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From the eyes of a chemist Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Polypharmacy: the complex landscape of multiple medications 10/07/25, 10:30 Last updated: Published: 21/09/24, 15:48 From the eyes of a chemist The concurrent use of many medications by a patient, known as polypharmacy, poses a complex challenge to modern healthcare, especially for the elderly and those with chronic diseases. Polypharmacy raises the risk of adverse drug responses, drug interactions, and medication non-adherence, even though it is essential for managing complicated health concerns. To maximise patient outcomes and guarantee safe treatment regimens, it is crucial to recognise the chemical interactions and effects of different medications. The chemistry behind polypharmacy Polypharmacy stems from the intricate interactions between several chemicals in the human body. Every drug has unique chemical components intended to interact with biological targets in order to provide therapeutic benefits. Nevertheless, when several medications are taken at once, their combinations may have unexpected effects. Understanding polypharmacy requires a thorough understanding of pharmacokinetics—the way the body absorbs, distributes, metabolises, and excretes medications—and pharmacodynamics—the effects of pharmaceuticals on the body. For example, some pharmaceuticals may cause or inhibit the enzymes that metabolise other drugs, changing the levels of the drug and possibly increasing its toxicity or decreasing its effectiveness. Analytical methods in polypharmacy management Chemistry offers a number of analytical and instrumental techniques for efficient polypharmacy management. Drug levels in the blood are tracked using methods like mass spectrometry (MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to make sure they stay within therapeutic ranges. These techniques support dose modifications by identifying possible medication interactions. Furthermore, it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of chemistry in the creation of drug interaction databases and predictive modelling instruments. By helping medical professionals foresee and minimise harmful medication interactions, these materials help to ensure patient safety. The role of healthcare professionals To successfully manage the complexity of polypharmacy, healthcare professionals—including physicians, chemists, and nurses—need to have a solid understanding of chemistry. Their expertise is essential for assessing each drug's requirement, taking possible interactions into account, and coming up with methods to make drug regimens easier to follow. Managing polypharmacy is especially important for chemists. They assess patients' prescriptions, look for any interactions, and suggest changes or substitutes using their knowledge of medicinal chemistry. Pharmacists who participate in collaborative care can greatly lower the hazards related to polypharmacy. Innovations in medication management Chemistry-driven advances in medical technology are improving polypharmacy management. Real-time alerts regarding potential drug interactions can be provided to prescribers through computerised physician order entry (CPOE) systems that are coupled with clinical decision support systems (CDSS). Optimising polypharmacy may also be possible with the emergence of personalised medicine, which adjusts drug regimens according to a patient's genetic profile. Conclusion Polypharmacy remains a significant challenge in healthcare, demanding a comprehensive understanding of chemistry and pharmacology to manage effectively. Healthcare practitioners can minimise the hazards associated with several medications and provide safer and enhanced patient care by utilising modern analytical methods, prediction technologies, and multidisciplinary teamwork. Written by Laura K Project Gallery

Preserving trust and exposing betrayal Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Uncovering the Disturbing World of Healthcare Serial Killers 14/07/25, 15:06 Last updated: Published: 25/02/24, 15:08 Preserving trust and exposing betrayal Background We depend heavily on medical professionals during our most defenceless and vulnerable moments, trusting them with our well-being. However, what would happen if this trust was broken? What if the medical professionals were to pose harm rather than fulfil their intended function as protectors? Healthcare serial killers are one of the most disturbing subsets of serial killers - the name itself suggests that individuals within the healthcare industry exploit their position to murder patients. True crime and media often go hand in hand in the modern era. There are many web series, TV dramas, and movies that delve into real-life narratives. Accumulating over 68.31 million hours watched, Netflix's film "The Good Nurse" in 2022, depicts the story of Charles Cullen, a figure recognised as one of the most prolific serial killers in American history. The film quickly rose to prominence and became the best-performing English-language film production on the platform. This phenomenon in media underscores a broader pattern wherein the portrayal of serial killers becomes increasingly prevalent within popular culture. Motives Criminologists and true crime filmmakers engaged in extensive efforts to figure out what motivates serial killers to carry out such horrific crimes for decades. The motives behind killings are diverse, complex and sometimes unknown. Some perpetrators may attempt to justify their actions by claiming to ease the patient's suffering under the guise of “mercy killing”. Others can be driven by the desire to be praised, to exert power or control over the patient, or to gain financial benefits. For example, Dr. Harold Shipman, a British doctor killed over 200 patients, primarily driven by sadistic motives. His misdeeds were ultimately exposed when he attempted to forge the will of one of his victims. Key traits and methods Although it might be tempting to create a list of characteristics typical of healthcare serial killers, no universally applicable formula defines their personalities. However, according to research by Yardley, E., and Wilson, D. (2016), attention-seeking, strange behaviour when a patient dies, and frequent changes in hospital working locations are characteristics that healthcare serial killers frequently exhibit. Furthermore, the study conducted by Birmingham City University criminologists shows that the most popular technique employed by healthcare serial killers is poisoning, specifically through insulin overdose. Notably, insulin overdose was the principal method employed by 25% of healthcare serial killers. For instance, in the case of British nurse Lucy Letby, who was given a life sentence for killing seven infants and attempting to murder six others, the use of an insulin overdose was a notable method employed. Ethics Examining the ethical implications of healthcare serial killing is essential, as it involves the breach of trust and violation of core principles of the healthcare profession. The relationship between a medical professional and a patient is based solely on trust, which healthcare serial killers