From confusion to career opportunities Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unlocking the power of statistics 14/03/26, 19:56 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 17:23 From confusion to career opportunities During my time studying maths there was always one topic that would trip me up: statistics. Being an A-level physics student, I could understand why calculus is useful in real life, using differentiation to calculate the velocities of projectiles. And I could look and see how geometry is used in buildings and structures. However, statistics often made me feel unrelatable and lost, as I was unable to see real-world applications. But today, I wish to alter my old perspective. First and foremost, you might be pleasantly surprised to learn that statistics opens doors to some of the most lucrative careers available today. We'll delve into roles such as quantitative analysts, who boast a national average salary of £130,000 per year. But if finance is not your cup of tea, there are many other rewarding career paths to explore, from becoming a data scientist to forecasting the weather as a meteorologist. In this article, I wish to unveil the world of statistics, revealing its importance and shedding light on its real-life applications. My hope is to not only inspire those who are already passionate about statistics but also to ignite motivation in individuals who, like me, found themselves in a similar predicament a few years ago. The Actuary Less well known when compared to a banker or engineer, an actuary’s sole purpose is to analyse risk for multiple different scenarios. It may sound simple on first inspection, but being an actuary is a very well-established career requiring many years of learning followed by some of the most challenging exams in the job market. An actuary attempts to quantify the risk of an event happening so that financial decisions can be made with an objective view. A good and close-to-home example of this is being either accepted or rejected from a credit card. As a younger person below the age of 21, the chances of you getting accepted for a credit card are extremely and quite painfully low. This is because banks, and more specifically, credit score providers, deem you to be a high-risk person to lend to. They think this because you have a very short credit history, are unaware of how responsible you are with money, and are more afraid to lend you their cash. In other words, they don’t want you to spend their money on going out and drinking booze. The insurance industry is, however, the biggest industry when it comes to actuaries. Both life and non-life actuaries work in teams with insurance providers to establish whether a client, company, or investment is worthwhile. Actuaries apply both statistics and actuarial science (similar to applied statistics) to real-life situations, evaluate whether to offer a premium to a customer, and then establish what that premium is. You may see in advertisements that life insurance costs as little as £10 a month for a 20-year-old compared to someone who is 65. This is because the younger you are, the less likely you are to claim against your policy. Actuaries put together vast amounts of information about people, lifestyle choices, and other factors to help determine the probability that someone may claim, suggesting a ‘fair’ premium that an insurance company may offer. Without the help of an actuary, insurance companies would either charge too much, making people disadvantaged, or charge too little, in which case they would have to default on their policy and be unable to pay out any claims. Although this seems very specific, the role of an actuary is becoming increasingly important as people live longer lives and insurance companies become more fearful of defaulting.To put it into perspective, actuaries on average earn £85,000 working in London, putting you well in the top 10% of earners in the UK. The Quantitative Analyst Similar to an actuary, quantitative analysts do exactly what is said on the tin. They use quantitative methods to analyse data. Often, companies like investment banks, hedge funds, and pension funds will hire front-office ‘quants’. The aim of the game is to send out trades as quickly as possible before all the other trading offices do. These big companies have links directly to the trading floor, so every millisecond counts, and it’s a quant's job to devise a trading strategy that beats the rest and operates in the least amount of time. Quants are masters of statistics and mathematics, and for this reason, high-frequency trading firms like Hudson River Trading offer salaries to top mathematical minds in excess of $500,000. The role of quantitative researchers is to explore the latest statistical articles being published by top universities and generate strategies that can be implemented in the stock market. This job is not one to be taken lightly, as salary is often based on performance, but someone who is motivated to explore the ins and outs of statistics may find themselves loving the life of a quant. The Meteorologist Meteorologists are the people that we incorrectly blame for the bad weather that we have. And they are also the people we blame when we forget to take a coat and get soaked on the long walk back home. But what do meteorologists actually do? And is it any more than just an educated guess? Meteorologists, along with climatologists, collect millions of pieces of information every hour of every day across their 195,000 weather stations spread all around the globe. These stations collect key pieces of information, including atmospheric pressure, temperature, speed, rain, humidity, and many other components of current weather conditions. With this information, meteorologists begin to paint a picture of what the current weather climate is like and then use forecasting methods and statistical models to estimate how the weather is going to change. The probability that it might rain is much more than an educated guess; it is the probability that if this situation happened 100 times, it would rain the estimated number of times (i.e., if there was an 80% chance of rain, it would rain 80 times out of the hundred over a large enough sample). As a forecaster, you will collect this information and input it into very advanced systems to analyse and give an outcome, but as a researcher, you will help derive these statistical forecasting models and improve them so that our apps and news channels are even more precise. Not only that, but you may also find yourself researching the effects of climate change from the data that you analyse, and maybe even how the weather affects the spread of pollution and disease. Meteorologists get paid a modest salary of around £33,000 per year, which may seem small when compared to that of a quant, but the quality of life is far more generous than some careers in finance. To conclude In conclusion, statistics, once a perplexing subject for many, can offer an exciting and rewarding career. From the meticulous work of actuaries, assessing risks and financial decisions, to the world of quantitative analysts, where every millisecond counts, and even to the indispensable role of meteorologists, who help us navigate the weather and climate change, statistics holds the power to transform lives and industries. As we've explored, statistics is not just about numbers and formulas; it's about making sense of the world, predicting outcomes, and creating informed decisions. So, whether you're a seasoned statistician or someone who, like me, once felt lost in its complexities, remember that statistics isn't merely a subject to conquer—it's a key that unlocks doors to some of the most intriguing and well-compensated careers out there. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

Study the plethora of interactions between drug and target with these articles focusing on antibiotic resistance, analgesics, and drug treatments for diseases with presently no cure. Pharmacology Articles Study the plethora of interactions between drug and target with these articles focusing on antibiotic resistance, analgesics, and drug treatments for diseases with presently no cure. You may also like: Chemistry , Medicine Effect of heat on medicine When medication is exposed to extreme heat, what happens? Antibiotic resistance Its rising threat Exploring ibuprofen Ibuprofen is a painkiller A treatment for Parkinson's disease By using a common diabetes drug mRNA vaccines What they are, and how they are different to traditional (live, attenuated, or viral-vectored) vaccines Anthrax toxin Using bacterial toxins to treat pain 'The Molecule': an upcoming biotech thriller A book review Psilocybin mushrooms and effect on depression Can this type of mushroom be used to treat the world's most common mental health disorder? The antibacterial properties of tea tree oil (TTO) Available both as the pure, undiluted oil or as an active component in medicinal and cosmetic products, TTO’s antibacterial properties have garnered significant attention.

