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Pushing the boundaries of analytical chemistry Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Advances in mass spectrometry technology 08/07/25, 16:22 Last updated: Published: 09/06/24, 10:48 Pushing the boundaries of analytical chemistry In the rapidly evolving field of analytical chemistry, recent technological innovations in mass spectrometry have revolutionised the analysis and characterisation of molecules. These advancements, including high-resolution mass analysers, ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), and ambient ionisation techniques, are pushing the boundaries of what can be achieved in chemical analysis. Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique that provides qualitative and quantitative information on an analyte. It is useful for measuring the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of one or more molecules present in a sample. The process consists of: Inlet - Allows the analyte to be connected to the mass spectrometre (MS). Could be direct inlet or gas chromotography (GC) / liquid chromatography (LC) to allow some separation before MS Ion source - Ensures that the analyte is ionised (i.e. carries a net charge) there are various types of ion sources depending on the analyte Analysers - Brings about a change in the velocity/trajectory of an ion from which the ions m/z can be determined i.e. characterises rate/velocity of ion. Multiple analysers are in tandem and different analysers can be combined to allow greater scope for analysis. A detection system is also required to amplify and measure ion signals. Analysers and detectors need to be held under low pressure - near vacuum. Detector - collects charge signals from ion beams. The computer then detects a spectrum. The electronic signals from the ions are then digitised to produce a mass spectrum of the analyte. High-resolution mass analysers One of the most significant breakthroughs in mass spectrometry is the development of high-resolution mass analysers. These instruments can differentiate between ions with extremely close mass-to-charge ratios, providing unprecedented levels of accuracy and specificity in compound identification. High-resolution mass spectrometry enables scientists to resolve complex mixtures and detect trace components with exceptional sensitivity, making it invaluable in fields such as metabolomics, environmental analysis, and drug discovery. Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS) Ion mobility spectrometry is another cutting-edge technology that enhances the capabilities of mass spectrometry. IMS separates ions based on their size, shape, and charge in the gas phase, providing an additional dimension of separation before mass analysis. This technique improves the resolution of complex samples, particularly for isomeric compounds that are challenging to distinguish using conventional methods. IMS coupled with mass spectrometry is widely applied in metabolomics, proteomics, and lipidomics research, enabling deeper insights into molecular structures and interactions. Ambient ionisation techniques Traditional mass spectrometry methods often require extensive sample preparation and ionisation processes in controlled laboratory environments. Ambient ionisation techniques have transformed this paradigm by enabling direct analysis of samples in their native states, including solids, liquids, and gases, without prior extraction or purification steps. Techniques such as desorption electrospray ionisation (DESI) and direct analysis in real-time (DART) have expanded the scope of mass spectrometry applications to fields like clinical diagnostics, food safety, and forensic analysis. Ambient ionisation allows for rapid, on-site measurements with minimal sample handling, revolutionising point-of-care testing and field analysis. In conclusion, the continuous evolution of mass spectrometry technology is reshaping the landscape of analytical chemistry. These innovations not only empower researchers to explore new realms of chemical analysis but also facilitate applications in areas such as precision medicine, environmental monitoring, and materials science. As these technologies continue to advance, the future holds even greater promise for pushing the boundaries of analytical chemistry and unlocking the mysteries of the molecular world. Written by Anam Ahmed Related article: Advancements in semi-conductor manufacturing Project Gallery

From foe to ally Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Herpes vs devastating skin disease 09/07/25, 14:16 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 11:14 From foe to ally This is article no. 3 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Epitheliod hemangioendothelioma . Previous article: Breast cancer in males . Have you ever plucked loose skin near your nail, ripping off a tiny strip of good skin too? Albeit very small, that wound can be painful. Now imagine that it is not just a little strip that peels off, but an entire sheet. And it does not detach only when pulled, but at the slightest touch. Even a hug opens wounds, even a caress brings you pain. This is life with recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (RDEB), the most severe form of dystrophic pidermolysis bullosa (DEB). Herpes becomes a therapy DEB is a rare genetic disease of the skin that affects 3 to 10 individuals per million people (prevalence is hard to nail down for rare diseases). A cure is still far off, but there is good news for patients. Last May, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Vyjuvek (beremagen geperparvec) to treat skin wounds in DEB. Clinical studies showed that it speeds up healing and reduces pain. Vyjuvek is the first gene therapy for DEB. It is manufactured by Krystal Biotech and - get this- it is a tweaked version of the herpes virus. Yes, you got that right, the virus causing blisters and scabs has become the primary ally against a devastating skin disease. This approval is a milestone for gene therapies, as Vyjuvek is the first gene therapy - based on the herpes virus, - to apply on the skin as a gel, - approved for repeated use. This article describes how DEB, and especially RDEB, affects the skin and wreaks havoc on the body; the following article will explain how Vyjuvek works. DEB disrupts skin integrity We carry around six to nine pounds of skin. Yet we often forget its importance: it stops germs and UVs, softens blows, regulates body temperature and makes us sensitive to touch. Diseases that compromise the skin are therefore devastating. These essential functions rely on the organisation of the skin in three layers: epidermis, dermis and hypodermis ( Figure 1 ). Typically, a Velcro strap of the protein collagen VII firmly anchors the epidermis to the dermis. The gene COL7A1 contains the instructions on how to produce collagen VII. In DEB, mutations in COL7A1 result in the production of a faulty collagen VII. As the Velcro strap is weakened, the epidermis becomes loosely attached to