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Its toxicodynamics, and balancing benefits and risks Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring Ibuprofen 18/09/25, 08:47 Last updated: Published: 17/01/24, 01:28 Its toxicodynamics, and balancing benefits and risks What is Ibuprofen? Ibuprofen is a standard over-the-counter medicine which can be bought from supermarkets and pharmacies. It is primarily used for pain relief, such as back pain, period pain, toothaches, etc. It can also be used for arthritis pain and inflammation. It is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, gels, and sprays for the skin. The Toxicodynamics of Ibuprofen Toxicodynamics refers to the biological effects of a substance after exposure to it. Scientists look at the mechanisms by which the substance produces toxic effects and the target organs or tissues it affects. Ibuprofen works by stopping the enzymes that synthesise prostaglandins, which are a group of lipid molecules that cause inflammation, including symptoms like redness, heat, swelling and pain. Therefore, after the action of Ibuprofen, inflammatory responses and pain are reduced. Ibuprofen targets organs and tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, the kidneys, the central nervous system, blood and more. Balancing the Benefits and Risks Ibuprofen’s method of action means it is a safe and effective pain relief medication for most people. It is also easily accessible and easy to use. However, it is able to affect the target organs and tissues negatively and, therefore, can have serious side effects, especially if taken for an extended period of time and/or in high doses. They include heartburn, abdominal pain, kidney damage (especially for people who already have kidney problems), low blood count and more. Therefore, it is important to use Ibuprofen responsibly. This can be done by understanding and being well-informed about its effects on the body, particularly its impact on organs and tissues. With caution and proper use, the side effects can be minimised. One of the easiest ways to lessen side effects is by taking the medication with food. Additionally, patients should take the lowest effective dose for the shortest possible time. If patients have a history of stomach problems, avoiding Ibuprofen and using alternatives is the best solution. Patients can also talk to their GP if they are concerned about the side effects and report any suspected side effects using the Yellow Card safety scheme on the NHS website. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Anthrax toxin / The Pain Gate Theory Project Gallery

A chemical perspective Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The environmental impact of EVs 16/01/25, 11:21 Last updated: Published: 07/08/23, 15:58 A chemical perspective Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining momentum worldwide as a greener alternative to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The environmental benefits of EVs extend beyond their efficient use of electricity. In this article, we explore the chemical aspects of EVs and their environmental impact, shedding light on their potential to mitigate climate change and reduce pollution. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction: EVs play a crucial role in addressing climate change by significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Unlike ICEVs that rely on fossil fuels, EVs generate zero tailpipe emissions. By utilising electricity as their energy source, EVs minimise the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other GHGs responsible for global warming. However, it's essential to consider the environmental implications of electricity generation, emphasising the need for renewable energy sources to maximise the positive impact of EVs. Battery Chemistry and Resource Management: The heart of an EV lies in its rechargeable battery, typically composed of lithium-ion technology. The production and disposal of these batteries present both opportunities and challenges. Raw materials, such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, are essential components of EV batteries. Responsible mining practices and efficient recycling techniques are vital to minimising the environmental impact of resource extraction and ensuring proper disposal or repurposing of used batteries. Electrochemical Reactions and Energy Storage: Electric vehicles rely on electrochemical reactions within their batteries to store and release energy. These reactions involve the flow of ions, typically lithium ions, between the positive and negative electrodes. Understanding the chemistry behind these processes enables the development of more efficient and durable battery systems. Continued research and innovation in battery chemistry hold the potential to enhance energy storage capabilities, extend EV range, and improve overall performance. Air Quality and Emission Reduction: EVs contribute to improved air quality due to their zero tailpipe emissions. By eliminating the release of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), EVs reduce smog formation and respiratory health risks. This is particularly significant in urban areas, where high concentrations of vehicular emissions contribute to air pollution. The adoption of EVs can help combat these issues and create cleaner and healthier environments. Battery Recycling and the Circular Economy: Given the increasing demand for EVs, battery recycling plays a vital role in ensuring a sustainable future. Recycling allows for the recovery of valuable materials and reduces the need for resource extraction. Effective recycling processes can mitigate the environmental impact of battery production, minimise waste generation, and promote a circular economy approach, where materials are reused and recycled to their fullest extent. Future Prospects and Chemical Innovations : Advancements in battery technology and chemical engineering are key to unlocking the full potential of EVs. Research efforts are focused on developing alternative battery chemistries, such as solid-state batteries, which offer improved energy density, safety, and recyclability. Additionally, exploring sustainable materials and manufacturing processes for batteries can further reduce the environmental footprint of EVs. In conclusion, electric vehicles represent a promising solution to combat climate change, reduce pollution, and promote sustainable transportation. From the chemistry behind battery systems to their impact on air quality and resource management, EVs offer a greener alternative to traditional vehicles. Continued research, innovation, and collaboration between the automotive industry, chemical scientists, and policymakers are essential for realising the full potential of EVs and creating a cleaner, more sustainable future. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Hydrogen cars / The brain-climate connection / Plastics and their environmental impact Project Gallery

Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Cities designed to track the heavens: Chaco Canyon, New Mexico 06/03/25, 12:25 Last updated: Published: 02/07/24, 10:22 Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito This is Article 1 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article: The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids . In the desert of New Mexico are the remains of a major center of ancestral Puebloan culture. Within the Chaco Canyon region, several places of incredible architecture and complex cultural life have been identified, called Great Houses. It is suggested that over 150 Great Houses were constructed between the 9th and 12th centuries and connected by intricate road systems. Famous sites in the Chaco Canyon region include Pueblo Alto and Pueblo Bonito, which showcase the incredible architectural feats of the culture. Interestingly, scholars have deduced that the Great Houses were not only built to support the forming society, but the details of construction were specific for another reason: astronomy. Often, the structures were oriented according to at least one of three following ways: The south-southeast direction : Researchers suggest that the south-southeast orientation originates from a Snake Myth, which describes the use of a staff and the stars to facilitate migration in the southeast direction. Aligned with the cardinal directions : A great example of this is Pueblo Alto. Built in the 11th century, its main wall aligned within 5° of the EW latitude. Hungo Pavi is less than 5° offset from true NS. Built at horizon calendrical stations: Calendrical stations are often natural structures that, when viewed at a particular location, the sun can be seen in a memorable relation to it. For example, Figure 1 shows the sun between two prominent rock formations. Imagine this occurred only once per year. The event would mark the same day and thus would denote the annual occasion. Many of the ancestral Puebloan Great Houses are understood to have been built near such calendrical stations that operate for different events like the solstices. Although the ancestral Puebloan culture may not have used physics and astronomy as we do now, it was built into the fundamentals of their society, and central to their community. Written by Amber Elinsky REFERENCES & RESOURCES “History and Culture: The Center of Chalcoan Culture.” Chaco Culture, National Park Service . Accessed May 2024. https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm . Munro, Andrew M., and J. McKim Malville. “Ancestors and the Sun: Astronomy, Architecture and Culture at Chaco Canyon.” Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, no. S278 (2011): 255–64. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743921311012683 . Images from nps.gov Project Gallery

The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can you erase your memory? 09/07/25, 13:31 Last updated: Published: 23/11/23, 11:08 The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex What is memory? Our brain is a wiggly structure in our skull, made up of roughly 100 billion neurones. It is a wondrous organ, capable of processing 34 gigabytes of digital data per day, yet being able to retain information, and form memory – something that many would argue, defines who we are. So.. what is memory? And how does our brain form them? Loosely defined, memory is the capacity to store and retrieve information. There are three types of memory: short-term, working, and long-term memory (LTM). Today, we will be focusing on LTM. In order to form LTM, we need to learn and store memory. This follows the process of encoding, storage, retrieval, and consolidation. In order to understand the biochemical attributes of memory in our brain, a psychologist, Dr Lashley, conducted extensive experiments on rats to investigate if there were specific pathways in our brain that we could damage to prevent memory from being recalled. His results showed that despite large areas of the brain being removed, the rats were still able to perform simple tasks ( Figures 1-2 ). Lashley’s experiment transformed our understanding of memory, leading to the concept of “engrams”. Takamiya et al., 2020 defines “memory engrams” as traces of LTM consolidated in the brain by experience. According to Lashley, the engrams were not localised in specific pathways. Rather, they were distributed across the whole of the brain. Can memory be erased? The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex. In order to simplify this, let’s divide them into two categories: unintentional, and intentional. Let’s take amnesia for example. This is a form of unintentional memory ‘erasure’. There are two types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia, and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory that was formed before acquiring amnesia. On the other hand, anterograde amnesia is the inability to make new memories since acquiring amnesia. Typically, a person with amnesia would exhibit both retrograde, and anterograde amnesia, but at different degrees of severity ( Figure 3 ). Can we ‘erase’ our memory intentionally? And how would this be of use to us? This is where things get really interesting. Currently, the possibility of intentional memory ‘erasure’ is being investigated in patients for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In these clinical trials, patients with PTSD are given drugs that block these traumatic memories. For example, propranolol, an adrenergic beta receptor blocker impairs the acquisition, retrieval, and reconsolidation of this memory. Incredible, isn’t it? Although this is not the current standard treatment for PTSD, we can only imagine how relieving it would be for our fellow friends who suffer from PTSD if their traumatic memories could be ‘erased’. However, with every step ahead, we must always be extremely cautious. What if things go wrong? We are dealing with our brain, arguably one of the most important organs in our body after all. Regardless, the potential for memory ‘erasure’ in treating PTSD seems both promising and intriguing, and the complexities and ethical considerations surrounding such advancements underscore the need for careful and responsible exploration in the realm of neuroscience and medicine. Written by Joecelyn Kiran Tan Related articles: Synaptic plasticity / Boom, and you're back! (intrusive memories) / Sleep and memory loss Project Gallery