The natural body clock and the involvement of genetics Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The chronotypes 26/04/26, 15:33 Last updated: Published: 27/11/24, 11:47 The natural body clock and the involvement of genetics Feeling like heading to bed at 9 pm and waking up at the crack of dawn? These tendencies define your chronotype, backed up by changes within your body. A generally overlooked topic, chronotypes affect our everyday behaviour. Many people innately associate themselves with a certain chronotype, but what do we know about how these physiological differences are caused at a molecular level? The word ‘chronotype’ was first coined in the 1970s, combining the Greek words chrono (time) and type (kind or form). While the term is relatively modern, the concept emerged in the 18th century. Researchers in the 1960s and 1970s, like Jürgen Aschoff, explored how internal biological clocks influence our sleep-wake cycles, leading to the classification of people into morning or evening types based on their activity patterns. The first evidence of body clocks was found in plants rather than humans, thus leading to the invention of flower clocks, which were used to tell the time of the day. Before delving into the details, let us be introduced to the general categories of chronotypes, which describe a person’s inclination to wake up and sleep while also affecting productivity periods. We know of the following three categories: The morning type (also referred to as larks): they are inclined to wake up and go to bed early because they feel most alert and productive in the mornings. The evening type (also called the owls): they feel most alert and productive in the evenings and onwards, so they are inclined to wake up and go to bed later. The intermediate types (also referred to as the doves): they fall in the middle of this range. Let’s explore what we know about the genetics that prove that chronotypes are a natural phenomenon. Genetics of chronotypes The main determining factor in our chronotypes is the circadian period. This is the body’s 24 hour cycle of changes that manifest into feelings of productivity and energy or tiredness. The length of this is crucial in determining our chronotypes. More importantly, specific physiological changes that cause these effects are melatonin and core body temperature. One study suggested that the morning types might have circadian periods shorter than 24 hours, whereas evening chronotypes might have circadian periods longer than 24 hours. A major clock gene is PER, which includes a collection of genes known as PER1, PER2 and PER3, which are thought to regulate circadian period factors. Specifically, it has been observed that a delay in the expression of the PER1 gene in humans causes an increased circadian period. Possible causes for this delay may be rendered to a variation within the negative feedback loop that PER1 operates in, including hereditary differences, environmental causes, changes to hormonal signals and age. This process may describe the mechanism behind the evening chronotype. Molecular polymorphs in the PER3 gene are thought to cause shorter circadian rhythms and the manifestation of the morning types. Similarly, a polymorph in the PER3 gene can be caused by a plethora of causes, as described for PER1. These nuances cause differences in the periodic release and stop of hormones which control the circadian rhythm, such as melatonin and body temperature. This is important in its power to control our energy levels, windows of productivity, and sleep cycles. The consensus remains that chronotypes are attributable to genetic premeditation by 50%, however, it has also been observed that chronotypes are prone to change with advancing age. Increased age is associated with an inclination towards an earlier phase chronotype. Age-related variation has been observed to be higher in men. There also exists an association between geographical locations and phase preference; increasing latitude (travelling North or South) from the earth's equator is associated with later chronotypes. Of course, many variations and factors come into play to affect these findings, such as ethnic genetics, climate, work culture and even population density. The effect on core body temperature and melatonin Polymorphisms in the PER3 cause a much earlier peak in body temperature and melatonin in the morning than in the evening and intermediate types. These manifest as the need to sleep much earlier in the morning and a decreased feeling of productivity later in the day. In contrast, the evening types experience a later release of melatonin and a drop in core body temperature, causing a later onset of tiredness and lack of energy. It can then be inferred that the intermediate types are affected by the expression of these genes in a way that falls in the middle of this spectrum. The Morning-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) The MEQ is a self-reported questionnaire you may complete to gain more insight into your chronotype category. Clinical psychologist Micheal Breus created it and uses different animals to categorise the chronotypes further. The framework suggests that the Bear represents individuals whose energy patterns are entrained to the rising and the sun's setting and are the most common types in the general population. The Lions describe the early risers, and Wolves roughly equate to the evening types. Recently, a fourth chronotype has been proposed: the Dolphin, whose responses to the questionnaire suggest that they switch between modes. Whether you're a Bear, Lion, Wolf, or Dolphin, understanding your chronotype can be a game-changer in optimising your daily routine. So, what’s your chronotype—and how can you start working with your body’s natural rhythms to unlock your full potential? A sleep study ? The MEQ ? Maybe keeping a tracker. Conclusion Understanding differences in circadian rhythms and sleep-wake preferences offers valuable insights into human behaviour and health. Chronotypes influence various aspects of daily life, including sleep patterns and quality, cognitive performance and susceptibility to specific health conditions, including sleep-wake conditions. An extreme deviation in circadian rhythms and sleep cycles may lead to such conditions as Advanced sleep-wake phase Disorder (ASPD) and Delayed sleep-wake phase Disorder (DSPD). Recognising these variations is also helpful in optimising work schedules and aligning to jet lags, improving mental and physical health by tailoring our biological rhythms to our environments. Many individuals opt to do a sleep study at an institution to gain insights into their circadian rhythms. A healthcare professional may also prescribe this if they suspect you have a circadian disturbance such as insomnia. Written by B. Esfandyare Related articles: Circadian rhythms and nutrition / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES Emens JS, Yuhas K, Rough J, Kochar N, Peters D, Lewy AJ. Phase Angle of Entrainment in Morning‐ and Evening‐Types under Naturalistic Conditions. Chronobiology International. 