the dermis. Mutations in one copy of COL7A1 cause the dominant form of the disease (DDEB), mutations in both copies cause RDEB. With one copy of the gene still functional, the skin still produces some collagen VII, when both copies are mutated, little to no collagen VII is left. Therefore, RDEB is more severe than DDEB. In people with RDEB, the skin can slide off at the slightest touch and even gentle rubs can cause blisters and tears ( Figure 2 ). Living with RDEB Life with RDEB is gruelling and life expectancy doesn't exceed 30 years old. Wounds are very painful, slow to heal and get infected easily. The risk of developing an aggressive skin cancer is higher. The constant scarring can cause limb deformities. In addition, blisters can appear in the mouth, oesophagus, eyes and other organs. There is no cure for DEB for now; treatments can only improve the quality of life. Careful dressing of wounds promotes healing and prevents infections. Painkillers are used to ease pain. Special diets are required. And, to no one's surprise, physical activities must be avoided. Treating RDEB Over the past decade, cell and genetic engineering advances have sparked the search for a cure. Scientists have explored two main alternatives to restore the production of collagen VII in the skin. The first approach is based on transferring skin cells able to produce collagen VII. Despite promising results, this approach treats only tinyl patches of skin, requires treatments in highly specialised centres and it may cause cancer. The second approach is the one Vyjuvek followed. Scientists place the genetic information to make collagen VII in a modified virus and apply it to a wound. There, the virus infects skin cells, providing them with a new COL7A1 gene to use. These cells now produce a functional collagen VII and can patch the damage up. We already know which approach came up on top. Vyjuvek speeds up the healing of wounds as big as a smartphone. Professionals can apply it in hospitals, clinics or even at the patient’s home. And it uses a technology that does not cause cancer. But how does Vyjuvek work? And why did scientists choose the herpes virus to build Vyjuvek? We will find the answer in the following article. And since perfection does not belong to biology, we will also discuss the limitations of this remarkable gene therapy. NOTES: 1. DEB is part of a group of four inherited conditions, collectively named epidermolysis bullosa (EB), where the skin loses integrity. EB is also known as “Butterfly syndrome” because the skin becomes as fragile as a butterfly’s wing. These conditions are EB simplex, junction EB, dystrophic EB and Kindler EB. 2. Most gene therapies are based on modified, or recombinant in science jargon, adenoassociated viruses, which I reviewed for Scientia News. 3. Over 700 mutations have been reported. They disrupt collagen VII and its function with various degrees of severity. Consequently, RDEB and DDEB display several clinical phenotypes. 4. Two studies have adopted this approach: in the first study, Siprashvili and colleagues (2016) grafted ex vivo retrovirally-modified keratinocytes, the main cell type in the epidermis, over the skin of people with RDEB; in the second study, Lwin and colleagues (2019) injected ex vivo lentivirally-modified fibroblasts in the dermis of people with RDEB. Written by Matteo Cortese, PhD Related article: Ehlers-Danlos syndrome Project Gallery

A (possibly) new class of semiconductors Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The search for a room-temperature superconductor 14/07/25, 15:02 Last updated: Published: 13/01/24, 15:19 A (possibly) new class of semiconductors In early August, the scientific community was buzzing with excitement over the groundbreaking discovery of the first room-temperature superconductor. As some rushed to prove the existence of superconductivity in the material known as LK-99, others were sceptical of the validity of the claims. After weeks of investigation, experts have concluded that LK-99 was likely not the elusive room-temperature superconductor but rather a different type of magnetic material with interesting properties. But what if we did stumble upon a room-temperature superconductor? What could this mean for the future of technology? Superconductivity is a property of some materials at extremely low temperatures that allows the material to conduct electricity with no resistance. Classical physics cannot explain this phenomenon, and instead, we have to turn to quantum mechanics to provide a description of superconductors. Inside superconductors, electrons are paired up and can move through the structure of the material without experiencing any friction. The pairs of electrons are broken up by the thermal energy from temperature, so they will only exist for low temperatures. Therefore, this theory, known as BCS theory after the physicists who formulated it, does not explain the existence of a high-temperature superconductor. To describe high-temperature superconductors, such as those occurring at room temperature, more complicated theories are needed. The magic of superconductors lies in their property of zero resistance. Resistance is a cause of energy waste in circuits due to heating, which leads to the unwanted loss of power, making for inefficient operation. Physically, resistance is caused by electrons colliding with atoms in the structure of a material, causing energy to be lost in the process. The ability for electrons to move through superconductors without experiencing any collisions results in no resistance. Superconductors are useful as components in circuits as they cause no wasted power due to heating effects and are completely energy-efficient in this aspect. Normally, using superconductors requires complex methods of cooling them down to typical superconducting temperatures. For example, the temperature at which copper becomes superconducting is 35 K, or in other words, around 130 °C colder than the temperature at which water freezes. These methods are expensive to implement, which prevents them from being implemented on a wide scale. However, having a room-temperature superconductor would allow access to the beneficial properties of the material, such as its resistance, without the need for extreme cooling. The current record holders for highest-temperature superconductors are the cuprate superconductors at around −135 °C. These are a family of materials made up of layers of copper oxides alternating with layers of other metal oxides. As the mechanism for superconductivity is yet to be revealed, scientists are still scratching their heads over how this material can exhibit superconducting properties. Once this mechanism is discovered, it may be easier to predict and find high-temperature superconducting materials and may lead to the first room-temperature superconductor. Until then, the search continues to unlock the next frontier in low-temperature physics… For more information on superconductors: [1] Theory behind superconductivity [2] Video demonstration Written by Madeleine Hales Related articles: Semiconductor manufacturing / Semiconductor laser technology / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Titan Submersible Project Gallery