have exploited. What's worse is that medical professionals frequently target elderly, chronically ill, or vulnerable patients, highlighting significant ethical issues. Challenges Detecting healthcare serial killers is difficult, primarily because their victims are frequently elderly or suffering from chronic illnesses. Investigations typically stem from an unusually high number of deaths rather than patient or family complaints. Even if the police initiate an investigation, it may be too late to collect physical evidence, as bodies may have been cremated or significantly decomposed, leaving no trace of substances in the patients' systems. Furthermore, in rare cases where a medical professional faces charges, they may use defences such as assisted suicides or attribute deaths to unintentional medical errors, potentially resulting in reduced sentences or lesser degrees of homicide . Conclusion Healthcare serial killers are a deeply disturbing phenomenon within the medical profession. The idea that people upon whom we rely on to take care of us can occasionally exhibit malevolence is extremely unsettling. By employing research to understand the existence of serial killers in the healthcare industry, we can address the many questions that surround their behaviour. Studying the motive behind such crimes, looking at the key traits and methods, and addressing the challenges associated with identifying such perpetrators provide insights crucial for safeguarding the community of patients who are at risk and preserving the core moral principles of the medical field. Let’s conclude by saying that the way that healthcare serial killings are portrayed in popular media is a clear reminder of the moral and professional obligations inherent in the provision of healthcare. Written by Prabha Rana Related articles: Neurology of serial killers / Intern Blues References ‘The True Story Behind Netflix’s The Good Nurse’. TIME, 27 Oct. 2022, https://time.com/6225730/the-good-nurse-true-story-netflix/ . Menshawey, Rahma, and Esraa Menshawey. ‘Brave Clarice-Healthcare Serial Killers, Patterns, Motives, and Solutions’. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, vol. 19, no. 3, Sept. 2023, pp. 452–63. PubMed, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-022-00556-4 . Tinning, Danielle. ‘Meet The British Physician Who Killed Hundreds Of His Patients — On Purpose’. All That’s Interesting, 21 Apr. 2023, https://allthatsinteresting.com/haroldshipman . Guy, Fiona. ‘Medical Serial Killers: The So-Called Angels of Mercy’. Crime Traveller, 27 June 2018, https://www.crimetraveller.org/2018/06/healthcare-medical-serial-killers/ . Townsend, Mark. ‘Study Identifies Key Traits and Methods of Serial Killer Nurses’. The Guardian, 22 Nov. 2014. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/uknews/2014/nov/22/study-identified-key-traits-serial-killer-nurses . Project Gallery

A leap forward in primate research Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Monkey see, monkey clone 10/07/25, 10:22 Last updated: Published: 07/09/24, 19:20 A leap forward in primate research Chinese scientists have recently unlocked the secrets of cloning Rhesus monkeys offering new hope for medical breakthroughs. Introduction When we think of cloning, perhaps the first thing that comes to mind is Dolly the sheep, the first mammal ever cloned from an adult cell back in 1996. This groundbreaking achievement inspired a revolution leading to the successful cloning of other mammals such as cattles and pigs. However, cloning primates, especially Rhesus monkeys, has proven to be a significant challenge due to the low success rates and high embryonic losses during development. What is cloning? Cloning is the process of creating an identical genetic copy of an organism. In mammals, this is typically done through a technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). In SCNT, the nucleus (the compartment storing genetic material) from a cell of the animal to be cloned is transferred into an egg cell that has had its own nucleus removed. This hybrid egg cell then develops into an embryo which is implanted into a surrogate mother to grow into a new individual. Despite the success in cloning other mammals, cloning primates has proven to be a significant challenge. However, the potential benefits of cloning primates for medical research make it a worthwhile endeavour. The importance of cloning primates You might be wondering why being able to clone primates is so important. Well, primates like the Rhesus monkey are invaluable models for studying human diseases and create new therapies! The reason we can use them as disease models is because they share about 93% genetic identity and have very similar physiological characteristics with humans. For instance, Rhesus monkeys also experience a decline in their cognitive abilities as they age, and they lose important connections between brain cells in the part of the brain responsible for complex thinking, even when there's no severe brain damage. Moreover, Rhesus monkeys also develop the same kinds of brain changes that we see in people with Alzheimer's disease, such as the buildup of sticky proteins called amyloid-beta and tangled fibres of another protein called tau.These similarities make them excellent models for understanding how human diseases progress and for developing new treatments. So, by cloning these animals, researchers might be able to create monkeys with specific genetic changes that mimic human diseases even more closely. This could allow scientists to study these diseases in greater detail and develop more effective therapies. Cloning primates could give us a powerful tool to fight against some of the most challenging disorders that affect the human brain! A breakthrough in primate cloning Now, a group of scientists in China have made a breakthrough in primate cloning. They successfully cloned a Rhesus monkey using a novel technique called trophoblast replacement (TR).This innovative approach not only helps us better understand the complex process of cloning but also offers a promising way to improve the efficiency of primate cloning, bringing us one step closer to unlocking the full potential of this technology for medical research and beyond. The awry DNA methylation of cloned conkey embryos To understand why cloning monkeys is so challenging, Liao and colleagues (2024) took a closer look at the genetic material of embryos created in two different ways. They compared embryos made through a standard fertility treatment called intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) with those created via the cloning technique, SCNT. What they found was quite surprising! To make matters worse, the scientists also noticed that certain genes, known as imprinted genes, were not functioning properly in the SCNT embryos. Imprinted genes are a special group of genes that play a crucial role in embryo development. In a healthy embryo, only one copy of an imprinted gene (either from the mother or the father) is active, while the other copy is silenced. But in the cloned embryos, both copies were often incorrectly switched on or off. Here's the really concerning part: these genetic abnormalities were not just present