2009 Jan;26(3):474–93. Lee, J.H., Kim, I.S., Kim, S.J., Wang, W. and Duffy, J.F. (2011). Change in Individual Chronotype Over a Lifetime: A Retrospective Study. Sleep Medicine Research , 2(2), pp.48–53. doi: https://doi.org/10.17241/smr.2011.2.2.48 . Ujma, P.P. and Kirkegaard, E.O.W. (2021). The overlapping geography of cognitive ability and chronotype. PsyCh Journal , 10(5), pp.834–846. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.477 . Shearman LP, Jin X, Lee C, Reppert SM, Weaver DR. Targeted Disruption of the mPer3 Gene: Subtle Effects on Circadian Clock Function. Molecular and Cellular Biology. 2000 Sep 1;20(17):6269–75. Viola AU, Archer SN, James Lynette M, Groeger JA, Lo JCY, Skene DJ, et al. PER3 Polymorphism Predicts Sleep Structure and Waking Performance. Current Biology. 2007 Apr;17(7):613–8. Project Gallery

Wildlife corridors are connecting habitats previously divided by roads Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Wildlife corridors: why did the sloth cross the road? Last updated: 16/09/25, 17:49 Published: 06/11/25, 08:00 Wildlife corridors are connecting habitats previously divided by roads Have you ever run over an animal while driving, or had to suddenly hit the brakes so an animal could cross the road? Engineers and ecologists have come up with genius solutions, collectively called wildlife corridors, so that this happens less often. This article is about two such solutions - green bridges, which are big vegetated overpasses, and rope bridges between trees. More than just roadkill Roads threaten animals because of a concept called habitat fragmentation. This is when big animal populations are split into two smaller populations with less resources and less genetic diversity than the original populations. Animals may try to move between habitat fragments in search of new food or mates, but die trying to cross the road. Either they walk directly onto the road and collide with cars, or they cross by walking over power lines and get electrocuted. Wildlife corridors allow animals to safely walk over roads, un-doing the habitat fragmentation and reducing their chance of extinction. Wolves in Germany A 2021 study analysed the activity of animals crossing a green bridge in Germany. This bridge, one of seven in the state of Brandenburg, was built in 2012 over the important A12 highway ( Figure 1 ). Using camera footage over a year, researchers found that grey wolves were more likely to use the bridge at dusk, at night, and in the winter. The deer and wild boars eaten by wolves were also more likely to use the bridge at dusk and at night, so the presence of wolves on the bridge did not deter their prey. Since 76% of wolves in Germany die in road-related incidents, bridges like this one are crucial for effective wolf conservation. Rope bridges in Costa Rica While Germany’s wolves and deer walk straight onto roads, Costa Rica’s tree-dwelling animals cross the road using power lines. This means the tree dwellers, including monkeys and sloths, are at risk of electrocution - in fact, nearly 1000 animals died of electrocution in Costa Rica in 2018-19. To reduce this risk, Costa Ricans have built rope bridges across the country as a safer alternative for wildlife to cross roads. Most bridges consist of a single blue nylon rope ( Figure 2a ), while researchers at the University of Costa Rica built rope bridges specially designed for howler monkeys ( Figure 2b ). Howler monkeys were targeted because of their endangered status and ecological role as seed and pollen dispersers. While the specialised bridges doubled howler monkey populations between 2015 and 2021, both them and classic rope bridges were used by squirrels, opossums, and kinkajous. However, a 2021 study found that animals use telephone lines to cross roads as frequently as they use rope bridges, and telephone lines are dangerously close to power lines. Some species still are not crossing using rope bridges, many years after their construction. Although the rope bridges are helping to reduce electrocution, they are not perfect. Heathland in the UK Closer to home, a brand-new green bridge called Cockrow Bridge will soon open in Surrey ( Figure 3 ). Surrey has lost 85% of its lowland heath in the last two centuries, but Ockham and Wisley Commons continue to support rare heathland species like the nightjar and sand lizard. These two commons, on either side of the A3/M25 junction, will be connected by the Cockrow Bridge into a 3 km-long stretch. Although existing heathland needs to be destroyed for construction, tree stumps and soil from the destroyed habitat will be repurposed on the bridge. Tree stumps will provide shelter to small animals, while the soil contains native roots and seeds to kickstart the bridge ecosystem. Since the public will be allowed on this bridge, it will improve our access to green spaces and bring revenue to local organisations. Therefore, Cockrow Bridge is expected to benefit wildlife and the public. Conclusion Wildlife corridors could be an important conservation tool by undoing habitat fragmentation, reducing roadkill, and preventing electrocution on power lines. Examples in Germany and Costa Rica look promising, and a unique heathland bridge is under construction here in the UK. Green bridges and rope bridges prove that modern infrastructure does not need to harm biodiversity, and humans can coexist with nature. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Gorongosa National Park / Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia REFERENCES The Sloth Conservation Foundation. Connected Gardens: facilitating the peaceful co-existence of sloths and people. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 13]. Available from: https://slothconservation.org/what-we-do/habitat-connectivity/ Tobias N. Swinging to safety: How canopy bridges may save Costa Rica’s howlers. Mongabay Environmental News [Internet]. 2023 Feb 15 [cited 2025 Apr 13]; Available from: https://news.mongabay.com/2023/02/swinging-to-safety-how-canopy-bridges-may-save-costa-ricas-howlers/ Gilbey V, Petty R. UK’s first heathland green bridge. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering. 2024 Nov 1;177(6):99–110. Laidlaw K, Broadbent E, Eby S. Effectiveness of aerial wildlife crossings: Do wildlife use rope bridges more than hazardous structures to cross roads? Rev Biol Trop. 2021 Oct 1;69(3):1138–48. Plaschke M, Bhardwaj M, König HJ, Wenz E, Dobiáš K, Ford AT. Green bridges in a re‐colonizing landscape: Wolves ( Canis lupus ) in Brandenburg, Germany. Conservat Sci and Prac. 2021 Mar;3(3):e364. Project Gallery

Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Building Physics Last updated: 03/04/25, 11:39 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future From the high rise establishments that paint the expansive London skyline to the new build properties nestled within thriving communities, buildings serve as a beacon of societal needs. The planned and precise architecture of buildings provides shelter and comfort for individuals, as well as meet business agendas to promote modern day living. Additionally, buildings serve a purpose as a form of protection where, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the design and construction of buildings is to create an environment suitable for human living: more favourable than the state of the natural environment outdoors construction and building protects us from: extremes of temperature moisture excessive noise To sustain these pivotal agendas, a comprehensive analysis of the physical factors within the environment of buildings, including temperature, light and sound are required for design and legislation for a building to function. The field of ‘Building Physics’ primarily addresses these physical factors to innovate ‘multifunctional solutions’, be more efficient, and build upon present designs, which can be adapted for future use. Moreover, the built environment is regarded as one of the biggest carbon emissions on the planet, so using building physics as an early design intervention can reduce energy consumption and minimise carbon emissions. This supports global manifestos of moving towards net zero and decreasing the likelihood of the detrimental effects caused by climate change. The main components of Building Physics Building Physics is composed of examining the functions of an interior physical environment, including air quality, thermal comfort, acoustics comfort (sound), and light : Air quality: Ventilation is needed for maintaining a safe environment and reducing the quantity of stale air - consisting of carbon dioxide and other impurities - within an interior environment. Air infiltration also contributes to a significant heat loss, where it is important to provide intentional ventilation to increase the efficiency of energy transfers within the building. Thus, good ‘airtightness’ of a building fabric, which can be considered as the building’s resistance to unintentional air infiltration or exfiltration, can enable planned airflows for ventilation. Thermal: The biggest influence within the field of Building Physics stems from an understanding of heat conductivity depending on the density and moisture content of the material, as well as heat transfers - conduction, convection, radiation and transition - to determine the suitability of materials used for construction. For example, a material such as a solid wood panel for walls and ceilings is favourable as it can be installed in layers, providing even temperature fields across the surface. It is important that a building has the ability to isolate its environment from external temperature conditions and have the correct building envelope - a barrier that separates the interior and exterior of a building. Acoustics: A regulated control of sound within buildings contributes towards maintaining habitable conditions for building users to make sure that sound is loud, undistorted, and the disturbances are reduced. Acoustics can be controlled and modified through material choices, such as installing sound-absorbing material. These materials can be adapted to reduce sound leakage, which are common in air openings, such as ventilators and doors, that are more likely to transmit sound than adjacent thicker walls. Light: Light provides an outlook of viewing an environment in an attractive manner, particularly using daylight as a primary source of enhancing the exterior of a building, whilst also functioning within a building. One strategy used to fulfil the purpose of light in buildings is designing windows for the distribution of daylight to a space. The window design has a divisive effect on the potential daylight and thermal performance of adjacent spaces, so it needs to be closely checked using the standardised methods, in order to be suitable for use. Additionally, as windows are exposed to the sky, daylighting systems can adapt windows to transmit or reflect daylight as a function of incident angle, for solar sharing, protection from glare and redirection of daylight. Overall, a key objective of sustaining a safe and eco-friendly building is to ensure that the space has proper heat and humidity aligning with a suitable degree of acoustic and visual comfort in order to sustain the health of the people using the building. Particularly within modern society, a combination of Building Physics principles and digitalised software, such as Building Information Modelling (BIM), can enhance the design process of a building to provide healthy environments for generations to come. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Titan Submersible REFERENCES Unsplash. A construction site with cranes [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://unsplash.com/photos/a-construction-site-with-cranes-mOA2DAtcd1w . Katunský D, Zozulák M. Building Physics . 2012. ISBN: 978-80-553-1261-3. Partel. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.partel.co.uk/resources/building-physics/#:~:text=According%20to%20WHO%20(World%20Health,%3A%20in%20contrast%2C%20allows%20productions . RPS Group. A day in the life of a senior building physics engineer [Internet]. [Accessed 4 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.rpsgroup.com/insights/consulting-uki/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-senior-building-physics-engineer/ . Cyprus International University. What is Building Physics and Building Physics Problems in General Terms [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: /mnt/data/What_Is_Building_Physics_and_Building_Ph.pdf. Centre for Alternative Technology. Airtightness and Ventilation [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://cat.org.uk/info-resources/free-information-service/eco-renovation/airtightness-and-ventilation/#:~:text=With%20good%20airtightness%2C%20effective%20ventilation,won't%20work%20as%20intended . KLH. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.klh.at/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/klh-building-physics-en.pdf . Watson JL. Climate and Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/98/1/Watson.pdf . Ruck N, Aschehoug Ø, Aydinli S, Christoffersen J, Edmonds I, Jakobiak R, et al. Daylight in Buildings - A source book on daylighting systems and components . 2000 Jun. Synergy Positioning Systems. How BIM Saves Time & Money for Construction Businesses [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://groupsynergy.com/synergy-positioning-news/how-bim-saves-time-money-for-construction-businesses . Project Gallery

Elements, compounds, and mixtures make up the building blocks of materials that shape our world. Read on to uncover how atoms, molecules, and reactions are fundamental to life on Earth. Chemistry Articles Elements, compounds, and mixtures make up the building blocks of materials that shape our world. Read on to uncover how atoms, molecules, and reactions are fundamental to life on Earth. You may also like: Medicine , Pharmacology The role of chemistry in medicine Medicinal chemistry and its uses Metal organic frameworks And their potential use in cancer drug delivery The biochemistry of cancer And how integrins can be desirable targets Metal compounds In anti-cancer drugs Female Nobel prize winners What were their contributions? Drug chirality Why is it important? Green chemistry And sustainability for the future Chemistry in space exploration What is its role? Environmental impact of electrical vehicles A chemical perspective From botulism to beauty Botulinum toxins Chemistry of an atomic bomb What is the key process behind these explosions? Vitamins Discussing their importance in the body The story of pigments and dyes The chemistry in an artist's palette Zinc fingers Transcription factors regulating gene expression Emotional chemistry On a molecular basis Nuclear safety The silent protectors Modern-day chemistry And its related challenges The story of the atom The history of the atomic model Nanoparticles A probable treatment for diabetes Exploring food at the molecular level Gastronomy Next

Vicuñas are members of the camelid family Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The cost of coats: celebrating 55 years of vicuña conservation 08/03/26, 18:25 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 15:03 Vicuñas are members of the camelid family This is article no. 1 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: Conserving the California condor . Is the softest coat in the world worth the near-extinction of a species? Just ask a vicuña, the wild cousin of llamas and alpacas. After being widely hunted in South America in the mid-20th century, the vicuña population thrives. Their recovery is considered one of the earliest successes in modern wildlife conservation, setting a precedent for sustainable development. October 2024 marked the 55th anniversary of the first international agreement to conserve these furry friends. In its honour, here is the story of vicuña conservation. What are vicuñas? Vicuñas have a unique biology. They are members of the camelid family ー which includes llamas, alpacas, and camels. Vicuñas live in high-altitude arid grasslands in South America (Figure 1). Their families consist of one alpha male, multiple females, and their offspring – while bachelor males form their own groups. Unlike other camelids, vicuña families remain together for most of the year. Vicuñas are herbivores with characteristic grazing and defecating behaviours that shape the surrounding plant community. Therefore, their ecological role cannot be underestimated. How vicuñas nearly went extinct However, vicuñas are hunted by humans because their wool is the finest and softest in the world. They are difficult to domesticate, and their habitat has no hiding spots, so they are easy poaching targets. Their intricate social structure means killing one vicuña has unforeseen impacts on the rest of the population. Consequently, expensive wool comes at the expense of a fascinating species. Demand for ultra-fine vicuña wool made hunting the animals a lucrative business in South America. Although 15th-16th century Inca rulers wore high-end clothing made from vicuña wool, it was usually harvested without killing the animals. European colonisation in the 19th-20th centuries opened vicuña wool to a wealthy international market, making poaching more popular and reckless than under Inca rule. These inconsiderate hunting practices continued after South American countries gained independence. As the luxurious wool remained in demand, the vicuña population decreased by over 99% between 1940 and 1965. Conservation policies saved the vicuñas South American national governments soon realised that indiscriminate vicuña hunting had to stop. As well as being ecologically important, vicuñas should not be allowed to go extinct because of their economic value. Peru