The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Plastics and their environmental impact: a double-edged sword 10/07/25, 10:29 Last updated: Published: 06/11/24, 12:25 The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Plastics have become an indispensable part of modern life. They are found in everything from electronics and packaging to construction materials and medical equipment. These multipurpose materials, mostly derived from petrochemicals, are successful because they are inexpensive, lightweight, and long-lasting. However, one of the biggest environmental problems of our time is their resilience, which makes them so beneficial. The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration, which causes environmental damage and widespread contamination. The chemistry behind plastics Most plastics are composed of polymers, which are lengthy chains of monomers—repeating molecular units. Depending on how the molecules are arranged and the chemical additives added during synthesis, these polymers can be made to have a variety of characteristics, including stiffness or flexibility. Hydrocarbons from natural gas or crude oil are polymerised to create common plastics like polypropylene, which is used in food containers, and polyethene, which is used in plastic bags. While these plastics are ideal for their intended purposes —protecting products, storing food, and more, they are extremely resistant to degradation. This is due to their stable carbon-carbon bonds, which natural organisms and processes find difficult to break down. As a result, plastics can remain in the environment for hundreds of years, breaking down into tiny bits rather than entirely dissolving. See Figure 1 . The problem of micro-plastics Plastics in the environment degrade over time into tiny fragments known as microplastics, which are defined as particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter. These microplastics originate from a variety of sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris, microbeads used in personal care products, synthetic fibres shed from textiles and industrial processes. They are now widespread in every corner of the globe, from the deepest parts of the oceans to remote mountain ranges, the air we breathe, and even drinking water and food. Microplastics are particularly problematic in marine environments. Marine animals such as fish, birds, and invertebrates often mistake microplastics for food. Once ingested, these particles can accumulate in the animals' digestive systems, leading to malnutrition, physical damage, or even death. More concerning is the potential for these plastics to work their way up the food chain. Predators, including humans, may consume prey that has ingested microplastics, raising concerns about the potential effects on human health. Recent studies have detected microplastics in various human-consumed products, including seafood, table salt, honey, and drinking water. Alarmingly, microplastics have also been found in human organs, blood, and even placentas, highlighting the pervasive nature of this contamination. While the long-term environmental and health effects of microplastics are still not fully understood, research raises significant concerns. Microplastics can carry toxic substances such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, posing risks to the respiratory, immune, reproductive, and digestive systems. Exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact has been linked to DNA damage, inflammation, and other serious health issues. Biodegradable plastics: a possible solution? One possible solution to plastic pollution is the development of biodegradable plastics, which are engineered to degrade more easily in the environment. These plastics can be created from natural sources such as maize starch or sugarcane, which are turned into polylactic acid (PLA), or from petroleum-based compounds designed to disintegrate more quickly. However, biodegradable polymers do not provide a perfect answer. Many of these materials require certain circumstances, such as high heat and moisture, to degrade effectively. These conditions are more commonly encountered in industrial composting plants than in landfills or natural ecosystems. As a result, many biodegradable plastics can remain in the environment if not properly disposed of. Furthermore, their production frequently necessitates significant quantities of energy and resources, raising questions about whether they are actually more sustainable than traditional plastics. Innovations in plastic recycling Given the limitations of biodegradable polymers, improving recycling technology has become the main issue in the battle against plastic waste. Traditional recycling methods, like mechanical recycling, involve breaking down plastics and remoulding them into new products. However, this process can degrade the material's quality over time. However, this may compromise the material's quality over time. Furthermore, many types of plastics are difficult or impossible to recycle due to variances in chemical structure, contamination, or a lack of adequate machinery. Recent advances have been made to address these issues. Chemical recycling, for example, converts plastics back into their original monomers, allowing them to be re-polymerised into high-quality plastic. This technique has the ability to recycle materials indefinitely without compromising functionality. Another intriguing technique is enzymatic recycling, in which specially built-enzymes break down plastics into their constituent parts at lower temperatures, reducing the amount of energy required for the process. While these technologies provide hope, they are still in their early phases of development and face significant economic and logistical challenges. Expanding recycling infrastructure and developing more effective ways are critical to reduce the amount of plastic waste entering the environment. The way forward The environmental impact of plastics has inspired a global campaign to reduce plastic waste. Governments, industry, and consumers are taking action by prohibiting single-use plastics, increasing recycling efforts, and developing alternatives. However, addressing the plastic problem necessitates a multifaceted strategy. This includes advances in material science, improved waste management systems, and, perhaps most crucially, a transformation in how we perceive and utilise plastics in our daily lives. The chemistry of plastics is both fascinating and dangerous. While they have transformed businesses and increased quality of life, their long-term presence in the environment poses a substantial risk to ecosystems and human health. Rethinking how we make, use, and discard plastics in order to have a more sustainable relationship with these intricate polymers may be more important for the future of plastics than just developing new materials. Written by Laura K Related articles: Genetically-engineered bacteria break down plastic / The environmental impact of EVs Project Gallery

