Using toxins for pain management Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anthrax Toxin Last updated: 18/09/25, 09:45 Published: 03/04/25, 08:00 Using toxins for pain management Introduction Pain is a response and signal to organisms that there is damage to the body. This could be due to an infection, tissue damage or organ damage. Different types of pain medication have been manufactured in the last decade. This includes the artificial manufacture of opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, using pathogens like bacteria and other substances. Bacteria have been investigated for managing and treating pain, with varying levels of effectiveness. Research by Yang et al. (2021) has shown that bacteria can interact with organisms and communicate with the nervous system, leading to analgesia (pain relief). Bacteria can also activate nociceptors, receptors that respond to pain, to alert the organism of damage. These nociceptors can also detect bacterial processes that release pain-producing toxins. Yang et al.’s research specifically looked at the bacterial toxin Bacillus anthracis ( Figure 1 ). It is a significant factor in the spread of anthrax, an infectious disease, and their experiments showed that it can lead to analgesia, as Bacillus anthracis and nociceptors can work together to suppress pain. The experiment The experiment by Yang et al. looked at different methods to target and suppress specific nociceptive neurons to decrease pain in mammals using bacteria. The study focused on the interactions between nociceptors and Bacillus anthracis . The researchers found that Bacillus anthracis toxin was made up of three substances: protective antigen (PA), lethal factor (LF), and edema factor (EF), as shown in Figure 2 . They created edema toxin (ET) using PA and EF, and administered the ET to mice via the intrathecal route (through the spinal canal, also shown in Figure 2 ). The scientists used different doses of PA, LF and EF. The intrathecal route was used to limit the diffusion of ET to the spinal cord and sensory neurons, preventing ET from moving into other organs. The researchers then analysed the mouse neurons to compare the sequences before and after the experiments and determine the effectiveness of the treatments. The results indicated high levels of ANTXR2 receptors (high-affinity receptors for anthrax toxins), meaning the response to pain was faster. The results The researchers examined the mechanical sensitivity and thermal latency. Mechanical sensitivity is the ability to differentiate between and respond to mechanical stimuli, and thermal latency is the ability to differentiate between and respond to heat stimuli. In mammals, signs of pain can be quantified using these indicators. The higher the threshold, the lower the pain. The threshold levels of these factors were compared up to 24 hours after the injections of the PA, PA + LF and PA + EF, as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 : Line graphs showing the results of the intrathecal injections. (A) Line graph of mechanical sensitivity thresholds after intrathecal administration. (B) Line graph of thermal sensitivity thresholds after intrathecal administration. (C) Line graph of mechanical sensitivity thresholds on the day and 24 hours after the second injection. After administration of the injections via the intrathecal route, thresholds of mechanical sensitivity, Figure 3A , were increased significantly for several hours. The injection of PA + EF resulted in the highest threshold, remaining at 1.0 g 6 hours post-injection, compared to the injections of PA and PA + LF, which both had a threshold of below 0.5 g 6 hours post-injection. The thresholds of thermal latency, shown in Figure 3B , also increased significantly for several hours. Again, the injection of PA + EF resulted in the highest latency, remaining for more than 20 seconds 6 hours post-injection, compared to the injections of PA and PA + LF, which both had a latency of below 20 seconds 6 hours post-injection. The results from Figures 3A and 3B suggest that the injections of PA + EF were the most effective in increasing the thresholds of both mechanical sensitivity and thermal latency. A second injection of ET was administered, and thresholds of mechanical sensitivity were again elevated, as shown in Figure 3C . After the second injection, the effects of pain relief were more potent. In the graph, at D2, the threshold of mechanical sensitivity 6 hours after the second injection was above 1.5 g for mice given ET, compared to below 1.0 g 6 hours after the first injection for mice given ET. This could be due to the upregulation of the ANTXR2 receptors induced by ET. Upregulation is when hormone secretion is suppressed, and the number of receptors (in this case, ANTXR2) increases, causing a faster response to the stimulus (in this case, pain). This suggests that ET can result in pain receptors being affected, leading to a faster analgesic response. The researchers concluded that this experiment did result in analgesia in mice as ET targeted specific nociceptors. The results from this experiment are significant because they indicate that pain behaviour can be blocked by intrathecal administration of a harmful bacterial toxin such as Bacillus anthracis . Conclusion Yang et al. (2021) found that the injection of the ET via the intrathecal route results in blocked pain behaviour in mice. The experiment is significant as it has shown that a harmful toxin can have positive effects. However, it is difficult to know if the effects will be replicated in humans as human trials have not yet been carried out. In addition, the sample size was very small, with a maximum of eight mice observed after each injection. This could result in high variability (the data points would be more spread out from the mean and, therefore, less consistent) and inconclusive results. Nevertheless, with further study, experimentation, and refinement of the ET via the intrathecal method, new therapies for people with pain, especially chronic pain, could be created in the future. Different dosages of the ET could be experimented upon to see whether a higher dosage has better results, with a bigger sample size, and human trials. The results from Yang et al. (2021) showed that intrathecal ET injections are promising, and if successful in humans, this method would ease the burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Ibuprofen / The Pain Gate Theory Project Gallery

