by Viviana Greco Related articles: Physical and mental health / Imposter syndrome in STEM / Mental health in the South Asian community

How chemistry ensures nuclear safety standards Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Silent Protectors 04/07/25, 12:58 Last updated: Published: 30/01/24, 20:12 How chemistry ensures nuclear safety standards Nuclear safety is vital in ensuring the correct procedures and policies are in place whilst handling radioactive waste/ materials. This article will go into the crucial role that chemistry plays in upholding and enhancing nuclear safety standards, highlighting its multifaceted contributions to the protection of both people and the environment. Chemical Analysis in Radioactive Material Detection The use of many analytical tools in chemistry allows us to detect radioactive material and quantify these materials. The most popular techniques used are chromatography, spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy in chemically identifying these materials. We can use these techniques to early identify any hazardous implications of the materials and in warning symbols. Radiation Dosimetry and Health Protection Dosimetry is the scientific radiation dose determined by calculations and multiple measurements. The different techniques used to make these values are different types of chemical dosimeters are used such as solid, aqueous, and gases but the most important among all are aqueous dosimeters. Beyond this, it contributes to the creation of protective materials and gear, safeguarding the health of workers in nuclear environments. These advancements exemplify safety on a personal level. Chemical Processes in Nuclear Fuel Cycles Chemistry ensures the sustainable use of nuclear energy, maximises fuel efficiency, and reduces nuclear waste. The future of nuclear power could be cleaner and more efficient with the help of innovations in this field. The main stages are uranium mining and processing, enrichment of uranium, nuclear reactor fuel fabrication and innovations in fuel cycle chemistry. Understanding and optimising these chemical processes within the nuclear fuel cycle is paramount for ensuring the sustainability, safety, and efficiency of nuclear energy production. Chemistry continues to be a driving force in advancing these processes, contributing to the responsible harnessing of the atom for the benefit of society. Regulatory Compliance and Standards International and national standards for nuclear safety are underpinned by chemical principles. Chemistry not only ensures compliance with these standards but also drives initiatives to exceed regulatory requirements, setting new benchmarks for safety in the nuclear industry. The government website has a document full of policies in place to ensure all standards are met universally. In conclusion, the silent protectors remain vigilant, their contributions often unseen but undeniably crucial. Chemistry's enduring commitment to nuclear safety ensures that as we unlock the vast potential of nuclear energy, we do so with a profound sense of responsibility, guided by the silent but unwavering hand of chemical expertise. In this symbiotic relationship, chemistry and nuclear energy coalesce to forge a path towards a safer, cleaner, and more sustainable future. Written by Anam Ahmed Related articles: Nuclear fusion / Nuclear medicine / Advances in mass spectrometry Project Gallery

Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An introduction to epigenetics 09/07/25, 10:47 Last updated: Published: 04/10/23, 17:01 Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment In recent times, a new area of genetics termed epigenetics has emerged. It seeks to uncover the relationship between our genes and environment. At the core of this novel field is the principle that gene expression can be altered without modifications to the DNA sequence itself. Epigenetic changes to DNA involve the addition of methyl or acetyl groups. Methyl groups decrease gene expression by making DNA more tightly bound around histones, forming heterochromatin, whereas acetyl groups do the opposite; they increase gene expression by loosening histone-bound DNA, forming euchromatin. The addition of these chemical groups to DNA is mediated by enzymes that act on signals our bodies receive from our environment such as diet, stressors, and exercise. Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation have gained notoriety in the scientific community as it is suggested that these changes can be passed down to future generations through germline cells. This means that our grandparents’ diets can influence whether we develop diabetes or not. This neo-Lamarckian concept of evolution challenges the current Darwinian understanding of evolutionary genetics where phenotypic traits are believed to emerge due to genetic mutations and natural selection. Understanding epigenetic modifications opens new doors for potential clinical therapies as by modifying harmful epigenetic changes, we may be able to treat various diseases. This field also highlights the importance of a healthy lifestyle, proper nutrition, and avoiding stressors like smoking and radiation, not only for us but for future generations as well. A