How your gut influences your mood and behaviour Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The dopamine connection 11/07/25, 10:02 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 12:01 How your gut influences your mood and behaviour Introduction to dopamine Dopamine is a neurotransmitter derived from an amino acid called phenylalanine, which must be obtained through the diet, through foods such as fish, meat, dairy and more. Dopamine is produced and released by dopaminergic neurons in the central nervous system and can be found in different brain regions. The neurotransmitter acts via two mechanisms: wiring transmission and volume transmission. In wiring transmission, dopamine is released to the synaptic cleft and acts on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. In volume transmission, extracellular dopamine arrives at neurons other than postsynaptic ones. Through methods such as diffusion, dopamine then reaches receptors in other neurons that are not in direct contact with the cell that has released the neurotransmitter. In both mechanisms, dopamine binds to the receptors, transmitting signals between neurons and affecting mood and behaviour. The link between dopamine and gut health Dopamine has been known to result in positive emotions, including pleasure, satisfaction and motivation, which can be influenced by gut health. Therefore, what you eat and other factors, including motivation, could impact your mood and behaviour. This was proven by a study (Hamamah et al., 2022), which looked at the bidirectional gut-brain connection. The study found that gut microbiota was important in maintaining the concentrations of dopamine via the gut-brain connection, also known as the gut microbiota-brain axis or vagal gut-to-brain axis. This is the communication pathway between the gut microbiota and the brain facilitated by the vagus nerve, and it is important in the neuronal reward pathway, which regulates motivational and emotional states. Activating the vagal gut-to-brain axis, which leads to dopamine release, suggests that modulating dopamine levels could be a potential treatment approach for dopamine-related disorders. Some examples of gut microbiota include Prevotella, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Enterococcus, and Ruminococcus , and they can affect dopamine by modulating dopaminergic activity. These gut microbiota are able to produce neurotransmitters, including dopamine, and their functions and bioavailability in the central nervous system and periphery are influenced by the gut-brain axis. Gut dysbiosis is the disturbance of the healthy intestinal flora, and it can lead to dopamine-related disorders, including Parkinson's disease, ADHD, depression, anxiety, and autism. Gut microbes that produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid, positively impact dopamine and contribute to reducing symptoms and effects seen in neurodegenerative disorders. Dopamine as a treatment It is important to understand the link between dopamine and gut health, as this could provide information about new therapeutic targets and improve current methods that have been used to prevent and restore deficiencies in dopamine function in different disorders. Most cells in the immune system contain dopamine receptors, allowing processes such as antigen presentation, T-cell activation, and inflammation to be regulated. Further research into this could open up a new possibility for dopamine to be used as a medication to treat diseases by changing the activity of dopamine receptors. Therefore, dopamine is important in various physiological processes, both in the central nervous and immune systems. For example, studies have shown that schizophrenia can be treated with antipsychotic medications which target dopamine neurotransmission. In addition, schizophrenia has also been treated by targeting the dysregulation (decreasing the amount) of dopamine transmission. Studies have shown promising results regarding dopamine being used as a form of treatment. Nevertheless, further research is needed to understand the interactions between dopamine, motivation and gut health and explore how this knowledge can be used to create medications to treat conditions. Conclusion The bidirectional gut-brain connection shows the importance of gut microbiota in controlling dopamine levels. This connection influences mood and behaviour but also has the potential to lead to new and innovative dopamine-targeted treatments being developed (for conditions including dopamine-related disorders). For example, scientists could target and manipulate dopamine receptors in the immune system to regulate the above mentioned processes: antigen presentation, T-cell activation, and inflammation. While current research has shown some promising results, further investigations are needed to better comprehend the connection between gut health and dopamine levels. Nevertheless, through consistent studies, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of this mechanism to see how changes in gut microbiota could affect dopamine regulation and influence mood and behaviour. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: the gut microbiome / Crohn's disease / Microbes in charge Project Gallery

A well-studied longevity gene is SIRT1 Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Genetics of Ageing and Longevity 11/07/25, 09:57 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 15:20 A well-studied longevity gene is SIRT1 Ageing is a natural process inherent to all living organisms. Yet, its mechanisms remain somewhat enigmatic. While lifestyle factors undoubtedly influence longevity, recent advancements in genetic research have revealed the influence of our genomes on ageing. Through understanding these influences, we can unlock further knowledge on longevity, which can aid us in developing interventions to promote healthy ageing. This article delves into the world of ageing and longevity genetics and how we can use this understanding to our benefit. Longevity genes A number of longevity genes, such as APOE , FOXO3 , and CETP, have been identified. These genes influence various biological processes, including cellular repair, metabolism, and stress response mechanisms. A well-studied longevity gene is SIRT1 . Located on chromosome 10, SIRT1 encodes sirtuin 1, a histone deacetylase, transcription factor, and cofactor. Its roles include protecting cells against oxidative stress, regulating glucose and lipid metabolism, and promoting DNA repair and stability via deacetylation. Sirtuins are an evolutionarily conserved mediator of longevity in many organisms. One study looked at mice with knocked-out SIRT1 ; these mice had significantly lower lifespans when compared with WT mice1. The protective effects of SIRT1 are thought to be due to deacetylating p53, which promotes cell death2. SIRT1 also stimulates the cytoprotective and stress-resistance gene activator FoxO1A (see Figure 1 ), which upregulates catalase activity to prevent oxidative stress3. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified several genetic variants associated with ageing and age-related diseases. Such variants influence diverse aspects of ageing, such as cellular senescence, inflammation, and mitochondrial function. For example, certain polymorphisms in APOE are associated with an increased risk of age-related conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s disease4. These genes have a cumulative effect on the longevity of an organism. Epigenetics of ageing Epigenetic modifications, such as histone modifications and chromatin remodelling, regulate gene expression patterns without altering the DNA sequence. Studies have shown that epigenetic alterations accumulate with age and contribute to age-related changes in gene expression and cellular function. For example, DNA methylation is downregulated in human fibroblasts during ageing. Furthermore, ageing correlates with decreased nucleosome occupancy in human fibroblasts, thereby increasing the expression of genes unoccupied by nucleosomes. One specific marker of ageing in metazoans is H3K4me3, indicating the trimethylation of lysine 4 on histone 3; in fact, H3K4me3 demethylation extends lifespan. Similarly, H3K27me3 is also a marker of biological age. By using these markers as an epigenetic clock, we can predict biological age using molecular genetic techniques. As a rule of thumb, genome-wide hypomethylation and CpG island hypermethylation correlate with ageing, although this effect is tissue-specific5. Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA at the terminal ends of linear chromosomes. Telomeres become shorter every time a cell divides (see Figure 2 ), and eventually, this can hinder their function of protecting the ends of chromosomes. As a result, cells have complex mechanisms in place to prevent telomere degradation. One of these is the enzyme telomerase, which maintains telomere length by adding G-rich DNA sequences. Another mechanism is the shelterin complex, which binds to ‘TTAGGG’ telomeric repeats to prevent degradation. Two major components of the shelterin complex are TRF1 and TRF2, which bind telomeric DNA. They are regulated by the chromatin remodelling enzyme BRM-SWI/SNF, which has been shown to be crucial in promoting genomic stability, preventing cell apoptosis, and maintaining telomeric integrity. BRM-SWI/SNF regulates TRF1/2, thereby, regulating the shelterin complex, by remodelling the TRF1/2 promoter region to convert it to euchromatin and increase transcription. BRM-SWI/SNF inactivating mutations have been shown to contribute to cancer and cellular ageing through telomere degradation6. Together, the mechanisms cells have in place to protect telomeres provide protection against cancer as well as cellular ageing. Future of anti-ageing drugs Anti-ageing drugs are big business in the biotechnology and cosmetics sector. For example, senolytics are compounds that decrease the number of senescent cells in an individual. Senescent cells are those that have permanently exited the cell cycle and now secrete pro-inflammatory molecules (see Figure 3); they are a major cause of cellular and organismal ageing. Senolytic drugs aim to provide anti-ageing benefits to an individual, whereby senescent cells are removed, therefore, decreasing inflammation. Currently, researchers are certain that removing senescent cells would have an anti-ageing effect, although senolytic drugs currently on the market are understudied, and so their side effects are unknown. Speculative drugs could include those that enhance telomerase or SIRT1 activity. Evidently, ageing is not purely determined by lifestyle and environmental factors alone but also by genetics. While longevity genes are hereditary, epigenetic modifications may be influenced by external factors. Therefore, we can attribute the complex interplay between various external factors and an individual’s genome to understanding the role of genetics in ageing. Perhaps we will see a new wave of anti-ageing treatments in the coming years, developed on the genetics of ageing. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage Related articles: An introduction to epigenetics / Schizophrenia, inflammation and ageing / Ageing and immunity REFERENCES Cilic, U et al., (2015) ‘A Remarkable Age-Related Increase in SIRT1 Protein Expression against Oxidative Stress in Elderly: SIRT1 Gene Variants and Longevity in Human’, PLoS One , 10(3). Alcendor, R et al., (2004) ‘Silent information regulator 2alpha, a longevity factor and class III histone deacetylase, is an essential endogenous apoptosis inhibitor in cardiac myocytes’, Circulation Research , 95(10):971-80. Alcendor, R et al., (2007) ‘Sirt1 regulates aging and resistance to oxidative stress in the heart’, Circulation Research , 100(10):1512-21. Yin, Y & Wang, Z, (2018) ‘ApoE and Neurodegenerative Diseases in Aging’, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology , 1086:77-92. Wang, K et al., (2022) ‘Epigenetic regulation of aging: implications for interventions of aging and diseases’, Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy , 7(1):374. Images made using BioRender. Project Gallery

Tiny solutions for big health problems Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nanomedicine 17/07/25, 10:52 Last updated: Published: 17/01/24, 00:07 Tiny solutions for big health problems As the landscape of the healthcare field expands, new advances are coming forth, and one such area of interest is nanomedicine. Existing on a miniature scale called nanometres, nanomedicine and technology provide a revolutionary solution to many modern-day problems faced by the scientific community. Through this article, we’ll aim to explore what exactly nanomedicine is, its importance, its use in medicine, as well as its limitations and future prospects. The nanoscale When mentioning nanomedicine or nanotechnology, we refer to materials and particles existing on the nanoscale. This lies between 1-100 nanometres. For reference, human hair is 80,000-100,000 nanometres wide, so comparatively, the technology is much smaller. Although the technology may seem small, its impact is far too significant to be discredited. Due to their smaller size, the nanoparticles hold several advantages, making them useful in biomedicine, these include providing greater surface area for molecular interactions in the body, and they are much easier to manipulate, allowing for greater control and precision in terms of diagnostics and medicine delivery (Figure 1). Cancer drug delivery systems Nanotechnology in the field of medicine is being widely used and tested with regards to its application as a drug delivery system. More recently, it’s being investigated for its increased precision in delivering anti-cancer drugs to patients. Nanotechnology enables precise drug delivery through the construction of nanoscale