About phosphate-solubilising micro-organisms and their role in the phosphorus cycle Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Meet the microbes that feed phosphorus to plants Last updated: 15/01/26, 19:00 Published: 27/11/25, 08:00 About phosphate-solubilising micro-organisms and their role in the phosphorus cycle Plants need phosphorus to make biological molecules like DNA, ATP, and the phospholipid bilayers that form cell membranes. Most phosphorus on Earth is found in its most oxidised form, phosphate (PO 4 3- ). Plant roots can only absorb soluble phosphate ions, but 80% of the phosphate in soil is insoluble and therefore unavailable for plant growth. Enter phosphate-solubilising micro-organisms. What are phosphate-solubilising micro-organisms? Phosphate solubilisation is the process by which micro-organisms convert insoluble phosphorus sources, like rocks or the biomass of dead organisms, into bioavailable phosphate ions (Figure 1). Examples of phosphate-solubilising bacteria come from the genera Bacillus , Pseudomonas , Rhizobium, Escherichia , Streptomyces , and Micromonospora , as well as some cyanobacteria. Phosphate-solubilising fungi include Aspergillus , Penicillium , Mucor , Rhizopus , Rhizophagus, and Glomus . The latter two fungal genera are arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi - more on them later. The chemistry underpinning phosphate solubilisation is complex but can broadly be split into inorganic and organic processes ( Figure 1 ). Some of these inorganic and organic processes are described in the rest of this article. Solubilising inorganic phosphate Inorganic insoluble phosphate is solubilised by microbial acids. When phosphate-containing rocks like apatite are broken down by weathering, the resulting smaller rock particles enter the soil. Micro-organisms secrete organic acids – usually gluconic acid but occasionally lactic, citric, oxalic, or other acids – to solubilise these rock particles. Acids work on inorganic phosphate in two ways. Firstly, they dissolve weathered rock pieces due to their low pH. Secondly, negatively charged acid anions (lactate, citrate, etc) displace the phosphate captured by aluminium, iron, magnesium, and calcium minerals in the rock. Organic acids are just some of the chemicals secreted by microbes to solubilise inorganic phosphate. Solubilising organic phosphorus On the other hand, microbial enzymes solubilise organic phosphorus during the decomposition of organic matter. The two types of phosphate-solubilising enzymes are phosphatases, which solubilise 90% of organic phosphorus, and phytases, which solubilise the remaining 10%. Both types of enzyme break the ester bonds linking a PO 4 3- group to the rest of a biological molecule. By expressing genes encoding phytases and phosphatases, soil micro-organisms make phosphorus available for plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) AM fungi provide plants with phosphorus in a symbiotic relationship. These fungi consist of hyphae, which are long, thin strands of cells that extend a plant’s root network and access phosphorus where roots cannot (Figure 2). AM fungi have a three-pronged approach to improving a plant’s phosphorus uptake: firstly, they absorb phosphate from the soil and give it to the plant in exchange for carbon. Secondly, they solubilise phosphate by secreting acids and phosphatases. Finally, AM fungi recruit phosphate-solubilising bacteria to the root system by feeding them sugars and amino acids. Conclusion Phosphate-solubilising bacteria and fungi provide plants with phosphorus, an essential element for making nucleic acids and ATP. Most phosphate is inaccessible to plants, locked up in rocks and biomass. By secreting organic acids and enzymes, soil micro-organisms convert this inaccessible phosphate into a form that plant roots can absorb and incorporate into their own biomass. When that plant dies, the organic phosphorus is solubilised again for another plant to use, so phosphorus never runs out. Therefore, phosphate-solubilising microbes are a small part of the invisible world that keeps our planet green. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Human activity and the phosphorus cycle REFERENCES Silva LI da, Pereira MC, Carvalho AMX de, et al. Phosphorus-Solubilizing Microorganisms: A Key to Sustainable Agriculture. Agriculture 2023; 13: 462. Pang F, Li Q, Solanki MK, et al. Soil Phosphorus Transformation and Plant Uptake Driven by Phosphate-solubilizing Microorganisms. Front Microbiol ; 15. Epub ahead of print 27 March 2024. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1383813 . Schipanski ME, Bennett EM. Chapter 9 - The Phosphorus Cycle. In: Weathers KC, Strayer DL, Likens GE (eds) Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science (Second Edition) . Academic Press, pp. 189–213. Tian J, Ge F, Zhang D, et al. Roles of Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms from Managing Soil Phosphorus Deficiency to Mediating Biogeochemical P Cycle. Biology 2021; 10: 158. Project Gallery

From bonds to emotions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Emotional chemistry on a molecular level 04/04/26, 17:33 Last updated: Published: 16/01/24, 00:03 From bonds to emotions Emotions have a crucial role in how we perceive the world, behave, and interact with others. Our emotional states significantly influence how our lives are shaped, from the happiness of a long-awaited reunion to the grief of a heartbreaking farewell. But have you ever wondered what happens on a molecular level when we experience emotions? In this article, we will delve into the fascinating world of the chemistry behind emotions and explore how neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain regions collaborate to orchestrate the symphony of our feelings. Neurotransmitters , the chemical messengers in charge of transferring impulses between brain neurons, lie at the core of the chemistry of emotions. The "happiness hormone," serotonin , is known for its critical function in controlling mood, appetite, and sleep. Anxiety