in the early embryos but also in the placentas of the surrogate monkey mothers carrying the cloned offspring. This suggests that the issues arising from the cloning process start very early in development and continue to affect the pregnancy. Liao and colleagues suspect that the abnormal DNA methylation patterns might be responsible for the imprinted gene malfunction. It's like a game of genetic dominos – when one piece falls out of place, it can cause a whole cascade of problems down the line. Piecing together this complex genetic puzzle is crucial for understanding why primate cloning is so difficult and how we can improve its success in the future. By shedding light on the mysterious world of DNA methylation and imprinted genes, Liao and colleagues have brought us one step closer to unravelling the secrets behind monkey cloning. Digging deeper: what does the data reveal? Liao et al. (2024) discovered that nearly half of the cloned monkey foetuses died before day 60 of the gestation period, indicating developmental defects in the SCNT embryos during implantation. They also found that the DNA methylation level in SCNT blastocysts was 25% lower compared to those created through ICSI (30.0% vs. 39.6%). Furthermore, out of the 115 human imprinting genes they examined in both the embryos and placentas, four genes - THAP3, DNMT1, SIAH1, and RHOBTB3 - showed abnormal expression and loss of DNA methylation in SCNT embryos. These findings highlight the complex nature of the reprogramming process in SCNT and the importance of imprinted genes in embryonic development. By understanding these intricacies, scientists can develop targeted strategies to improve the efficiency of primate cloning. The power of trophoblast replacement To avoid the anomalies in SCNT placentas, the researchers developed a new method called TR. In this method, they transferred the inner cell mass (the part of the early embryo that develops into the baby) from an SCNT embryo into the hollow cavity of a normal embryo created through fertilisation, after removing its own inner cell mass. The idea behind this technique is to replace the abnormal placental cells in the SCNT embryo with healthy ones from the normal embryo. And it worked! Using this method, along with some additional treatments, Liao et al. (2024) successfully cloned a healthy male Rhesus monkey that has survived for over two years (FYI his name is Retro!). The ethics of cloning While the scientific advances in primate cloning are exciting, they also raise important ethical questions. Some people worry about the potential misuse of this technology, for instance to clone humans, which is widely considered unethical. Others are concerned about the well-being of cloned animals, as the cloning process can sometimes lead to health problems. As scientists continue to make progress in cloning technology, it is essential to have open discussions about the ethical implications of their work. Rules and guidelines must be put in place to ensure that this technology is developed and used responsibly, with the utmost care for animal welfare and the concerns of society. Looking to the future The successful cloning of a rhesus monkey using TR opens up new avenues for primate research. This technology can help scientists create genetically identical monkeys to study a wide range of human diseases, from neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's to infectious diseases like HIV and COVID-19. The trophoblast replacement technique developed by Liao et al. (2024) increases the likelihood of successful cloning by replacing the abnormal placental cells in the SCNT embryo with healthy ones from a normal embryo. However, it is important to note that this technique does not affect the genetic similarity between the clone and the original monkey, as the inner cell mass, which gives rise to the foetus, is still derived from the SCNT embryo. Moreover, this research provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of embryonic development and the role of imprinted genes in this process. By understanding these fundamental biological processes, scientists can not only improve the efficiency of cloning but also develop new strategies for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. As we look to the future, cloning monkeys could help us make groundbreaking discoveries in medical research and develop new treatments for human diseases. However, we must also carefully consider the ethical implications of cloning primates and ensure that this powerful tool is used responsibly and for the benefit of society. Written by Irha Khalid Related articles: Do other animals get periods? / Germline gene therapy (GGT) REFERENCES Beckman, D. and Morrison, J.H. (2021). Towards developing a rhesus monkey model of early Alzheimer’s disease focusing on women’s health. American Journal of Primatology , [online] 83(11). doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23289 . Liao, Z., Zhang, J., Sun, S., Li, Y., Xu, Y., Li, C., Cao, J., Nie, Y., Niu, Z., Liu, J., Lu, F., Liu, Z. and Sun, Q. (2024). Reprogramming mechanism dissection and trophoblast replacement application in monkey somatic cell nuclear transfer. Nature Communications , [online] 15(1), p.5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43985-7 . Morrison, J.H. and Baxter, M.G. (2012). The ageing cortical synapse: hallmarks and implications for cognitive decline. Nature Reviews Neuroscience , [online] 13(4), pp.240–250. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3200 . Paspalas, C.D., Carlyle, B.C., Leslie, S., Preuss, T.M., Crimins, J.L., Huttner, A.J., Dyck, C.H., Rosene, D.L., Nairn, A.C. and Arnsten, A.F.T. (2017). The aged rhesus macaque manifests Braak stage III/IV Alzheimer’s‐like pathology. Alzheimer’s & Dementia , [online] 14(5), pp.680–691. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2017.11.005 . Shi, L., Luo, X., Jiang, J., Chen, Y., Liu, C., Hu, T., Li, M., Lin, Q., Li, Y., Huang, J., Wang, H., Niu, Y., Shi, Y., Styner, M., Wang, J., Lu, Y., Sun, X., Yu, H., Ji, W. and Su, B. (2019). Transgenic rhesus monkeys carrying the human MCPH1 gene copies show human-like neoteny of brain development. National Science Review , [online] 6(3), pp.480–493. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwz043 . Project Gallery