had the largest proportion of the vicuña population, so in 1966 its government set up a nature reserve called Pampa Galeras. Creating this reserve involved negotiating with rural communities so that both people and vicuñas benefitted, for example, by employing locals at the reserve. This was one of the earliest examples of what is now known as sustainable development, which provides rural communities with a way of life that works alongside ecosystems rather than damaging them. Scientists found that vicuñas changed their social structures inside Pampa Galeras to maximise reproductive success. A 1987 study suggested that because females had more time to graze without the constant threat of predators and poachers, their reproductive success was higher. The creation of this reserve was the first of many successful steps South America took in the 1960s towards vicuña recovery. In October 1969, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia joined Peru in the efforts to conserve vicuñas. Their Convention for the Conservation of the Vicuña banned international trade and massively restricted hunting. Since the convention successfully led to a rise in vicuña numbers, it was modified in 1979 so that sustainable vicuña wool could be sold. Meanwhile, conservation laws were being established in the United States and European Union, the wildlife trade regulator CITES was established, and public awareness about the biodiversity crisis was rising. This international effort saved vicuñas from extinction, and today there are 350,000 to 500,000 of them ( Figure 2 ). Although governments have played a huge role in conserving the vicuña, local communities have also contributed. People in Chile and Peru have revived the non-lethal, Inca traditional way of shearing vicuña to harvest their wool. This has many benefits: locals are de-colonising their culture and re-connecting with their heritage, the wool provides a source of income, and the vicuña population remains stable. Vicuñas were classified as ‘least concern’ for conservation by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2018. Climate change, mite infestations, and competition with livestock are affecting the population today – but to a much smaller extent than poaching was. Thus, vicuñas are back to freely roaming the Andes. Conclusion Conserving the vicuña relied on political willpower and community involvement. In the 55+ years since, ecologists have used this charismatic and distinctive animal to galvanise wildlife conservation worldwide. The vicuña’s story should also remind us that what we wear has financial and ecological costs. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine igunanas / Gal á gapos tortoises REFERENCES Acebes, P., Wheeler, J., Baldo, J.L., Tuppia, P., Lichtenstein, G., Hoces, D. & Franklin, W.L. (2018) Vicuna: Vicugna vicugna . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 . Available from: https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/178499 (Accessed 12th September 2024). Bosch, P.C. & Svendsen, G.E. (1987) Behavior of Male and Female Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna Molina 1782) as It Relates to Reproductive Effort. Journal of Mammalogy . 68 (2): 425–429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/1381491 (Accessed 23rd September 2024). González, B. et al. (2019) Phylogeography and Population Genetics of Vicugna vicugna : Evolution in the Arid Andean High Plateau. Frontiers in Genetics . 10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00445 (Accessed 22nd September 2024). Karandikar, H., Donadio, E., Smith, J.A., Bidder, O.R. & Middleton, A.D. (2023) Spatial ecology of the Vicuña ( Lama vicugna ) in a high Andean protected area. Journal of Mammalogy . 104 (3): 509–518. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad018 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Lyster, S. (1985) VICUNA. In: International Wildlife Law: An Analysis of International Treaties concerned with the Conservation of Wildlife . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 88–94. Nolan, D. (2025) How an Ancestral Peruvian Ceremony Is Saving the Once-Endangered Vicuña . Smithsonian Magazine . Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/how-an-ancestral-peruvian-ceremony-is-saving-the-once-endangered-vicuna-180986933/ (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Reider, K.E. & Schmidt, S.K. (2021) Vicuña dung gardens at the edge of the cryosphere. Ecology . 102 (2): 1–3. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26998110 (Accessed 11th September 2024). UNESCO (2024) Ancestral practice promotes vicuña conservation and sustainable . unesco.org . Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/ancestral-practice-promotes-vicuna-conservation-and-sustainable-development-chiles-lauca-biosphere (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Vilá, B. & Arzamendia, Y. (2022) Weaving a vicuña shawl. Pastoralism . 12 (1): 46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-022-00260-6 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Wakild, E. (2020) Saving the Vicuña: The Political, Biophysical, and Cultural History of Wild Animal Conservation in Peru, 1964–2000. The American Historical Review . 125 (1): 54–88. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhz939 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Yacobaccio, H. (2009) The Historical Relationship Between People and the Vicuña. In: Gordon, I.J., ed. The Vicuña: The Theory and Practice of Community Based Wildlife Management . Boston, MA: Springer US: 7–20. Project Gallery