and sadness have been associated with low serotonin levels. Dopamine : this "reward neurotransmitter" is linked to reinforcement and pleasure. Dopamine is released when we like or receive a reward, which reinforces the behaviour and motivates us to seek out more of those kinds of experiences. Norepinephrine/ noradrenaline is a component of the body's fight-or-flight response that causes increased attention and arousal in reaction to stress or danger. Lastly, Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) , an inhibitory neurotransmitter, counteracts the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters to maintain emotional stability by calming and soothing the brain. Our emotional experiences are significantly shaped by hormones as well. These chemical messengers affect the brain and other organs by entering the circulation after being released by numerous glands throughout the body. Cortisol , also referred to as the "stress hormone," is a key component of the body's fight-or-flight response and is released while under stress. Anxiety and a sense of being overpowered might result from elevated cortisol levels. The "love hormone" or "bonding hormone," oxytocin , is a chemical that is released during social interactions, particularly during times of closeness, trust, and bonding. The body's own natural mood lifters and painkillers are called endorphins . Exercise, laughing, and other enjoyable activities all produce endorphins, which contribute to a feeling of pleasure. Emotions are orchestrated within various brain regions , each with its own role in processing and interpreting emotional stimuli. Some key brain regions associated with emotions are: Amygdala : The "emotional hub" of the brain is commonly referred to as the amygdala. It analyses emotional inputs, particularly those connected to aggressiveness and fear, and participates in the development of emotional memories. Prefrontal cortex: This part of the brain controls rational higher-order thought, judgement, and emotional regulation. Even in highly emotional situations, it supports our ability to control our emotions and make logical decisions. Hippocampus : The hippocampus helps people remember emotional memories in particular. It is essential for remembering previous emotional experiences and creating emotional bonds. In conclusion, the chemistry of emotion is a gorgeously sophisticated dance of neurotransmitters, hormones, and different parts of the brain. It highlights the delicate balance that shapes our emotional experiences and influences our behaviour and well-being. Understanding this molecular magic can provide insight into our emotional reactions and open the door to novel treatment strategies for treating emotional disorders and mental health issues. Next time you feel overwhelmed with joy, anger, or any emotion in between, remember that there's a symphony of chemicals and brain activity behind the scenes, composing the unique melody of your emotional journey. Embrace your emotions, for they are an essential part of what makes us human. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Exploring food at the molecular level / Psychology of embarrassment / Unmasking aggression / Chemistry of depression / Music and emotions Project Gallery

From the Big Bang to the current model Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Story of the atom 11/02/25, 12:23 Last updated: Published: 20/04/24, 12:16 From the Big Bang to the current model The Greek philosopher and physicist Democritus proposed the idea of an atom at around 440 B.C. The atom is first explained by him using a stone. When a stone is split in half, it becomes two separate stones. There would eventually come to be a portion of the stone that would be too small to be cut if it were to be cut continuously i.e., indivisible. Since then, many scientists have adopted, discarded, or published their own theories about the nature, structure, and size of atoms. However, the most widely accepted, and still the basic model used to study atoms is Rutherford’s model. Rutherford published his theory of the atom suggesting that it had an electron orbiting a positively charged nucleus. This model was created after a series of experiments which included shooting alpha particles at thin gold sheets. Most of the alpha particles flowed through with little disturbance, but a tiny fraction was scattered at extreme angles to their initial direction of motion. Rutherford calculated the estimated size of the gold atom's nucleus and discovered that it was at least 10,000 times smaller than the atom's total size, with a large portion of the atom made up of empty space. This theory paved the way to further the atomic models by various other scientists. (Figure 1) Researchers have discovered unidentified molecules in space which are believed to be the precursor of all chemistry in the universe. The earliest "atoms" in the cosmos were actually nuclei without any electrons. The universe was incredibly hot and dense in the earliest seconds following the Big Bang. The quarks and electrons that make up matter first appeared when the cosmos cooled, and the ideal conditions were met for them to do so. Protons and neutrons were created by quarks aggregating a few millionths of a second later. These protons and neutrons joined to form nuclei in a matter of minutes. (Figure 2) Things started to happen more slowly as the cosmos cooled and expanded. The first atoms were formed 380,000 years ago when electrons were locked into orbits around nuclei. These were mostly hydrogen and helium, which are still the elements that are found in the universe in the greatest quantities. Even now, the most basic nucleus, found in ordinary hydrogen, is only a single, unadorned proton. There were other configurations of protons and neutrons that also developed, but since the number of protons in an atom determines its identity, all these other conglomerations were essentially just variations of hydrogen, helium, and lithium traces. To say that this is an exciting time for astrochemistry is an understatement. Furthermore, the formation mechanism of amino acids and nucleobases is being demonstrated by laboratory simulations of interstellar environments. Now that we are finding answers to these known problems, even more are arising. Hopefully, a more thorough understanding of these chemical processes will enable us to make more precise deductions about the general history of the universe and astrophysics. Written by Navnidhi Sharma REFERENCES CERN (n.d.). The early universe. [online] CERN. Available at: https://home.cern/science/physics/earlyuniverse#:~:text=As%20the%20universe%20continued%20to . Compound Interest (2016). The History of the Atom – Theories and Models | Compound Interest. [online] Compound Interest. Available at: https://www.compoundchem.com/2016/10/13/atomicmodels/ . Fortenberry, R.C. (2020). The First Molecule in the Universe. Scientific American. [online] doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0220-58 . Sharp, T. (2017). What is an Atom? [online] Live Science. Available at: https://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-definition.html . Project Gallery