infrastructures called nanoparticles. These can be filled with anti-cancer drug treatments, and their outer structure can be further designed to include elements which target folate receptors, such as folic acid (B9 vitamin), thus increasing their affinity for specific receptors in the body. Folate receptors tend to be overexpressed on the surface of many cancers, including pancreas, breast, and lung. So, by increasing selectivity and targeting only the cells which overexpress these receptors, the nanoparticles can deliver chemotherapy drugs with increased precision. This increased accuracy results in decreased cellular toxicity to surrounding non-cancerous tissues whilst also reducing side effects. In current experiments, lipid nanoparticles loaded with the anti-cancer drug edelfosine were tested on mice with mantle cell cancer. Lipid nanoparticles offer several advantages as a drug delivery system, including biocompatibility, greater physical stability, increased tolerability, and controlled release of the encapsulated drug. Lipid nanoparticles are also advantageous for their ability to be size specific to a tumour. In the study, in vivo experimentation using mice that contained mantle cell lymphoma was used, and they were administered 30mg/kg of the encapsulated drug. After administering the edelfosine loaded nanoparticles every 4 days, it was found that the process of metastasis had been removed; this means that cancer cells could not spread to other parts of the body. Additionally, it was also found that because of the way the nanoparticles were absorbed into the lymphatic system, they could accumulate in the thoracic duct providing precise and slow release of the drug over time, thus preventing metastasis (Figure 2). Imaging and diagnostics Another area of use for nanotechnology includes imaging and diagnostics. This area of expertise is regarded as theranostics, which involves using nanoparticles as detectors to help locate the area of the body affected by a disease, such as the location of a tumour, and aid in diagnosing illnesses. With regards to diagnostics, nanoparticles can also help identify what stage of the disease is being observed as well as enable us to garner more information to form a concrete treatment programme for the patient, thus providing a personalised touch to their care. Nanomaterials can be used to engineer different types of nanoparticles, which can enhance contrast on CT and MRI scans so that diseases can be detected more easily by being more visible when compared to traditional scans. In collaboration with Belcher et al., Bardhan worked to collectively develop different formulations of polymers that would be most effective in imagining and detecting cancers earlier. In the figure below, a nanoparticle made of a core shell was used for imaging. It comprises a yellow polymer with a red fluorescent dye to increase imagining contrast of the area and a blue lanthanide nanoparticle. When the lanthanide particles are excited by a light source, fluorescence in the near infrared range (NIR-II) is emitted, allowing for clear contrast and imaging. This can be seen in the figure below. From the colours involved, the tumour being imaged could be investigated more thoroughly in how it was distributed and learn more about its microenvironment in a mouse affected by ovarian cancer (Figure 3). Nanobots In recent times, new investment in the form of nanorobots has been made apparent. Nanorobots are nanoelectromechanical systems whose size is very similar to human organelles and cells, so there are a variety of ways they could be helpful in healthcare, such as in the field of surgery. Traditionally, surgical tools can be limited to work on a small scale. However, with nanorobots, it can be possible to access areas unreachable to surgical tools and catheters whilst also reducing recovery time and infection risk, as well as granting greater control and accuracy over the surgery. In a study conducted by Chen et al. (2020), the researchers manipulated magnetotactic bacterial microrobots to kill a bacteria known as Staphylococcus aureus enabled by magnetic fields to target them. Using a microfluidic chip, the microrobots were guided to the target site and then were programmed to attach themselves to the bacteria. Once connected, the viability of the bacteria was reduced due to the swinging magnetic fields generated by the device. Although this research is promising, further research must be conducted to understand the compatibility of these nanotechnologies with the human body and any implications they may have in side effects (Figure 4). Challenges and safety concerns From the evidence explored above, it is evident that nanotechnology holds much promise in the field of healthcare. However, they are not without their challenges and resignations when introducing their use to human bodies. The human body is incredibly complex, and therefore the complete biocompatibility of nanoparticles, particularly nanobots, is currently under-researched and under reviewed. To extensively use them, it is vital first to understand how safe they are and their efficacy in treatment and diagnosis. Below is a summary of some of the advantages and disadvantages of these nanotechnologies (Figure 5). The future of nanotechnology in biomedicine In conclusion, nanotechnology indicates an extensive and optimistic field at the forefront of changing medical care from diagnosis to treatment. It has the potential to answer many pressing questions in healthcare including decreasing cytotoxicity via a precise drug delivery system, increased accuracy in diagnosis, and possibly becoming a novel tool in surgery. Although it is imperative for there to be new and evolved techniques to increase the quality of care for patients, it is vital not to rush and to be thorough in our approach. This involves undergoing further research, including conducting clinical trials when investigating the use of nanotechnology inside the human body; this will test for tissue compatibility, side effects, efficacy, and even dosage when using nanoparticles for drug delivery. In summary, the transformative role of nanomedicine is undeniable. It offers a path to a more personalised and precise healthcare system, allowing researchers to reshape treatment, diagnosis, and patient well-being, though its limitations are yet to be overcome. Written by Irha Khalid Related articles: Nanoparticles: the future of diabetes treatment? / Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Nanoparticles and plant disease / Nanogels / Nanocarriers Project Gallery