noteworthy study on exercise A study conducted by Sailani et. al delves into the effects of lifelong exercise on DNA methylation patterns in genes related to metabolism, skeletal muscle properties, and myogenesis. They used two groups with different levels of physical activity. Individuals from one group reported being physically active by playing various sports and engaging in other forms of activity such as cycling, hiking, running, and swimming; the other group were reported to be physically inactive but healthy. The active group exhibited promoter hypomethylation in genes related to insulin sensitivity, muscle repair and development, and mitochondrial respiratory complexes. Compared to the inactive individuals, a significant increase in hypomethylation was seen in 714 promoters in the active group. Bearing in mind that the inactive group were healthy despite being inactive, this significant difference in methylation pattern is remarkable to see and hits home the gravity of epigenetic influence in our lives. As a result of hypomethylation, these genes would have a higher rate of expression in the active individuals. An example of one such gene is GYG2 which codes for the glycogenin 2 enzyme involved in glycogen synthesis. With enhanced glycogen synthesis we can expect to see improved physical performance and recovery in the active individuals. Along with improved skeletal muscle properties and metabolic profiles, we can assume that the active group will have a higher life expectancy and quality of life than the inactive group. As we can see, epigenetics holds a lot of promise for the future of genetic research. By understanding the extent to which epigenetic modifications affect our lives, we can take measures to encourage positive changes to our genomes for greater health, happiness, and vitality. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage Related articles: How epigenetic modifications give the queen bee her crown / Complex disease I- schizophrenia / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery

The rabies virus infects neurons Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Rabies- the scariest disease ever? 10/07/25, 10:31 Last updated: Published: 10/10/24, 11:05 The rabies virus infects neurons Rabies is a viral disease that primarily affects the central nervous system (CNS), usually in mammals. Wild animals such as foxes, dogs, and raccoons are frequent carriers of the virus. Transmission occurs through the saliva of an infected animal through a bite or a scratch, allowing the virus to enter the body and travel through the nervous system toward the brain. While rabies can be prevented with a vaccine, once symptoms begin to show, the disease is nearly always fatal once symptoms begin to show. What makes this virus so deadly, and how can it take control of the human body with just five genes in its genome? Why is the virus so hard to kill? To arrive at a sensible answer, we must first understand the ‘tropism’ of the virus – the cell type it likes to infect. Rabies virus infects the neurones (neurotropic), which creates a massive problem for the immune system. Macrophages and neutrophils, which are the prominent cells in killing foreign pathogens that kill foreign pathogens, usually deal collateral damage to the body’s own cells to some extent. This must be avoided with neurones, as neurones cannot replenish themselves after cell death. An inflammation of the nerve cells could lead to paralysis and seizures, compromising the CNS. As a result, the immune system response is significantly lowered around nerve cells to prevent accidental damage, which allows the virus to infect the neural pathway easily. Transmission of the virus See Figure 1 The strategy of the immune system is that the neurones can be protected if the pathogens are intercepted before they travel to their destination. However, this strategy ultimately fails when it comes to rabies, because the transmission is through a bite, which can penetrate and cut through many layers of tissue, providing a direct access to nerve cells. If you were bitten on the leg, then the time it takes for the rabies virus to travel to your brain would be the time it takes for you to travel from Florida, USA to Sweden. This may seem like a long time, but the rabies virus has evolved a technique that is able to hijack the cellular transport system can trick your cells’ transport system to travel quickly through the nerves by binding to a protein called dynein . Dynein is a motor protein that move along the microtubules in cells, converting the chemical energy of ATP into mechanical work. Microtubules are polarized structures, with a plus end (typically towards the axon terminal in neurones) and a minus end (towards the cell body). Dynein moves toward the minus end, facilitating retrograde transport, meaning it moves materials from the periphery of the cell, such as the axon terminals, back toward the cell body. Dynein is transports chemicals inside cells via endocytosis and plays a vital role in the movement of eukaryotic flagella. Rabies has evolved to stick to dynein via the Glycoprotein (G) present on its viral envelope, which allows rabies to travel to the brain much quicker. Dynein may