By no means is this an exhaustive list on all the terminology relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. For more information, please refer to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). AAdenovirus- a group of related viruses. They were first removed from human adenoid glands (found at the back of the throat), hence the name. Asymptomatic- where a person is infected by the virus but does not present any symptoms. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Glossary for COVID-19 terms Last updated: 23/01/25 Published: 28/12/22 Key terms By no means is this an exhaustive list on all the terminology relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. For more information, please refer to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). – A Adenovirus- a group of related viruses. They were first removed from human adenoid glands (found at the back of the throat), hence the name. Asymptomatic- where a person is infected by the virus but does not present any symptoms. Can still pass the virus and infection onto others. C Coronavirus- a group of related viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. Named after the crown-like spike protein on the virus’s surface- ‘corona’ in Latin for crown. COVID-19/ COVID – the disease that coronavirus causes D DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid, the cell’s code to life. DNA instructs how to make proteins, which are essential for function in the body. Double helix. E Epicentre- the central point of the virus outbreak. This changed during the COVID-19 pandemic depending on the variant of virus. Epidemic- an outbreak in a localised area at a particular time H Herd immunity- when enough people are protected against the disease, that it lends immunity to those who are not protected. Can achieve protection against the disease through either previous infection, and/ or vaccination. I Immunity- achieving immunity means to be protected from future infections by viruses, and bacteria for example. You can achieve immunity through either previous infection, and/ or vaccination. Immunosuppressed- the immune system is suppressed. In other words, people who are immunosuppressed have a reduced ability to fight diseases. Thus preventing them from being infected in the first place is of great importance. Infection- the unnormal invasion of microorganisms into the body. Some infections present symptoms- at least straight away- while others do not show any symptoms. L Lockdown- preventing people from leaving where they are, to stop the transmission and contain the virus in the COVID-19 pandemic. M Mass vaccination- vaccinating many people in a certain area at a particular time mRNA- messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid). Single helix. Acts as a go-between for DNA and the proteins that are being made. P Pandemic- a global, or national outbreak Protein- an important molecule. Used as a fuel source, a building block, a carrier among other things, in the human body. R Restrictions- impeding or hindering movement and travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to contain the spread of the virus and curb transmission. S Shedding- (in biology) refers to viruses casting off viral particles which can then infect others Side effects- effects that are different and potentially harmful from the main, intended effects of a medication, treatment, or vaccine. Examples of some side effects: headaches, aches, pains, fever. Symptomatic- where a person is infected with the virus and does present symptoms. Can still pass the virus and infection onto others. Symptoms- the signs a person has been infected; this can be physical or mental. With COVID-19, you can show symptoms as symptomatic, or not present symptoms as asymptomatic, if infected. Examples of symptoms for COVID-19 include loss of taste and smell, a persistent cough, fever. T Transmission- how a particular disease, in this case coronavirus, is passed from one person to another. V Vaccination- the administration of vaccine into the body. Vaccine- a form of active immunity, where a weakened, live version of the infection agent is administered into the body. The immune system kicks in and destroys the infection agent, but not before taking note of the genetic material (e.g. mRNA or DNA from the protein) from the agent. The immune system will use this genetic material to ‘remember’ the infection next time it appears, so it can prepare a speedier, more efficient response. Vaccine hesitancy- uncertainty as to whether people should take the vaccine. This could be due to a variety of reasons: being unfamiliar with the vaccine and its contents, and/ or being distrusting of the government and those in the health organisation. Viral load- the amount of virus (or viral genetic material) a person has in their body at a particular time. A person not infected with the virus will have no viral load, whereas a person infected with the virus will have a much higher viral load. Virus- a microorganism. Some spread diseases as vectors, while some are ‘better’. To date, it is being argued whether viruses are alive or not. W Wuhan- Capital of Hubei Province in China. First epicentre of coronavirus. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related article: The origins of COVID-19