It plays a key role in many cancers Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Hippo signalling pathway 11/07/25, 09:59 Last updated: Published: 06/06/24, 11:35 It plays a key role in many cancers Introduction The Hippo signalling pathway controls tissue growth, and it is also a vital pathway involved in many cancers. It is a serine/threonine kinase pathway, which regulates tissue growth by the control of cell proliferation and apoptosis. It was first discovered in a Drosophila genetic screen and was named Hippo, as a loss of Hippo results in an overgrowth (or hippopotamus) phenotype. When the Hippo pathway is ‘on,’ YAP and TAZ (transcription factors/activators) are degraded in the cytoplasm. This occurs via phosphorylation: Sterile 20-related (MST) kinases are phosphorylated, which in turn phosphorylate Large tumour suppressor 1 and 2 (LATS1/2). LATS phosphorylation then causes phosphorylation of YAP/TAZ. In turn, YAP/TAZ then bind to 14-3-3 proteins in the cytoplasm and are broken down by ubiquitin-dependent degradation (see fig. 1). YAP/TAZ has also been shown to activate transcription of YAP/TAZ regulators, such as LATS1/2, in a negative feedback loop. Conversely, when Hippo is ‘off,’ YAP/TAZ are unphosphorylated and are free to move to the nucleus, where they bind to Transcriptional enhanced associate domain (TEAD). YAP/TAZ-TEAD then are able to bind DNA and be involved in transcription of genes such as Axl, c-Myc, survivin, CTGF , and Cyr61 , which are anti-apoptotic or proliferative. Hippo pathway in cancer YAP/TAZ have been shown to be crucial for cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. They are known to be involved in many cancers, including prostate, bone, eye, brain, spinal cord, breast, and liver cancers. They are also involved in the rare blood vessel cancer epithelioid hemangioendothelioma (EHE). Interestingly, it appears YAP/TAZ act differently depending on the cell type. YAP/TAZ are oncogenic transcription factors in many solid tumours, but surprisingly, they are thought to act as tumour suppressors in some blood cancers e.g. Multiple myeloma (it is still unknown why this is). Therefore, for YAP/TAZ to behave in a regular manner (i.e. non-oncogenic), they must be tightly regulated. Regulation of the Hippo pathway Hippo signalling is regulated by tight/adherens junctions, mechanical signals, and growth factors/receptors. Tight junctions exist where there is a permeability barrier between adjoining cells, and proteins bind to these membranes for a range of different functions. A protein which binds to these adherens junctions is Merlin (encoded by the gene, NF2 ), which is another regulator of the Hippo pathway and a well-known tumour suppressor. Merlin is known to bind to adherens junction proteins in confluent cells, and loss of Merlin causes a lack of development of adherens junctions. Merlin is also an important component involved in contact inhibition during proliferation. Contact inhibition is where cell growth is inhibited upon contact with other cells. The specific mechanism by which Merlin regulates the Hippo pathway and contact inhibition is still unknown. Another regulator of the Hippo pathway is mechanical signals. Fluid shear stress is the frictional force between flowing blood and endothelial cells lining the blood vessels and is known to cause vascular growth, remodelling and maintenance. This stress can result in changes to endothelial cell shape and cause the activation of transcription factors, leading to gene expression. An additional regulator of the Hippo pathway is growth factors/receptors. Growth factors, such as Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) are both part of the phospholipids growth factor family. They bind to the S1P receptor and LPA receptor, respectively, inhibiting LATS and causing activation of YAP/TAZ. Whereas molecules, such as glucagon and epinephrine have been shown to suppress YAP/TAZ. Cytokines, vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF), epidermal growth factors (EGF), Wnt, bone morphogenic protein (Bmp), insulin, and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) have also been shown to regulate the Hippo pathway, which suggests that regulation of the Hippo pathway is complex and linked to several different other pathways. Conclusion The Hippo pathway is a vitally important pathway regulating tissue growth. YAP/TAZ, which are part of the Hippo pathway, are oncogenic factors in many solid tumours but can act as tumour suppressors in some blood cancers. As YAP/TAZ are involved in transcription in this pathway, they are crucial for cancer initiation, growth and metastasis. Hence, targeting of this pathway could lead to further cancer treatments. For example, TEAD inhibitors may offer a therapeutic avenue of treatment and are currently being investigated. In the future, further research on targeting the Hippo pathway may improve on the current targeted therapeutic landscape, realising the need for diverse treatment options for such a complex disease as cancer. Written by Eleanor R. Markham Related articles: MAPK/ ERK signalling pathway / Epitheliod hemnagioendothelioma Project Gallery

The different models of health and disease Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beyond medicine: understanding health through various stances 16/10/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 22/04/24, 10:24 The different models of health and disease Introduction Various models can show what factors produce health outcomes between individuals and populations. This article looks at the biomedical, social, humanistic and biopsychosocial models, reviewing each through examples and its applications to the real world. With this said, every model has advantages and disadvantages because they are imperfect. Each one is essential as it provides a way to treat patients, so they need to be used alongside one another to address the different aspects involved in a person’s health. Biomedical model- figure 1 To start with the most familiar, the biomedical model looks at finding the cause of illness through a physiological perspective, i.e. finding malfunctions in organs and cells. For example, infections are caused by microorganisms, or metabolic disorders usually occur due to at least one critical genetic mutation. This model has some advantages, such as using evidence-based strategies to treat patients, and it has contributed to medical breakthroughs that have improved overall health. Also, it can lead to effective treatment plans through medical interventions to handle specific diseases. However, the biomedical model does not consider external factors involved in illness. Moreover, it focuses on curing diseases instead of preventative plans that may be more successful, and its recommendation of pharmaceutical drugs for certain conditions may cause addiction, which is another health problem. Social-ecological model- figure 2 Now, the social-ecological model considers societal factors, ranging from economic to political, that are influential in population health. It helps investigate non-communicable and infectious diseases. An advantage of this model is it emphasises preventative strategies, which can lead to long-term advancements in health. Moreover, it encourages cooperation within communities in shaping initiatives that benefit everyone and regards collaboration between multiple work sectors like education and law enforcement as vital to progressing society. A significant downside of the social model