be small, weighing around two megadaltons (3 x 10-18 grams), but it can move at a speed of 800 nanometres per second. At this speed, it takes rabies around 14 days to move up a metre- long neuron. This implies that the closer the animal bites you to the brain, the less time it takes for the symptoms to appear. If you’re bitten on the foot, it could take months for the virus to reach your brain. But if you’re bitten on the neck or face, the virus can get to your brain in just a few days, making it much more dangerous. This explains the broad range in the incubation time which is between 20 to 90 days. Infection and replication- see Figure 2 As the rabies travels through neuronal tracks, it sets up points of concentrated viral production centres called Negri bodies. These replicate the rabies virus within the neurones and inhibit interferon action, which are chemicals that alert white blood cells to the area of infection. Interferon inhibition along with lowered immune response to neurones make rabies extremely effective. However, neurones can undergo apoptosis—controlled cell death—to limit the spread of the virus and allow macrophages to clear the debris. Research in mice suggests that some strains of rabies may prevent this apoptotic response in cells. Additionally, studies indicate that rabies promotes apoptosis in killer T cells, which are responsible for inducing apoptosis in other cells. This mechanism helps to shield nerve cells from immune system attacks. Symptoms Patients with rabies initially experience flu-like symptoms and muscle pain. Once these early symptoms appear, treatment is virtually impossible. As the disease progresses, neurological symptoms develop including hydrophobia due to painful throat spasms when swallowing liquids. About 10 days after these neurological symptoms start, patients enter a coma, often accompanied by prolonged sleep apnoea. As virus attacks the brain throughout this stage, patients develop the urge to bite other organisms to transmit the virus. The virus can reach the salivary glands, allowing for transmission through a bite to occur again. Most patients typically die within three days of reaching this coma stage. Legends Rabies may have influenced the development of vampire and zombie myths due to its distinct symptoms. The disease causes aggression and sensitivity to light, which could have inspired some characteristics of vampires, such as their aversion to light and erratic movements. Additionally, rabies leads to excessive salivation and a tendency to bite, traits that align with vampire lore. Similarly, the delirium and motor dysfunction seen in rabies may have contributed to the depiction of zombies as shuffling, incoherent beings. Conclusion Rabies is a uniquely deadly virus due to its mechanism of hijacking the nervous system. After entering the body, the virus binds to dynein, using it to travel along neuronal pathways toward the brain. It replicates rapidly, forming Negri bodies disrupting neurone function. The virus effectively suppresses immune responses, making it nearly impossible to treat once symptoms appear, leading to almost 100% fatality. Beyond its biological impact, rabies has influenced cultural stories like those of vampires and zombies, with its symptoms—such as aggression, fear of water, and neurological decay—providing eerie parallels to these myths. Despite modern medical advances, rabies remains one of the most feared infectious diseases due to its fatal nature. Written by Baraytuk Aydin Related articles: Rare zoonotic diseases / rAAV gene therapy REFERENCES CUSABIO (2020) Rabies virus overview: Structure, transmission, pathogenesis, symptoms, etc, CUSABIO. Available at: https://www.cusabio.com/infectious-diseases/rabies-virus.html (Accessed: 12 September 2024). Hendricks, A.G. et al. (2012) Dynein tethers and stabilizes dynamic microtubule plus ends, Current biology : CB. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3347920/ (Accessed: 13 September 2024). Lahaye, X. et al. (2009) Functional Characterization of Negri Bodies (NBS) in rabies virus-infected cells: Evidence that NBS are sites of viral transcription and replication, Journal of virology. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2715764/ (Accessed: 13 September 2024). Tarantola, A. (2017) Four thousand years of concepts relating to rabies in animals and humans, its prevention and its cure , MDPI . Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2414-6366/2/2/5 (Accessed: 15 September 2024). Project Gallery