Lesser-known illnesses Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Rare zoonotic diseases 29/03/26, 17:06 Last updated: Published: 08/07/23, 14:34 Lesser-known illnesses This is article no. 1 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Breast cancer in males . Introduction From COVID-19 possibly coming from livestock in Wuhan market to HIV resulting from numerous transmissions between African primates, it seems that zoonotic diseases are difficult to control. They occur when pathogenic microorganisms are spread from animals to humans or vice-versa. Their impact on human civilization is alarming because they are responsible for 2.5 billion cases of illness and 2.7 million deaths in humans annually around the world. Although there is a lot of information regarding more familiar zoonotic diseases such as rabies and malaria, this article focuses on those that may be less discussed as they could become more problematic in the future. Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (virus) To begin, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a viral disease, which spreads when humans are bitten by ticks carrying the virus along with farmers killing infected livestock. It is endemic in more than 30 European, African and Asian countries with the exact factors contributing to the increased cases of CCHF being a mystery. Diagnosing the disease involves detecting the virus through Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) along with detecting IgM and IgG antibodies using ELISA. As for the treatment options for CCHF, they are finite as there are no available vaccines and the only antiviral drug used against the virus is ribavirin, which prevents replication of various DNA and RNA viruses in-vitro. Given all this information, it is evident that extensive research is necessary to better understand the disease holistically and design drugs that can stop more fatalities associated with CCHF. Trichinellosis (parasite) The next zoonotic disease to address is trichinellosis or trichinosis , which is caused by Trichinella spiralis and so it is a parasitic infection. It can spread by eating poorly prepared meat such as pork, and mammals like horses and wild carnivores are typically the reservoirs of infection. Its epidemiology in humans seems to be limited because it has 10,000 cases and 0.2% death rate annually. Moreover, an important factor that can contribute to the spread of trichinellosis is culture because certain communities have dishes containing raw meat. For example, a review referenced more than 600 outbreaks, 38,797 infections and 336 deaths in humans between 1964 and 2011 in China. As for diagnosing trichinellosis, it is challenging because it has general signs. With this in mind, the common method to spot the disease is detecting IgG antigens that work against Trichinella spiralis . On the other hand, its major drawback is getting a false negative in early trichinellosis infection. Like CCHF, trichinellosis is not as prevalent compared to other zoonotic diseases but it can have devastating impacts on specific countries, so increasing the supply of antiparasitic drugs like albendazole and/or mebendazole would be beneficial to stop the spread of Trichinella spiralis. Brucellosis (bacteria) The next zoonotic disease which is caused by a bacterial pathogen is brucellosis and is common worldwide, though certain places have higher prevalence of the disease compared to others. The pathogen can be transmitted through various ways such as direct contact with infected animal tissue on broken skin and consuming contaminated meat or dairy. Interestingly, it has been linked to childhood pulmonary infections as 18 out of 98 brucellosis patients have experienced such symptoms, but this is rare (based solely on a 2020 study). The graph above indicates that when brucellosis occurs in animals, it has a high likelihood of being passed onto humans. For example, the years 2004-2007 could be when brucellosis cases were most frequent. This could have been alleviated through specific antibiotics used to treat brucellosis that include rifampin, doxycycline and streptomycin. Similar to trichinellosis, brucellosis diagnosis can be difficult because the symptoms can vary and are not exclusive to one disease, suggesting that different laboratory techniques are needed to find brucellosis in patients. Conclusion It looks like there is a recurring pattern of the zoonotic diseases outlined in this article occurring in developing countries as opposed to developed countries. As such, there have to be more effective interventions to prevent their ramifications on populations living in these countries. For this to occur, there has to be sufficient information, awareness, and education of these rarer zoonotic diseases to begin with. Furthermore, the current treatments for CCHF, trichinellosis and brucellosis may be unsuccessful due to the threat of antimicrobial resistance, hence finding alternative treatments for the aforementioned zoonotic diseases is vital in the future. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Rabies / Canines and cancer / Vaccine for malaria Project Gallery

A CV entails a person's notable accomplishments. We check your CV for free! Our expert advisors offer to review your CV in a time-efficient manner, by providing quality feedback. Curriculum Vitae (CV) Looking to apply for a job after your graduation, internship, or placement? Read below our CV information and advice! What are CVs? A CV entails a person's notable accomplishments - for example, their education history, work experience, certifications, volunteering experience, projects, and more. They are normally made on Microsoft Word and should be one page long , however someone extremely experienced in their field of work may choose to make their CV as two pages. But isn't this a resumé? ... ... No. CVs contain a more comprehensive breakdown of education, work experience etc; a resum é is not as detailed. A resum é also excludes date of birth, address, and contact info, whereas a CV includes this. Why should you write a good CV? There are several reasons as to why you should write a good CV, with just a few listed below: Professionalism A well organised, polished CV reflects your attention to detail and makes you more likely to be considered by employers for the advertised job. First impression and employability Employers spend less than 9 seconds looking at a CV! Hence, a well-designed CV is important as it will make you stand out and increase chances of securing an interview. Career progression A CV is not only for getting a job. It shows how you have generally developed as an employee, from what new skills you have gained to the responsibilities you have picked up. Networking Having a strong CV will allow you to share your background in a quick and efficient matter at, for example, career fairs or industry events. How do I know if my CV is to the right standard? Read below to find out more. We can check your CV for free! 1. Style We will make sure your writing is coherent and flows in the correct way, such as in chronological order. We will also recommend fonts, font sizes, appropriate headings that employers prefer and more, as layout is incredibly important to consider. 