They are on the IUCN red list as 'vulnerable' Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Conservation of marine iguanas 29/03/26, 17:01 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:40 They are on the IUCN red list as 'vulnerable' The marine iguana ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus ), also known as the sea iguana, is a unique species. It is the world’s only ocean- going lizard. Their main food source is algae; large males can dive to forage for this source, while females feed during low tide. They can be found on rocky shorelines, but also on marshes, mangrove swamps and beaches of the Galapagos. Their range is limited to the Galapagos islands, so they are an isolated species. Currently, they are on the IUCN red list as ‘vulnerable’ with a current population estimated at 200,000, and conservation efforts are needed to stabilise populations. Key threats There are three key threats to iguana populations. The first is invasive species; animals such as pigs, dogs and cats feed on young hatchlings and iguana eggs, which reduces the long-term survival rate of the species. Marine iguanas have not yet developed defence strategies against these predators. Even humans introduce pathogens to the islands that pose a threat to the species, because of their isolated habitat, the marine iguana lacks immunity to many pathogens and so has a higher risk of contracting diseases. Climate change is another key threat. El Niño is a weather event that prevents cold, nutrient-rich waters, that the marine wildlife depends on, from reaching the Eastern Tropical Pacific. This depletes algae populations, and this food drop drastically reduces iguana populations ( Figure 1 ). With global warming, El Niño events are expected to be more prominent and more frequent. It has been found that during El Niño events, marine iguanas experience metabolic stress, resulting in reduced metabolic rates. In addition, pollution from humans like oil spills and microplastics are damaging their habitat. Current and future conservation methods Under the laws of Ecuador, marine iguanas are completely protected. Their land range is in the Galapagos National Park, and their sea range is within the Galapagos Marine Reserve. They are also listed on the CITES, which ensures monitoring the trade of endangered animals to inhibit damage to their numbers. Sanctuaries are also in place to mitigate against extinction, but their specialised diet is challenging. So, what does the future hold for marine iguanas? The biggest challenge is the distribution of the species. The population is scattered across the different islands of the Galapagos as such, there are at least 11 subspecies. This brings more complications to marine iguana conservation. As these subspecies specialise, it becomes less likely they will breed, thus more difficult to maintain the species population. Introducing education and awareness programmes will better equip us to the dangers faced by marine iguanas and could be a tourism idea for the Galapagos. This species is one of a kind, which is why it is so important for them to be protected.There should be a monitoring scheme, as suggested by MacLeod and Steinfartz, 2016 ( Figure 2 ), but the location of these subspecies makes it difficult to monitor them. However, there was a recent study using drone-based methods which showed promising results ( Figure 3 ). The overarching question remains: do we continue to conserve the current population in the Galapagos, or should we relocate the species to a less endangered habitat? Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Conservation of Galapagos Tortoises / 55 years of vicuna conservation Project Gallery

The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Looking at the rare earth elements Last updated: 23/02/26, 21:36 Published: 26/02/26, 08:00 The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Introduction President Trump said in reference to a proposed minerals deal with Ukraine: We're telling Ukraine they have very valuable rare earths. Over the past few decades, the technological revolution has expanded the applications of the rare earth elements (REEs) from modern electronics to renewable energy sources. Despite the name, the REEs are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, but their perceived scarcity is centred around difficulties in extracting and processing. As REE refining is currently monopolised by China, access to these materials is a constant source of geopolitical tension. The REEs comprise the lanthanide series as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), and are characterised by the similarity of their chemical properties. Therefore, this article aims to introduce some of the fundamental chemistry of the rare earth elements to contextualise their role in modern technologies. Chemical properties of the REEs Scandium and yttrium are considered “honorary lanthanides,” as they form highly ionic, charge‑dense +3 cations when ionised. However, as they are transition metals, their properties cannot be explained by considering the f‑orbitals. The f‑orbitals are a set of seven orbitals which can hold a maximum of 14 electrons. For the lanthanides, each element has a set of 4f and 6s valence orbitals, with cerium (Ce),lanthanum (La), gadolinium (Gd), and lutetium (Lu) also having an occupied 5d¹ orbital. The 4f orbitals are generally contracted because of the nuclear charge felt by the electrons in these orbitals. As the atomic radius across the period decreases, this contraction is felt more strongly, meaning the resulting ions become more charge‑dense. This phenomenon is known as the lanthanide contraction. The contracted nature of the 4f orbitals explains why the lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 oxidation state (O.S). The 4f electrons are strongly attracted to the nucleus, making them energetically unfavourable to remove. Therefore, once the two 6s electrons and one 4f (or sometimes 5d) electron are removed, further ionisation becomes much more difficult. This is reflected by the ionisation potentials of the lanthanides ( Figure 1 ). However, some lanthanides can form stable +2 O.S (samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), and ytterbium (Yb)), while Ce can form a +4 O.S ( Figure 2 ). This is because of the electronic configurations of these elements. For example, Eu has an electronic configuration of [Xe] 4f⁷ 6s²; therefore, by removing two electrons, the ion becomes exchange‑energy stabilised (Eu²⁺ [Xe] 4f⁷). Another notable property of the lanthanides is their large magnetic moments. This again is a consequence of the 4f orbitals. Magnetism is determined by the number of unpaired electrons an element has and its orbital angular momentum. Orbital angular momentum is an intrinsic property and becomes more prevalent with larger elements. Therefore, as the 4f