is that it is complicated, suggesting it is difficult to tackle all of these determinants of health effectively. In turn, allocating resources to resolve specific issues would take much work. Lastly, some detractors of this model believe it absolves people’s responsibility for their health. Humanistic model- figure 3 Subsequently, the humanistic model is about an individual’s wellbeing, experiences, and self-exploration. Its applications are mainly in psychology, though it can manifest in other areas of life through a person making decisions they are satisfied with. A few advantages of this model include prioritising a person’s autonomy, encouraging their psychological well-being, and facilitating collaboration between clinicians and patients in treatment. On the other hand, only some can think for themselves or their experiences; the model relies on subjectivity, so it can be challenging to measure parts of well-being, and it is more beneficial for chronic conditions than acute ailments. Biopyschosocial model- figure 4 The biopsychosocial (BPS) model includes biological, psychological and social factors related to a patient’s health. Therefore, it can be used for any individual with chronic or acute disease(s) and is used broadly in psychology between the psychiatrist/ counsellor and the patient. One advantage is that it aids primary care doctors in comprehending the interrelations between an illness's biological and psychosocial parts. In turn, this strengthens the patient-clinician relationship. Similar to the social model, this can promote preventative measures against diseases. However, the addition of biological and psychosocial factors makes the model complicated to implement in clinical contexts. Moreover, there needs to be more distinct guidelines for its use in treating patients compared to the biomedical model. Lastly, applying the biopsychosocial can change between healthcare practices, possibly leading to different standards of care. Conclusion Reflecting on the models outlined, the biopsychosocial model seems to be the perfect one compared to the others because it includes all of the models above or others not mentioned in this article. In turn, it succeeds in providing a balanced view of health. On the other hand, as iterated before, the BPS model has its disadvantages. Thus, it may require more refinements to be widely implemented across healthcare settings. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Key discoveries in public health / Healthcare challenges in Sudan / Conflicted Kashmir / Colonialism, geopolitics and health REFERENCES Leeper HE. Survivorship and Caregiver Issues in Neuro-oncology. Current Treatment Options in Oncology. 2019 Nov;20(11). Rocca E, Anjum RL. Complexity, Reductionism and the Biomedical Model. Rethinking Causality, Complexity and Evidence for the Unique Patient. 2020 Jun 3;1(1):75–94. Williams H. What Is the Biomedical Model? The Health Board. 2011. Golden TL, Wendel ML. Public Health’s Next Step in Advancing Equity: Re-evaluating Epistemological Assumptions to Move Social Determinants From Theory to Practice. Frontiers in Public Health. 2020 May 7;8. Isaacs P. A Humanistic Psychological Approach To Autism. Paul Isaacs’ Blog. 2017. Flow Psychology. 10 Humanistic Approach Strengths and Weaknesses | Flow Psychology. Flowpsychology.com . 2016. Hardie M. Three Aspects of Health and Healing: The Biopsychosocial Model in Medicine. Department of Surgery. 2021. Kusnanto H, Agustian D, Hilmanto D. Biopsychosocial model of illnesses in primary care: A hermeneutic literature review. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care. 2018 May;7(3):497–500. Project Gallery

CRISPR, regenerative medicine, vaccine development and recombinant DNA tech Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Medical Biotechnology 10/07/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 03/06/23, 13:57 CRISPR, regenerative medicine, vaccine development and recombinant DNA tech Introduction Throughout the course of human history, the foundation of medicine has predominantly relied upon biochemistry. Whereby, scientists utilise naturally occurring and artificially synthesised chemical compounds to elicit therapeutic responses within the body. However, during the 21st century, the field of medicine witnessed a paradigm shift towards medical biotechnology- driving major breakthroughs in healthcare. What is medical biotechnology? Medical biotechnology can be defined as the use of living organisms or their products to investigate, understand and target biological systems in order to improve healthcare outcomes. By integrating the principles of genetic engineering and biological processes, scientists are able to develop novel pharmaceuticals and create diagnostic tools for disease management. Major advancements in medical biotechnology A groundbreaking technology within this field is the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) — Cas9 system. Which utilises CRISPR-associated protein Cas9 and guide RNA (gRNA) as a molecular tool to precisely modify genetic material. By harnessing this gene editing system, scientists can manipulate specific DNA sequences and modulate gene expression, making it an invaluable tool towards precision medicine. Its ability to correct genetic defects has shown promise in the future development of targeted therapies for genetic diseases. Regenerative medicine, another frontier in medical biotechnology aims to regenerate damaged or diseased tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary field integrates principles from tissue engineering and stem cell biology to enable tissue repair and regeneration. Stem cells possess a remarkable capacity to self-renew and differentiate into various specialised cell types. Through research biotechnologists seek to engineer functional tissues and organs for transplantation or stimulate the body's innate regenerative abilities. The development of vaccines is yet another critical aspect of medical biotechnology. Vaccines are designed to stimulate the immune system and confer immunity against specific pathogens, thereby preventing infectious diseases. Modern biotechnology techniques, such as genetic engineering and cell culture, enable cost-effective vaccine development. Recombinant DNA technology enables antigen production in non-pathogenic host cells, eliminating the need for pathogen harvesting. Ongoing advancements include RNA/DNA vaccines, allowing antigen production within recipients' bodies. Conclusion Medical biotechnology continues to play a pivotal role in advancing scientific knowledge and enhancing disease diagnostics and treatment. It holds immense promise for the future of healthcare, particularly in the field of precision medicine. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that this technology also carries inherent risks. Misuse can lead to negative consequences, such as bioterrorism and other destructive outcomes. Written by Komal Nasir Related article: Biggest innovations in the biosciences currently Project Gallery