The role of CRISPR-Cas9 technology Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Reaching new horizons in Alzheimer's research 10/07/25, 10:34 Last updated: Published: 12/10/23, 10:50 The role of CRISPR-Cas9 technology The complexity of Alzheimer’s Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a formidable foe, marked by its relentless progression and the absence of a definitive cure. As the leading cause of dementia, its prevalence is expected to triple by 2050. Traditional therapies mainly focus on managing symptoms; however, advances in genetics research, specifically CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology, offer newfound hope for understanding and treating this debilitating condition. The disease is characterized by progressive deterioration of cognitive function, with memory loss being its hallmark symptom. Primarily affecting individuals aged 65 and over, age is the most significant risk factor. Although this precise cause remains elusive, scientists believe that a combination of genetic, lifestyle and environmental factors contributes to its development. CRISPR’s role in Alzheimer’s research After the discovery of using CRISPR-Cas9 for gene editing, this technology is receiving interest for its potential ability to manipulate genes contributing to Alzheimer’s. Researchers from the University of Tokyo used a screening technique involving CRISPR-Cas9 to identify calcium, proteins, and integrin-binding protein 1, which is involved in the formation of AD. Furthermore, Canadian researchers have edited genes in brain cells to prevent Alzheimer’s using CRISPR. The team identified a genetic variant called A673T, found to decrease Alzheimer’s likelihood by a factor of four and reduce Alzheimer’s biomarker beta-amyloid (Aβ). Using CRISPR in petri dish studies, they managed to activate this A673T variant in lab-grown brain cells. However, the reliability and validity of this finding are yet to be confirmed by replication in animal studies. One final example of CRISPR application is targeting the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene. The Swedish mutation in the APP gene is associated with dominantly inherited AD. Scientists were able to specifically target and disrupt the mutant allele of this gene using CRISPR, which decreased pathogenic Aβ peptide. Degenerating neurons are surrounded by Aβ fibrils, the production of Αβ in the brain initiates a series of events which cause the clinical syndrome of dementia. The results of this study were replicated both ex vivo and in vivo and demonstrated this could be a potential treatment strategy in the future. The road ahead While CRISPR technology’s potential in Alzheimer’s research is promising, its therapeutic application is still in its Infancy. Nevertheless, with the aid of cutting-edge tools like CRISPR, deepening our understanding of AD, we are on the cusp of breakthroughs that could transform the landscape of Alzheimer’s disease treatment. Written by Maya El Toukhy Related articles: Alzheimer's disease (an overview) / Hallmarks of Alzheimer's / Sleep and memory loss Project Gallery

Laser Interferometric Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The physics of the world’s largest gravitational-wave observatory: LIGO 23/10/25, 10:23 Last updated: Published: 11/05/24, 11:16 Laser Interferometric Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) Since the confirmation of detection, talk of gravitational waves has drastically increased in the public forum. In February 2016, the Laser Interferometric Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) Collaboration announced that they had sensed gravitational waves, or ripples in spacetime, caused by the collision of two black holes approximately 1.3 billion light years away. Such an amazing feat quickly became globalized news with many asking how it could be physically possible to detect an event occurring at an unimaginable distance? For some, the entire situation feels incomprehensible. Although named an observatory, LIGO looks quite different from observatories such as the late Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, the Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico, or the Lowell Observatory in Arizona. Instead of being related to the traditional telescope concept, LIGO is comprised of two interferometers, one in Hanford, Washington and the other in Livingston, Louisiana, that use lasers to detect vibrations in the fabric of spacetime. An interferometer is an L-shaped apparatus with mirrors at the end of each arm specifically positioned to split the incoming light waves, specifically in this case laser waves, into an interference pattern. This pattern is then detected by a device called a photodetector, which converts the pattern into carefully recorded data. When an incredibly violent event occurs, two black holes colliding, for instance, that action results in a massive release of energy that ripples across the fabric of spacetime. The energy from the event vibrates the laser light causing a change in the recorded light pattern. This change is also recorded by the photodetector and stored as data, which scientists can collect to analyze as needed. Because the LIGO detector is so sensitive, there are a number of systems in place to maintain its functionality and reliability. The apparatus is comprised of four main systems: 1) seismic isolation that focuses on removing non-gravitational-wave detections (also called ‘noise’) 2) optics that regulate the laser 3) a vacuum system preserving the continuity of the laser by removing dust from the components 4) computing infrastructure that manages the collected scientific data. The collaboration of these systems helps to minimize the number of false detections. False detections are also kept at a minimum with the effective communication between the Washington and Louisiana LIGO sites. It took months for the official announcement of the 2015 gravitational-wave detection because both locations had to compare data to ensure that the detection of one apparatus was also accurately detected by the other apparatus. Because of human activity on Earth, there can be a number of vibrations similar to gravitational-wave ripples, but ultimately are shown to be terrestrial events rather than celestial ones. So, while LIGO physics itself is fairly straightforward, the interpretation of the gathered data tends to be tricky. Written by Amber Elinsky Related articles: the DESI instrument / the JWST / The physics behind cumulus clouds / Light Project Gallery