Based on the ideas of Aristippus and Aristotle Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A perspective on well-being: hedonic VS eudaimonic well-being 08/07/25, 16:16 Last updated: Published: 02/07/24, 10:51 Based on the ideas of Aristippus and Aristotle Since ancient times well-being has been discussed in two broad domains: hedonic and eudaimonic. Hedonic well-being is based on the ideas of Aristippus, who proposed that the ultimate aim of all human endeavours and pursuits is pleasure (hedonism). Therefore, hedonic well-being (aka subjective well-being) is a shorter-term evaluation of well-being that balances between positive and negative emotions and between pleasure attainment and pain avoidance. A real-life example of behaviour that leads to hedonic happiness is spending a large amount of money on a designer item to satisfy the need to stay current with fashion trends. According to Keyes et al. (2002), the three aspects of subjective well-being are positive affect (mood), negative affect (mood) and life satisfaction. The most common tools used to measure subjective well-being are the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) by Watson, Clark & Tellegen (1988) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) by Diener et al. (1985). Subjective well-being has been associated with having a present temporal focus and higher income levels, suggesting it is grounded in physical aspects of life and not the greater goals of self-actualisation. On the other hand, eudaimonic well-being is based on the philosophy of Aristotle, who argued that humans can only achieve true happiness and flourish by finding meaning and purpose in life (eudaimonia). Thus, eudaimonic well-being (aka psychological well-being) is a longer-term evaluation of well-being that results from engagement with development and challenges in life posed during the search for meaning and self-reflection. An example of an action that leads to eudaimonic happiness is reading philosophical books and learning more about life holistically. According to Keyes et al. (2002), the six aspects of psychological well-being are autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relations with others and self-acceptance. The Scales of Psychological Well-being by Riff (1989) are often used to measure eudaimonic well-being. Recent research shows that psychological well-being is associated with higher levels of self-compassion, mindfulness practices and exposure to natural environments. Therefore, hedonic and eudaimonic well-being represent distinct perspectives on life. Hedonic well-being is more focused on a person's present emotional state and evaluation of their current life circumstances, whereas eudaimonic well-being takes a longer-term view, considering how well a person is functioning and developing their potential over time. The two different types of well-being also are related to separate life outcomes. Higher subjective well-being is associated with better physical health, longevity and relationship quality; while greater psychological well-being is linked to resilience, continued personal growth and self-actualisation. Whilst perhaps it is impossible to determine which well-being is more beneficial, it is definite that hedonic and eudaimonic well-being are intertwined into our daily lives. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related articles: Motivating the mind / Environmental factors and exercise / Physical and mental health / Life under occupation REFERENCES Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3 (1), 1-43. Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of personality assessment , 49 (1), 71-75. Howell, A. J., Passmore, H.-A., & Holder, M. D. (2023). Savoring the here and now: The role of temporal focus for well-being. Journal of Positive Psychology, 18 (2), 221-236. Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: the empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of personality and social psychology , 82 (6), 1007. Koo, J., & Park, K. (2022). Does money buy happiness after all? Revisiting the income-wellbeing link. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23 (3), 1133-1154. Mair, C., Jarrett, M., Watson, M., & Jones, P. B. (2022). The impact of nature exposure on psychological well-being: A systematic review. Environmental Research, 208 , 112677. Krieger, T., Hermann, H., Zimmermann, J., & grosse Holtforth, M. (2022). The role of self-compassion in promoting psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69 (4), 380–396. Ryff, C.D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 , 1069–1081. Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83 (1), 10-28. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of personality and social psychology , 54 (6), 1063. Project Gallery

Linking a country's HDI with its COVID-19 mortality rate Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Correlation between wealthy countries and COVID-19 mortality rate 09/07/25, 13:35 Last updated: Published: 24/08/23, 16:20 Linking a country's HDI with its COVID-19 mortality rate Investigation title: Could there have been a correlation between very rich countries and COVID-19 mortality rate? Investigation period: December 2019- November 2020 (Approx. 1 year) Background The World Health Organisation (WHO) were first alerted about coronavirus on the 31st December 2019, by a lot of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China that has a population of 11 million. Furthermore, by 15th January 2020 there were precisely 289 cases recorded in countries such as: Thailand, Japan, S.Korea, and other places in China. And of the original cases there were 6 deaths, 51 severe cases - 12 of which were in critical condition. Meanwhile, the virus responsible for the cases was isolated and had its genome mapped, and was shared on 12th January. HDI represents the measurement of development. This is a composite of Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, mean years of education and life expectancy at birth, to measure the development of a country. It is calculated between a scale of 0 (least developed) to 1 (most developed) and all its values are to 3 significant figures. HDI values of 2019 and countries of HDI greater than 0.800 were used, as these are all regarded as very high HDI-countries so were in the scope of this investigation. Therefore, this research aimed to determine the impact of human development on the number of mortalities caused by SARS-CoV-2; where human development is measured by HDI, and the number of mortalities per hundred thousand from December 2019 to November 2020. Method Stratified sampling produced 12 countries, in descending order of HDI value: - Australia, Netherlands, UK, Austria, Spain, Estonia, UAE, Portugal, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Romania, Malaysia See Table 4 . Results See Chart 2 . r= 0.321 (3 s.f.) – Pearson’s test ∴ There is a moderate positive linear correlation between HDI and mortality rate due to SARS-CoV-2 per 100,000. Further stats testing- Spearman’s Rank ∑D^2 = 216 n = 12 Rs = 1 - (6 ∑D^2 )/ n(n^2 – n) = 1 - (6 x 216) 1584 = 0.182 (3 d.p.) Rs = 0.245 ＜ Critical Value (0.0.587591) ∴ There is no correlation between HDI and mortality rate due to coronavirus per 100,000. Conclusion The null hypothesis was accepted: there is no correlation between a country’s HDI and its mortality rate due to SARS-CoV-2. A biogeographical reason for this is that the more developed countries (such as those in my investigation- for example, the UK) have a higher level of immigration from latitudes closer to the equator, therefore there is a section of their society with increased susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 due to vitamin D deficiency. It is known that low vitamin D levels have a negative impact on immune function and that low vitamin D levels are common in the immigrant population. Therefore, it is likely that there is a link between vitamin D deficiency and mortality rate per 100,000, however this could be overstated due to confounding factors such as socioeconomic status, residence and employment. This