orbitals can hold up to seven unpaired electrons, coupled with the intrinsic heaviness of the lanthanides, they often exhibit strong magnetic behaviour. Applications Catalytic Converters As previously mentioned, most lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 O.S, Ce being a key exception due to its ability to cycle between +3 and +4. This property makes Ce particularly valuable in catalytic converters — vehicle exhaust devices which help reduce emissions of toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO). Using CeO₂ as a catalyst, CO₂ and N₂ are generated as less harmful by‑products ( Figure 2 ). Chemical Reagents The redox flexibility of certain lanthanides is also exploited in organic chemistry. Ce(IV) and Sm(II) compounds serve as effective oxidising and reducing agents respectively. Reagents such as ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) and cerium ammonium sulphate (CAS) are frequently used as selective oxidants, while samarium bromide (SmBr₂) is an effective reductant. MRI & Chiral Shift Reagents The magnetic properties of the lanthanides can be exploited in medical imaging, particularly in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Prior to an MRI scan, patients may be injected with a gadolinium (Gd³⁺) complex, such as [Gd(DTPA)]²⁻ ( Figure 4 ), to enhance image contrast. By coordinating water molecules and increasing the proton relaxation rate, these complexes cause certain regions of tissue to appear brighter and more easily distinguishable. Chemically, this principle is utilised when NMR spectroscopy is conducted in the laboratory. Fundamentally, MRI and NMR machines work in the same way, so by adding small quantities of paramagnetic lanthanide reagents to a proton NMR sample, changes in the chemical shift can be induced. These “lanthanide shift reagents” increase the proton relaxation rate, which reduces signal overlap and allows specific proton environments to be more easily identified. Commonly used lanthanide reagents include Eu³⁺ and Pr³⁺ complexes. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs. While chemically similar, each element has a broad range of diverse applications, whether as magnets, reagents, or even phosphors in TV sets. Certain to dominate geopolitics for the foreseeable future, understanding the chemistry and applications of the REEs has never been more important. Written by Antony Lee Project Gallery

A (possibly) new class of semiconductors Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The search for a room-temperature superconductor 14/07/25, 16:02 Last updated: Published: 13/01/24, 15:19 A (possibly) new class of semiconductors In early August, the scientific community was buzzing with excitement over the groundbreaking discovery of the first room-temperature superconductor. As some rushed to prove the existence of superconductivity in the material known as LK-99, others were sceptical of the validity of the claims. After weeks of investigation, experts have concluded that LK-99 was likely not the elusive room-temperature superconductor but rather a different type of magnetic material with interesting properties. But what if we did stumble upon a room-temperature superconductor? What could this mean for the future of technology? Superconductivity is a property of some materials at extremely low temperatures that allows the material to conduct electricity with no resistance. Classical physics cannot explain this phenomenon, and instead, we have to turn to quantum mechanics to provide a description of superconductors. Inside superconductors, electrons are paired up and can move through the structure of the material without experiencing any friction. The pairs of electrons are broken up by the thermal energy from temperature, so they will only exist for low temperatures. Therefore, this theory, known as BCS theory after the physicists who formulated it, does not explain the existence of a high-temperature superconductor. To describe high-temperature superconductors, such as those occurring at room temperature, more complicated theories are needed. The magic of superconductors lies in their property of zero resistance. Resistance is a cause of energy waste in circuits due to heating, which leads to the unwanted loss of power, making for inefficient operation. Physically, resistance is caused by electrons colliding with atoms in the structure of a material, causing energy to be lost in the process. The ability for electrons to move through superconductors without experiencing any collisions results in no resistance. Superconductors are useful as components in circuits as they cause no wasted power due to heating effects and are completely energy-efficient in this aspect. Normally, using superconductors requires complex methods of cooling them down to typical superconducting temperatures. For example, the temperature at which copper becomes superconducting is 35 K, or in other words, around 130 °C colder than the temperature at which water freezes. These methods are expensive to implement, which prevents them from being implemented on a wide scale. However, having a room-temperature superconductor would allow access to the beneficial properties of the material, such as its resistance, without the need for extreme cooling. The current record holders for highest-temperature superconductors are the cuprate superconductors at around −135 °C. These are a family of materials made up of layers of copper oxides alternating with layers of other metal oxides. As the mechanism for superconductivity is yet to be revealed, scientists are still scratching their heads over how this material can exhibit superconducting properties. Once this mechanism is discovered, it may be easier to predict and find high-temperature superconducting materials and may lead to the first room-temperature superconductor. Until then, the search continues to unlock the next frontier in low-temperature physics… For more information on superconductors: [1] Theory behind superconductivity [2] Video demonstration Written by Madeleine Hales Related articles: Semiconductor manufacturing / Semiconductor laser technology / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Titan Submersible Project Gallery