2. Spelling, punctuation and grammar It is easy to make small errors that can be easily overlooked! However, we will proofread your work to make sure your sentences make sense whilst being straight to the point. 3. Sections to include More than one would think, some may include sections that are of no relevance to the employer or put lack of detail in the ones that matter most. We will help make sure you don't fall into this trap. 4. Helping you make a start It is completely normal to feel like you don't know where to start from, too! Our advisors can ask you personalised questions regarding your experience, education, and so on to give you a 'template' to work on. This can then be reviewed and personalised feedback will be given until you are satisfied. 5. Other neat tricks... There are some features of a CV that individuals may not focus on but employers actually look for (hint: super- and extracurricular). Find out more from us if you're interested! Browse some career roles and insights in jobs related to: statistics , nuclear medicine , clinical computer scientist Example universities where some of our advisors attend/have graduated from: Queen Mary University of London, Imperial College London, University of Liverpool and so on. Some of these students have secured placements, internships, and jobs with companies such as GSK and STATIC St. Andrews ! Just like personal statements , our expert advisors offer to review your CV in a time-efficient manner, by providing feedback on the following: Fill the form out below and we will contact you* * Alternatively, you can email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com . Please keep the subject as 'CVs'. Email Subject Your message Send Thanks for submitting!

The unique condition of microgravity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Astronauts in space… losing gravity, losing immunity? 26/04/26, 15:42 Last updated: Published: 08/09/24, 14:39 The unique condition of microgravity Introduction Since the first successful human launch to space on April 12th, 1961, over 600 astronauts have travelled beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. Space travel is essential in driving technological innovation and consistently increases our understanding of the cosmos. However, alongside the thrill of space exploration, astronauts face significant challenges, including profound risks to their immune systems. Astronauts in space endure a unique condition of near weightlessness known as microgravity, which often causes dysregulation of their immune systems. Effect of microgravity on T-cell immunity One of the critical studies emphasising the effects of microgravity on the immune system is a twin study conducted by NASA, where they compared various gene expression datasets between an astronaut who had been on the International Space Station (ISS) for one year and their identical twin who had not travelled to space. They discovered changes in the methylation patterns of immunologically relevant genes such as NOTCH3 and SLC1A5 , which are both crucial in T cell development. They also found microgravity caused an increase in pro-inflammatory molecules and decreased anti-inflammatory molecules, alluding to spaceflight causing an increased inflammatory state. These patterns are consistent with other experiments simulating microgravity conditions, such as prolonged bed rest models. Microgravity has also been shown to induce thymic atrophy, which is when the thymus slowly shrinks and loses its function. The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ that is crucial in T cell development. An experiment performed on the International Space Station (ISS) has shown that exposing mice to 1g gravity can alleviate microgravity-induced thymic atrophy ( Figure 1 ), suggesting that exposure to a standard gravitational field is a potential treatment. The thymic environment is altered due to microgravity. In particular, thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are misplaced and, therefore cannot perform their role in T cell maturation. Overall, there is a significant decrease in the output of T cells from the thymus, shown by a clear decrease in thymic mass and alterations in gene expression related directly to the process of T cell differentiation. Effect of microgravity on the bone marrow Furthermore, microgravity affects the bone marrow, another primary lymphoid organ. The bone marrow consists of many mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which differentiate hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) into leukocytes. Microgravity inhibits osteogenesis and promotes adipogenesis, which means that bone formation is slowed down, but fat cell production is increased. This happens due to the changes to the structure inside the cell, known as actin cytoskeleton, which affects transcriptional regulators, which generally control cell differentiation. In space, there is also suppression of the cytokine CXCL2 in MSCs, which affects HSC differentiation into immune cells, indicating a link between MSC dysfunction and immunosuppression faced by astronauts. Other factors affecting the immune system Microgravity is the main factor behind immune system dysregulation in astronauts, but other factors, such as stress and exposure to cosmic radiation, also play a role. Cosmic radiation can damage DNA, leading