would explain why countries at higher latitudes like the Netherlands have higher mortality rates per 100,000 (41.80) which is the third highest HDI-country in this investigation. Another explanation for this non-correlation could be that the less developed countries could be more used to dealing with a pandemic, or stress on a healthcare system, due to previous experience. For example, after the SARS outbreak, many countries decided to prepare in case of a pandemic, however some large HDI-countries such as the UK chose not to and even ignored other warnings on the effects of a pandemic (like the exercise signs simulation). Moreover, studies have shown that as a very high HDI-country becomes more developed, its healthcare system continues to develop until it reaches a peak where its effectiveness is undermined by economic benefit or interest. This would explain why the UK had a death rate of 68.00 per 100,000 and a total death count of over 45,000 (as of December 2020). Implications Since there is no correlation between a country’s HDI index and its mortality rate of COVID-19, this may apply to other diseases that became pandemics such as 1918’s Spanish Flu, or more recent ones like the SARS outbreak in the early 21st century. As for tropical diseases (malaria, dengue, chikungunya and others) and other illnesses such as the common cold and the flu, these diseases present in only certain geographies. This means that the countries with these ailments will be of a similar HDI and economical status; therefore there would be a correlation between a country’s HDI index and its mortality rate of these diseases, to a certain extent. Investigation conducted and written by Roshan Gill Tables, charts, stats and calculations by Roshan Gill This summary by Manisha Halkhoree ‘Implications’ section by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: Causality vs correlation / Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Global Health Injustices (series) Project Gallery

An engineering case study Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Silicon hydrogel contact lenses 17/07/25, 11:08 Last updated: Published: 29/04/24, 10:59 An engineering case study Introduction Contact lenses have a rich and extensive history dating back over 500 years; when, in 1508, Leonardo Di Vinci first conceived the idea. It was not until the late 19th century that the concept of contact lenses as we know them now were realised. In 1887 F.E.Muller was credited with making the first eye covering that could improve vision without causing any irritation. This eventually led to the first generation of hydrogel-based lenses as the development of the polymer, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), allowed Rishi Agarwal to conceive the idea of disposable soft contact lenses. Silicon hydrogel contact lenses dominate the contemporary market. Their superior properties have extended wear options and have transformed the landscape of vision correction. These small but complex items continue to evolve, benefiting wearers worldwide. This evolution is such that the most recent generation of silicon hydrogel lenses have recently been released and aim to phase out all the existing products. Benefits of silicon hydrogel lenses There are many benefits to this material’s use in this application. For example, the higher oxygen permeability improves user comfort and experience through relatively increased oxygen transmissibility that the material offers. These properties are furthered by the lens’ moisture retention which allows for longer wear times without compromising on comfort or eye health. Hence, silicon hydrogel lenses aimed to eradicate the drawbacks of traditional hydrogel lenses including: low oxygen permeability, lower lens flexibility and dehydration causing discomfort and long-term issues. This groundbreaking invention has revolutionised convenience and hygiene for users. The structure of silicon hydrogel lenses Lenses are fabricated from a blend of the two materials: silicon and hydrogel. The silicon component provides high oxygen permeability, while the hydrogel component contributes to comfort and flexibility. Silicon is a synthetic polymer and is inherently oxygen-permeable; it facilitates more oxygen to reach the cornea, promoting eye health and avoiding hypoxia-related symptoms. Its polymer chains form a network, creating pathways for oxygen diffusion. Whereas hydrogel materials are hydrophilic polymers that retain water, keeping the lens moist and comfortable as it contributes to the lens’s flexibility and wettability. Both materials are combined using cross-linking techniques which stabilise the matrix to make the most of both properties and prevent dissolution. (See Figure 1 ). There are two forms of cross-linking that enable the production of silicon hydrogel lenses: chemical and physical. Chemical cross-linking involves covalent bonds between polymer chains, enhancing the lens’s mechanical properties and stability. Additionally, physical cross-links include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and crystallisation. Both techniques contribute to the lens’s structure and properties and can be enhanced with polymer modifications. In fact, silicon hydrogel macromolecules have been modified to optimise properties such as: improved miscibility with hydrophilic components, clinical performance and wettability. The new generation of silicon hydrogel contact lenses Properties Studies show that wearers of silicon hydrogel lenses report higher comfort levels throughout the day and at the end of the day compared to conventional hydrogel lenses. This is attributed to the fact that they allow around 5 times more oxygen to reach the cornea. This is significant as reduced oxygen supply can lead to dryness, redness, blurred vision, discomfort, and even corneal swelling. What’s more, the most recent generation of lenses have further improved material properties, the first of which is enhanced durability and wear resistance. This is attributed to their complex and unique material composition, maintaining their shape and making them suitable for various lens designs. Additionally, they exhibit a balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties which have traditionally caused an issue with surface wettability. This generation of products have overcome this through surface modifications improving comfort by way of improving wettability. Not only this, but silicon hydrogel materials attract relatively fewer protein deposits. Reduced protein buildup leads to better comfort and less frequent lens replacement. Manufacturing There are currently two key manufacturing processes that silicon hydrogel materials are made with. Most current silicon hydrogel lenses are produced using either cast moulding or lathe cutting techniques. In lathe cutting, the material is polymerised into solid rods, which are then cut into buttons for further processing in computerised lathe - creating the lenses. Furthermore, surface modifications are employed to enhance this concept. For example, plasma surface treatments enhance biocompatibility and improve surface wettability compared to earlier silicon elastomer lenses. Future innovations There are various