Role and function in the body Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Vitamins 14/07/25, 15:11 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 12:59 Role and function in the body Vitamins are organic compounds which are not snythesised by organisms. They play a vital role in optimal health to allow for normal cell function, growth and development. There are thirteen essential vitamins: ● Vitamin A - important for eyesight and also strengthens immune systems. ● Vitamin C - important for the health of the immune system and helps produce collagen and helps with wound healing. ● Vitamin D - important for bone health and maintaining immune system functionality. ● Vitamin E - is an antioxidant that helps prevent cell damage and has a preventative role in cancer. Makes red blood cells. ● Vitamin K - allows for blood to clot and plays a role in bone health. ● Vitamin B1 (thiamine) - used to keep muscle tissue and nerves healthy. ● Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) - important for body growth and red blood production. ● Vitamin B3 (niacin/ nicotinic acid) - important for digestion and the digestive system health. ● Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid/ pantothenate)- important for producing red blood cells and maintaining a healthy digestive system. ● Vitamin B6 (pyridoxin) - helps make brain chemicals and for normal brain function. ● Vitamin B7 (biotin) - needed for metabolism. ● Vitamin B9 (folate/ folic acid) - important for brain function and mental health. ● Vitamin B12 (cobolamine) - important for the nervous system and helps in production of DNA and RNA. They are mostly obtained from the foods we eat but some vitamins like K and biotin are produced by microorganisms in the intestine commonly known as ‘gut flora’. Vitamins are needed in very small quantities. They are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. They can also contain nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. Vitamin deficiencies Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamins in its food such as metabolic causes. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder e.g due to lifestyle choices like smoking, excess alcohol consumption or medication that interacts with vitamins. There can be times where one experiences deficiencies and thus it is important to acquire the necessary vitamins through foods, supplements or medication. Sources of vitamins There are many good food sources which provide your body with all the vitamins needed to work properly: ● Oily fish such as salmon, herring and mackerel ● Red meat ● Egg yolk ● Milk and yoghurt ● Cheese ● Nuts and seeds ● Plant-based oils such as olive and rapeseed ● Green leafy vegetables such as broccoli and spinach and a lot more…. This article does not provide any medical advice so please do seek advice from your doctor if you have any further queries. Further information can be found here . Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: Probiotics / Food at the molecular level / Rising food prices Project Gallery

And a hope for a more sustainable future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Green Chemistry 05/02/25, 16:33 Last updated: Published: 29/06/23, 10:33 And a hope for a more sustainable future Green Chemistry is a branch of chemistry that takes into consideration the design of synthetic reactions to minimise the generation of hazardous by-products, their impact on humans and the environment. Often reactions are designed to take place at low temperatures with short reaction times and increased yields. This is preferred as fewer materials are used and it is more energy efficient. When designing routes it is important to consider ‘How green is the process?’ in this way we are shifting focus to a more sustainable future where we are emitting fewer pollutants, using renewable feedstocks and energy sources with minimal waste. In 1998 Paul Anastas and John Warner devised the twelve principles of Green Chemistry. They serve as a framework for scientists to design innovative scientific solutions to existing and new synthetic routes. Scientists are looking into environmentally friendly reaction schemes which can simplify production as well as being able to use greener resources. It is impossible to fulfil all twelve principles at the same time but making attempts to apply as many principles as possible when designing a protocol is just as good. The twelve principles are: Prevention: waste should be prevented rather than treating waste after it has been created. Atom Economy: designing processes where you are maximising the incorporation of all materials so all reagents are in the final product. Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis : synthetic methods should be designed to be safe and the hazards of all the substances should be reviewed. Designing Safer Chemicals: designed to eliminate chemicals which are carcinogenic, neurotoxic, etc. essentially safe to the Earth. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries: using auxiliary substances and minimising usage of solvents to reduce waste created. Design for Energy Efficiency: designing synthetic methods where reactions can be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. Use of Renewable Feedstock: raw materials used for reactions should be renewable rather than depleting. Reduce Derivatives: reducing the steps required in a reaction by using catalysts/ enzymes and adding protecting or deprotecting groups or temporary modification of functionality. Extra steps require more reagents and generate a lot of waste. Catalysis: catalysts lower energy consumption and increase reaction rates. They allow for decreased use of harmful and toxic chemicals. Design for Degradation: chemical products should be designed so that they can break down and have no harmful effects on the environment. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention: analytical techniques required to allow monitoring of the formation of hazardous substances. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention: involves using safer chemical alternatives to prevent the occurrence of an accident e.g. fires; explosions. Some examples of areas where Green Chemistry is implemented: Computer Chips: the use of supercritical carbon dioxide as a step for the preparation of a chip. This has reduced the quantities of chemicals, water and energy required to produce chips. Medicine: developing more efficient ways of synthesising pharmaceuticals e.g. chemotherapy drug Taxol. Green Chemistry is widely being implemented in academic labs as a way to reduce the environmental impact and high costs. As of today and the future mainstream chemical industries have not fully embraced green chemistry and engineering with over 98% of organic chemicals being derived from petroleum. This branch in Chemistry is still fairly new and will likely be one of the most important fields in the future. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related article: The challenges in modern day chemistry Project Gallery

Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Cities designed to track the heavens: Chaco Canyon, New Mexico 06/03/25, 12:25 Last updated: Published: 02/07/24, 10:22 Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito This is Article 1 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article: The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids . In the desert of New Mexico are the remains of a major center of ancestral Puebloan culture. Within the Chaco Canyon region, several places of incredible architecture and complex cultural life have been identified, called Great Houses. It is suggested that over 150 Great Houses were constructed between the 9th and 12th centuries and connected by intricate road systems. Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito, which showcase the incredible architectural feats of the culture. Interestingly, scholars have deduced that the Great Houses were not only built to support the forming society, but the details of construction were specific for another reason: astronomy. Often, the structures were oriented according to at least one of three following ways: The south-southeast direction : Researchers suggest that the south-southeast orientation originates from a Snake Myth, which describes the use of a staff and the stars to facilitate migration in the southeast direction. Aligned with the cardinal directions : A great example of this is Pueblo Alto. Built in the 11th century, its main wall aligned within 5° of the EW latitude. Hungo Pavi is less than 5° offset from true NS. Built at horizon calendrical stations: Calendrical stations are often natural structures that, when viewed at a particular location, the sun can be seen in a memorable relation to it. For example, Figure 1 shows the sun between two prominent rock formations. Imagine this occurred only once per year. The event would mark the same day and thus would denote the annual occasion. Many of the ancestral Puebloan Great Houses are understood to have been built near such calendrical stations that operate for different events like the solstices. Although the ancestral Puebloan culture may not have used physics and astronomy as we do now, it was built into the fundamentals of their society, and central to their community. Written by Amber Elinsky REFERENCES & RESOURCES “History and Culture: The Center of Chalcoan Culture.” Chaco Culture, National Park Service . Accessed May 2024. https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm . Munro, Andrew M., and J. McKim Malville. “Ancestors and the Sun: Astronomy, Architecture and Culture at Chaco Canyon.” Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, no. S278 (2011): 255–64. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743921311012683 . Images from nps.gov Project Gallery