to mutations that impair the immune system’s ability to function properly. Stress hormones are known to affect immune system function. For instance, cortisol can reduce the number of leukocytes in circulation. Conclusion Due to the compromised state of the astronauts’ immune systems, latent viruses often reactivate. Herpes viruses, such as varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox!) and Epstein-Barr virus, have been documented to be reactivated in astronauts during and after space flight. This is mainly due to the loss of T cell immunity ( Figure 2 ) and a reduction in NK cell potency and number. Microgravity affects NK cells by changing their cytoskeletal form, which they need to perform cytotoxic functions. Understanding and mitigating the risks of space travel is crucial as more prolonged and ambitious missions are planned, such as sending humans to Mars. The primary medical countermeasure for the reactivation of herpes viruses is re-vaccination. However, at this current point, only a vaccine for varicella-zoster virus is available. Future research focusing on artificial gravity and environmental changes on spacecraft and the ISS may provide a safer journey for astronauts spending extended time in space. Written by Devanshi Shah Related articles: AI in space / The role of chemistry in space / Colonisation of Mars / Artemis: the lunar south pole base REFERENCES Akiyama, T., Horie, K., Hinoi, E., Hiraiwa, M., Kato, A., Maekawa, Y., Takahashi, A. & Furukawa, S. (2020) How does spaceflight affect the acquired immune system? npj Microgravity. 6 (1), 1–7. doi:10.1038/s41526-020-0104-1. Simon N. Archer, Carla Möller-Levet, María-Ángeles Bonmatí-Carrión, Emma E. Laing, Derk-Jan Dijk. Extensive dynamic changes in the human transcriptome and its circadian organization during prolonged bed rest -ScienceDirect. https://www-sciencedirect.com.iclibezp1.cc.ic.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S2589004224005522?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Hicks J, Olson M, Mitchell C, Juran CM, Paul AM. The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. Immunohorizons. 2023 Oct 1;7(10):670-682. doi: 10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063. PMID: 37855736; PMCID: PMC10615652. The NASA Twins Study: A multidimensional analysis of a year-long human spaceflight | Science. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau8650 [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Hicks, J., Olson, M., Mitchell, C., Juran, C.M. & Paul, A.M. (2023) The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. ImmunoHorizons. 7 (10), 670–682. doi:10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063. Hobbs, Z. (2023) How many people have gone to space? | Astronomy.com. Astronomy Magazine. https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/how-many-people-have-gone-to-space/ . Mehta, S.K., Laudenslager, M.L., Stowe, R.P., Crucian, B.E., Feiveson, A.H., Sams, C.F. & Pierson, D.L. (2017) Latent virus reactivation in astronauts on the international space station. npj Microgravity. 3 (1), 1–8. doi:10.1038/s41526-017-0015-y. Surrey, U. Microgravity found to cause marked changes in gene expression rhythms in humans. https://phys.org/news/2024-03-microgravity-gene-rhythms-humans.html [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Project Gallery

The human race has witnessed ten influenza pandemics over the course of 300 years. COVID-19, the most recent, killed approximately 6.9 million people and infected nearly 757 million. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The world vs the next pandemic Last updated: 01/03/26 Published: 25/03/23 The human race has witnessed ten influenza pandemics over the course of 300 years. COVID-19, the most recent, killed approximately 6.9 million people and infected nearly 757 million. Though seemingly quite large, the number of deaths caused by the coronavirus is still comparatively fewer than the pandemics of the past, which have killed around 50–100 million people globally. These large numbers may seem like statistics from a century ago, but many scientists predict the same-scale destruction with future pandemics, heightening the concern about how prepared we are when the next big outbreak strikes. It is impossible to know when the next pandemic will hit or the number of casualties it will bring. The only certainty is that it cannot be avoided, which raises the question of how to mitigate the impact and reduce the effectiveness of large-scale losses. During the COVID-19 outbreak, we observed that preventive measures such as social distancing and face coverings could intervene in viral transmission to some degree. Additionally, strategies like complete lockdown, isolation and timely treatment can help in the containment and recovery of those already infected. These measures, however, can only be taken once the threat is detected promptly before infecting a larger population. To prevent an infection from becoming an outbreak, strategies that focus on the source of the disease can prove to be highly advantageous. Preventive measures may include: ● monitoring the mobilisation of wildlife that potentially carries harmful pathogens ● studying the interactions between different species in wildlife ● surveillance of the domestic and international markets for wildlife trade and strict imposition of biosecurity laws. Additionally, an effort needs to be made for sharing the generated data with global laboratories to promote scientific collaboration. Once the threat is identified, quick decision-making using the correct precautions needs to take place. Simultaneously, investments in research sectors promoting mRNA vaccine developments, novel drug treatments, and emerging technological advances need to be increased. In conclusion, the strategies for the management of the next pandemic need to operate on a multi-level governance with optimal coordination between different institutions involved in crisis management. There is a constant threat of pandemics looming over the world. The outbreak is inevitable, but its effect solely depends on the preparedness and response of the governmental bodies and global health institutions. Is it going to be a hurricane of destruction, or will it just pass by like a gush of wind? Only time will tell. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Diabetes mellitus as an epidemic / Are pandemics becoming less severe? REFERENCES Coccia, M. (2021). Pandemic Prevention: Lessons from COVID-19. Encyclopedia, 1(2), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020036 Cockerham, W. C., & Cockerham, G. B. (2021). The COVID-19 reader: the science and what it says about the social. Routledge. Frieden, T. R., Buissonnière, M., & McClelland, A. (2021). The world must prepare now for the next pandemic. BMJ Global Health, 6(3), e005184. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-005184 Garrett, L. (2005). The Next Pandemic. Foreign Af airs, 84, 3. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/fora84&div=61&id=&page= WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION. (2022). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Covid19.Who. int. https://covid19.who.int/?mapFilter=deaths World Economic Forum. (2021, November 30). COVID-19: How much will it cost to prepare the world for the next pandemic? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/11/preparing-for-next-pandemic-covid-19

The specific research that was recognised for a Nobel Prize in Physics was the discovery of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy, in the form of radiation, a term that Curie herself coined. Marie Curie researched whether uranium, a weakly radioactive element, was found in other materials. She then analysed pitchblende, Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Women who have won the Nobel Prize in Physics Last updated: 31/03/26 Published: 01/03/23 March is International Women’s month, so it seems like the perfect time to celebrate the women who have been awarded Nobel Prizes in Physics. There have only been a total of four women to receive this prestigious award, namely Marie Curie, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Donna Strickland, Andrea Ghez, and Anne L’Huillier. This article will detail the research each woman did to achieve the Nobel Prize, as well as the context of their discoveries. Pictured from left to right: Marie Curie, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Donna Strickland, Andrea Ghez and Anne L’Huillier. Marie Curie (1903) Arguably the most famous of these Nobel Prize winners, Marie Curie won her award for research on radioactive phenomena. Curie received half the Nobel Prize for Physics, shared with her husband, but at first, the committee had only intended to award it to him. This was the first Nobel Prize for Physics ever awarded to a woman. The specific research that was recognised for a Nobel Prize in Physics was the discovery of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy, in the form of radiation, a term that Curie herself coined. Marie Curie researched whether uranium, a weakly radioactive element, was found in other materials. She then analysed pitchblende, a mineral made partially of uranium but had a higher amount of radiation. Curie investigated other elements that pitchblende could be made up of and, as a result of this, discovered new elements: polonium and radium. Following this, she had ambitions of obtaining pure radium, and following this achievement, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Maria Goeppert Mayer (1963) 60 years after Marie Curie was awarded her Nobel Prize for Physics, Maria Goeppert Mayer became the second female recipient. She received the Prize for her work in 1963 on the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. Goeppert Mayer shared her award with two other physicists who came to the same conclusion as her. The nuclear shell model describes the exact makeup of the atomic nucleus, through the exact numbers of protons and neutrons. Maria Goeppert Mayer’s mathematical work on this model described why there are certain amounts of neutrons and protons in stable atoms. She beautifully described the model in terms of waltzers dancing and spinning in circles. Donna Strickland (2018) The next female Nobel Prize in Physics award winner wouldn’t be until another half-century later, with Donna Strickland. Strickland was awarded the Prize for her work on chirped pulse amplification and its applications. Although the research itself was published in 1985, she didn’t receive the award until 2018. Chirped pulse amplification (CPA) is a technique that takes a very short laser pulse (a light flash) and makes it brighter. The technique is useful for making extremely precise cuts, so is used for many laser-related applications, such as laser eye surgery. The wide range of uses CPA has in medicine makes this an important discovery for physics which led to Strickland being awarded the Nobel Prize award. Andrea Ghez (2020) The result of the work of Andrea Ghez, the fourth female Nobel Prize in Physics recipient, may be the most exciting of the research described in this article, particularly for those interested in astrophysics. Ghez won the award for her role in discovering a black hole in the centre of our galaxy. A black hole is a very dense, compact object with gravity so strong that not even light can escape it. Until recently, physicists have not been able to visually observe black holes but instead can detect them by looking at how other objects, such as stars, behave around one. Andrea Ghez and her team used the movement of Sagittarius A* to prove that there was a black hole in the centre of the Milky Way. Anne L'Huillier (2023) The most recent female Nobel Prize in Physics recipient is Anne L’Huillier who, alongside two colleagues, was presented this award for “experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter,” according to the Nobel Prize organisation. What this means is that Dr. L’Huillier created a new and effective method for studying the behaviour of electrons inside atoms. By generating pulses of light each attosecond (a billionth of a billionth of a second), she is able to capture snapshots of electrons over time, allowing scientists to gain a better understanding of these particles. This has been deemed a huge breakthrough because electron dynamics are at the core of processes that create and maintain life. Written by Madeleine Hales Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research