future expansions related to this material and this application. Currently, researchers are exploring ways to create customised and personalised lenses tailored to an individual’s unique eye shape, prescription, and lifestyle. One of the ways they are aiming to do this is by using 3D printing and digital scanning to allow for precise fitting. Although this is feasible, there are some challenges relating to scalability and cost-effectiveness while ensuring quality. Moreover, another possible expansion is smart contact lenses which aim to go beyond just improving the user's vision. For example, smart lenses are currently being developed for glucose and intraocular pressure monitoring to benefit patients with diseases including diabetes and glaucoma respectively. The challenges associated with this idea are data transfer, oxygen permeability and therefore comfort. (See Figure 2 ). Conclusion In conclusion, silicon hydrogel lenses represent a remarkable fusion of material science and engineering. Their positive impact on eye health, comfort, and vision correction continues to evolve. As research progresses, we can look forward to even more innovative solutions benefiting visually-impaired individuals worldwide. Written by Roshan Gill Related articles: Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor / Titan Submersible / Nanogels REFERENCES Optical Society of India, Journal of Optics, Volume 53, Issue 1, Springer, 2024 February Lamb J, Bowden T. The history of contact lenses. Contact lenses. 2019 Jan 1:2-17. Ţălu Ş, Ţălu M, Giovanzana S, Shah RD. A brief history of contact lenses. Human and Veterinary Medicine. 2011 Jun 1;3(1):33-7. Brennan NA. Beyond flux: total corneal oxygen consumption as an index of corneal oxygenation during contact lens wear. Optometry and vision science. 2005 Jun 1;82(6):467-72. Dumbleton K, Woods C, Jones L, Fonn D, Sarwer DB. Patient and practitioner compliance with silicon hydrogel and daily disposable lens replacement in the United States. Eye & Contact Lens. 2009 Jul 1;35(4):164-71. Nichols JJ, Sinnott LT. Tear film, contact lens, and patient-related factors associated with contact lens–related dry eye. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2006 Apr 1;47(4):1319-28. Jacinto S. Rubido, Ocular response to silicone-hydrogel contact lenses, 2004. Musgrave CS, Fang F. Contact lens materials: a materials science perspective. Materials. 2019 Jan 14;12(2):261. Shaker LM, Al-Amiery A, Takriff MS, Wan Isahak WN, Mahdi AS, Al-Azzawi WK. The future of vision: a review of electronic contact lenses technology. ACS Photonics. 2023 Jun 12;10(6):1671-86. Kim J, Cha E, Park JU. Recent advances in smart contact lenses. Advanced Materials Technologies. 2020 Jan;5(1):1900728. Project Gallery

Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Which fuel will be used for the colonisation of Mars? 01/10/25, 10:48 Last updated: Published: 30/04/23, 11:06 Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars The creation of a “Planet B” is an idea that has been circulating for decades; however we are yet to find a planet that is similar enough to our Earth that would be viable to live on without major modifications. Mars has been the most widely talked about planet in the media, and is commonly thought to be the planet that we know the most about. So, could it be habitable? If we were to move to Mars, how would society thrive? The dangers of living on Mars As a neighbour to Earth, Mars might be classed as habitable without more knowledge. Unfortunately, it is quite the opposite. On Earth, humans have access to air with an oxygen content of 21%, however Mars only has 0.13% oxygen. The difference in the air itself suggests an uninhabitable planet. Another essential factor of human life is food. There have indeed been attempts to grow crops in Martian soil, including tomatoes, with great levels of success. Unfortunately, the soil is toxic therefore ingesting these crops could cause significant side effects in the long term. It could be possible to introduce a laboratory that crops could be grown in, modelling Earth soil and atmospheric conditions however this would be difficult. Air and food are two resources that are essential and could not readily be available in a move to Mars. Food could be grown in laboratory style greenhouses and the air could be processed. It is important to note that these solutions are fairly novel. The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) was a component of the NASA Perseverance rover that was sent to Mars during 2020. Solid oxide electrolysis converts carbon dioxide, readily available in the atmosphere of Mars, into carbon monoxide and oxygen. MOXIE contributes to the idea that, in the move to Mars, oxygen would have to be ‘made’ rather than being readily available. The MOXIE experiment utilised nuclear energy to do this, and it was shown that oxygen could be produced at all times of day in multiple different weather conditions. It is possible to gain oxygen on Mars, but a plethora of energy is required to do so. What kind of energy would be better? With accessing oxygen especially, the energy source on Mars would need to be extremely reliable in order to ensure the population is safe. It is true that fossil fuels are reliable however it is increasingly obvious that the reason a move to Mars would be necessary is due to the lack of care of the Earth therefore polluting resources are to be especially avoided. A combination of resources is likely to be used. Wind power during the massive dust storms that find themselves on Mars regularly and solar power in clear weather, when the dust has not yet settled over the surface. One resource that would be essential is nuclear power. The public perception is mixed yet it is certainly reliable and that is the main requirement. After all, a human can only survive for around five minutes without oxygen. Time lost due to energy failures would be deadly. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Exploring Mercury / Artemis: the lunar south pole base / Total eclipses Project Gallery

How do they work? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A concise introduction to Markov chain models 20/03/25, 11:59 Last updated: Published: 09/03/24, 18:16 How do they work? Introduction A Markov chain is a stochastic process that models a system that transitions from one state to another, where the probability of the next state only depends on the current state and not on the previous history. For example, assuming that X 0 is the current state of a system or process, the probability of a state, X 1 , depends only on X 0 which is of course the current state of the system as stated. P ( X 1 ) = f ( P ( X 0 )) It may be hard to think of any real-life processes that follow this behaviour because there is the belief that all events happen in a sequence because of each other. Here are some examples: Games e.g. chess - If your king is in a certain spot on a chess board, there will be a maximum of 4 transition states that can be achieved that all depend on the initial position of chess piece. The parameters for the Markov model will obviously vary depending on your position on the board which is the essence of the Markov process. Genetics - The genetic code of an organism can be modelled as a Markov chain, where each nucleotide (A, C, G, or T) is a state, and the probability of the next nucleotide depends only on the current one. Text generation - Consider the current state as the most recent word. The transition states would be all possible words which could follow on from said word. Next word prediction algorithms can utilize a first-order Markov process to predict the next word in a sentence based on the most recent word. The text generation example is particularly interesting because only considering the previous word when trying to predict the next word sentence would lead to a very random sentence. That is where we can change things up using various mathematical techniques. k-Order Markov Chains (adding more steps) In a first-order Markov chain, we only consider the immediately preceding state to predict the next state. However, in k-order Markov chains, we broaden our perspective. Here’s how it works: Definition: a k-order Markov chain considers the previous states (or steps) when predicting the next state. It’s like looking further back in time to inform our predictions. Example: suppose we’re modelling the weather. In a first-order Markov chain, we’d only look at today’s weather to predict tomorrow’s weather. But in a second-order Markov chain, we’d consider both today’s and yesterday’s weather. Similarly, a third-order Markov chain would involve three days of historical data. By incorporating more context, k-order chains can capture longer-term dependencies and patterns. As k increases, the model becomes more complex, and we need more data to estimate transition probabilities accurately. See diagram below for a definition of higher order Markov chains. Markov chains for Natural Language Processing A Markov chain can generate text by using a dictionary of words as the states, and the frequency of words in a corpus of text as the transition probabilities. Given an input word, such as "How", the Markov chain can generate the next word, such as "to", by sampling from the probability distribution of words that follow "How" in the corpus. Then, the Markov chain can generate the next word, such as "use", by sampling from the probability distribution of words that follow "to" in the corpus. This process can be repeated until a desired length or end of sentence is reached. That is a basic example and for more complex NLP tasks we can employ more complex Markov models such as k-order, variable, n-gram or even hidden Markov models. Limitations of Markov models Markov models for tasks such as text generation will struggle because they are too simplistic to create text that is intelligent and sometimes even coherent. Here are some reasons why: Fixed Transition Probabilities: Markov models assume that transition probabilities are constant throughout. In reality, language is dynamic, and context can change rapidly. Fixed probabilities may not capture these nuances effectively. Local Dependencies: Markov chains have local dependencies, meaning they only consider a limited context (e.g., the previous word). They don’t capture long-range dependencies or global context. Limited Context Window: Markov models have a fixed context window (e.g., first-order, second order, etc.). If the context extends beyond this window, the model won’t capture it. Sparse Data : Markov models rely on observed data (transition frequencies) from the training corpus. If certain word combinations are rare or absent, the model struggles to estimate accurate probabilities. Lack of Learning: Markov models don’t learn from gradients or backpropagation. They’re based solely on observed statistics. Written by Temi Abbass Related articles: Latent space transformation s / Evolution of AI FURTHER READING 1. “Improving the Markov Chain Approach for Generating Text Used for…” : This work focuses on text generation using Markov chains. It highlights the chance based transition process and the representation of temporal patterns determined by probability over sample observations . 2 . “Synthetic Text Generation for Sentiment Analysis” : This paper discusses text generation using latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) and a text generator based on Markov chain models. It explores approaches for generating synthetic text for sentiment analysis . 3. “A Systematic Review of Hidden Markov Models and Their Applications” : This review paper provides insights into HMMs, a statistical model designed using a Markov process with hidden states. It discusses their applications in various fields, including robotics, finance, social science, and ecological time series data analysis . Project Gallery

A type of anaemia Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Iron deficiency anaemia 10/07/25, 10:20 Last updated: Published: 27/06/23, 17:10 A type of anaemia This article is no. 2 of the anaemia series. Next article: anaemia of chronic disease . Previous article: Anaemia . Aetiology Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) is the most frequent in children due to rapid growth (adolescence) and poor diets (infants), and in peri and post -menopausal women due to rapid growth (pregnancy) and underlying conditions. Anaemia typically presents, in around 50% of cases as headache, lethargy and pallor depending on the severity. Less common side effects include organomegaly and Pica which occurs in patients with zinc and iron deficiency and is defined by the eating of things with little to no nutritional value. Pathophysiology Iron is primarily sourced through diet, as haem (Fe2+) and non-haem iron (Fe3+). Fe2+ is sourced through meat, fish, and other animal-based products, Fe2+ can be absorbed directly through the enterocyte via the haem carrier protein1 (HCP1). Fe3+ is less easily absorbed and is mostly found in plant-based products. Fe3+ must be reduced and transported through the duodenum by the enzyme duodenal cytochrome B (DcytB) and the divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), respectively. Diagnosis As with any diagnosis, the first test to run would be a full blood count and this will occur with all the anaemias. In suspected cases of anaemia, the Haemoglobin (Hb) levels would be lower than 130 in males and 120 in females. The mean cell volume (MCV) is a starting point for pinpointing the type of anaemia, for microcytic anaemias you would expect to see an MCV < 80. Iron studies are best for diagnosing anaemias, for IDA you would expect most of the results to be low. A patient with IDA has little to no available iron so the body would halt the mechanism’s for storing iron. As ferratin is directly related to storage, low ferratin can be a lone diagnostic of IDA. Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) would be expected to be raised, as transferrin transports iron throughout the body, the higher it is the more iron it would be capable of binding to. Elliptocytes (tear drop) are elongated RBC, often described as pencil like in structure and are regularly seen in IDA and other anaemias. Typically, one would see hypochromic RBC as they contain less Hb than normal cells, the Hb is what gives red cells their pigment. It’s not uncommon to see other changes in RBC such as target cells, given their name due to the bullseye appearance. Target cells are frequently seen in cases with blood loss. Summary IDA is the most frequent anaemia affecting patients of all age ranges and usually presents with lethargy and headaches. Dietary iron from animal derivatives are the most efficient source of iron uptake. Diagnosis of IDA is through iron studies, red cell morphological investigations alongside clinical presentation, to rule out other causes. Written by Lauren Kelly Project Gallery

(LINNAEUS, 1758) Killer Whale Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Orcinus orca 10/07/25, 10:27 Last updated: Published: 06/06/23, 15:19 (LINNAEUS, 1758) Killer Whale DEFINITION & DIAGNOSIS Orcinus orca comes from the Delphinadae family (oceanic dolphins) and are the largest members of the dolphin family. The largest male orcas can grow up to 10 metres while for females, upto 8.5 metres. They have proportionately bigger dorsal fins that other big delphinids ranging between 1/10 th to 1/5 th of their body length. Orcinus orca can be easily identified by their colouration- black and white. It has also been seen that their skull is larger and holds the largest brain compared to all the other dolphins except Pseudorca crassidens (false killer whale). TAXONOMIC HISTORY Species: Orcinus orca Genus Orcinus, Family Delphinidae, Class Mammalia, Phylum Chordata, Kingdom Anamelia . Synonyms : Orca ater, Orca capensis, Orcinus glacialis, Delphius gladiator, Orcinus Nannus, Orca recipinna, Delphinus orca FEATURES Killer whales are predominantly black with a white midsection mammals with a blunt head that has no distinct beak. Females usually grow to be 7m and males 8.2m. They also have large flippers which, in adult males, can measure up to 20% of their body length but in females and young males they will only achieve up to 11-13% of their body length. They also have a dorsal fin which in males can reach up to 1.8 m in length but in females it only reaches 0.9m. This difference in dorsal fin length can be useful in determining the sex of O.orca . The white midsection runs across the whole lower jaw but tightens between the flippers. This white area can be seen as more yellowish incertain oceans, mainly in the Antarctic, and more predominantly in adolescents. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A killer whale’s skin is very smooth and the outer layer continuously sheds and behind the dorsal fin and back, there is a grey- white patch known as a ‘saddle patch’ (Figure.1). O.Orca have dorsal fins and have paddle shaped pectoral fins which help control directional movement. The skeleton of a killer whale is robust and long and has a skull, backbone and a bone structure of the pectoral flippers. In general it was seen that O.Orca’s facial anatomy was slightly different to a typical delphinid structure of an asymmetrical nasal sac but some structures were smaller compared to several other species. Their teeth are conical shaped and curved inward and backward (Figure 2). The temporal fossa is very large, showing that there is a strong temporal muscle helping with closure of the jaw. Meuth examined that the amino acid sequence of myoglobin of O.Orca had similarities to Globicephala than to other delphinids and phocoenids with myoglobin. The reniculi of the kidney of the killer whale was found to be in groups of four which are connected. Differences have been seen with Hyperoodon based on the venous return in the kidney and the O.Orca have no peripheral venous complex whilst Hyperoodon does. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR The breeding cycles range over many months and vary depending on where the species are found. For example, in the northeast Atlantic, mating takes place between late autumn to midwinter. The approximate annual birth is between 4 to 5% and the annual pregnancy rates are roughly around 13.7 to 39.2%, and the growth spurt of an adolescent male killer whale varies within a range of 5.5 to 6.1 m, this is also the the time in which they reach sexual maturity. This was confirmed after comparing and examining two different male adolescents. The individual with 656-cm and testes masses of 3,632 g (R) and 2,270 g (L) was not sexually mature, but the individual that was 724-cm with 11,400 g (R) and 12,200 g (L) testes was sexually mature. A further examination of 57 mature males found in the Antarctic showed us that the average testis width is 22 cm and length is 55 cm. The average testis mass was calculated at 10,000 g with a maximum mass of 23,100 g. Prior to this peak, the growth curves of males are similar to that of females. The length for a female killer whale to become sexually mature ranges between 4.6 to 5.4 m. This length varies depending on whether the individual is found in the northeastern Atlantic or the Antarctic. If they are found in the Atlantic they become sexually mature around 4.6m and if they are found in the Antarctic they become sexually mature around 5.4m. The ovaries size range from 10 to 12 cm by 5 to 7 cm. The maximum size of foetuses varies geographically. The largest found in the North Pacific was 274cm, the one in North Atlantic is 255cm and 250 cm for the Antarctic. The smallest foetuses recorded are 228 cm for the North Pacific, 183cm for the North Atlantic, and 227 cm for the Southern Hemisphere . Calves are usually dependent for at least 2 years and weaning takes place when a calf grows to 4.3 m in length with lactation lasting for around 12 months . The sex ratios at birth on average looks like it is 1:1, however the ratio of males to females has been reported as 1.34:1 for the Marion Islands and 0.83:1 for the northeast Pacific. ECOLOGY O.orca are carnivores and also opportunistic feeders so their diets change seasonally and based on the region they’re in. They mainly consume fish but it has been found that they can also prey on seabirds and other marine mammals such as minke whale, squid and pinnipeds. The estimated daily food intake is thought to be around 4% of their body weight. Predation for killer whales can also determine their migration such as in the Atlantic it is dependent on the migration of herring. Although O.Orca predate on many different species’, the only predator for orcinus orca is humans. They are mainly hunted for oil and meat or killed as they are competition for fishermen. In Japan and Norway the fresh meat of killer whales is eaten and the old meat is usually used for fertilisers or for bait. To figure out the age of O.orca the teeth can be sectioned and the dentine or cementum layers can be counted but this can be hard to determine due to the presence of accessory layers as well. The estimated lifespan of killer whales is thought to be 25 years but could be as long as 35 to 40 years. Killer whales aren’t subject to many diseases but the main one they face is infection in the pulp cavity due to the wearing down of teeth. If the infection penetrates through the pulp cavity it can cause a jaw abscess. In captive killer whales the main killers are pneumonia, bacterial infections, systemic mycosis and mediastinal abscess. Written by Jeevana Thavarajah Related article: Why blue whales don't get cancer Project Gallery