The unique condition of microgravity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Astronauts in space… losing gravity, losing immunity? 09/07/25, 10:58 Last updated: Published: 08/09/24, 13:39 The unique condition of microgravity Introduction Since the first successful human launch to space on April 12th, 1961, over 600 astronauts have travelled beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. Space travel is essential in driving technological innovation and consistently increases our understanding of the cosmos. However, alongside the thrill of space exploration, astronauts face significant challenges, including profound risks to their immune systems. Astronauts in space endure a unique condition of near weightlessness known as microgravity, which often causes dysregulation of their immune systems. Effect of microgravity on T-cell immunity One of the critical studies emphasising the effects of microgravity on the immune system is a twin study conducted by NASA, where they compared various gene expression datasets between an astronaut who had been on the International Space Station (ISS) for one year and their identical twin who had not travelled to space. They discovered changes in the methylation patterns of immunologically relevant genes such as NOTCH3 and SLC1A5 , which are both crucial in T cell development. They also found microgravity caused an increase in pro-inflammatory molecules and decreased anti-inflammatory molecules, alluding to spaceflight causing an increased inflammatory state. These patterns are consistent with other experiments simulating microgravity conditions, such as prolonged bed rest models. Microgravity has also been shown to induce thymic atrophy, which is when the thymus slowly shrinks and loses its function. The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ that is crucial in T cell development. An experiment performed on the International Space Station (ISS) has shown that exposing mice to 1g gravity can alleviate microgravity-induced thymic atrophy ( Figure 1 ), suggesting that exposure to a standard gravitational field is a potential treatment. The thymic environment is altered due to microgravity. In particular, thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are misplaced and, therefore cannot perform their role in T cell maturation. Overall, there is a significant decrease in the output of T cells from the thymus, shown by a clear decrease in thymic mass and alterations in gene expression related directly to the process of T cell differentiation. Effect of microgravity on the bone marrow Furthermore, microgravity affects the bone marrow, another primary lymphoid organ. The bone marrow consists of many mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which differentiate hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) into leukocytes. Microgravity inhibits osteogenesis and promotes adipogenesis, which means that bone formation is slowed down, but fat cell production is increased. This happens due to the changes to the structure inside the cell, known as actin cytoskeleton, which affects transcriptional regulators, which generally control cell differentiation. In space, there is also suppression of the cytokine CXCL2 in MSCs, which affects HSC differentiation into immune cells, indicating a link between MSC dysfunction and immunosuppression faced by astronauts. Other factors affecting the immune system Microgravity is the main factor behind immune system dysregulation in astronauts, but other factors, such as stress and exposure to cosmic radiation, also play a role. Cosmic radiation can damage DNA, leading to mutations that impair the immune system’s ability to function properly. Stress hormones are known to affect immune system function. For instance, cortisol can reduce the number of leukocytes in circulation. Conclusion Due to the compromised state of the astronauts’ immune systems, latent viruses often reactivate. Herpes viruses, such as varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox!) and Epstein-Barr virus, have been documented to be reactivated in astronauts during and after space flight. This is mainly due to the loss of T cell immunity ( Figure 2 ) and a reduction in NK cell potency and number. Microgravity affects NK cells by changing their cytoskeletal form, which they need to perform cytotoxic functions. Understanding and mitigating the risks of space travel is crucial as more prolonged and ambitious missions are planned, such as sending humans to Mars. The primary medical countermeasure for the reactivation of herpes viruses is re-vaccination. However, at this current point, only a vaccine for varicella-zoster virus is available. Future research focusing on artificial gravity and environmental changes on spacecraft and the ISS may provide a safer journey for astronauts spending extended time in space. Written by Devanshi Shah Related articles: AI in space / The role of chemistry in space REFERENCES Akiyama, T., Horie, K., Hinoi, E., Hiraiwa, M., Kato, A., Maekawa, Y., Takahashi, A. & Furukawa, S. (2020) How does spaceflight affect the acquired immune system? npj Microgravity. 6 (1), 1–7. doi:10.1038/s41526-020-0104-1. Simon N. Archer, Carla Möller-Levet, María-Ángeles Bonmatí-Carrión, Emma E. Laing, Derk-Jan Dijk. Extensive dynamic changes in the human transcriptome and its circadian organization during prolonged bed rest -ScienceDirect. https://www-sciencedirect.com.iclibezp1.cc.ic.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S2589004224005522?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Hicks J, Olson M, Mitchell C, Juran CM, Paul AM. The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. Immunohorizons. 2023 Oct 1;7(10):670-682. doi: 10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063. PMID: 37855736; PMCID: PMC10615652. The NASA Twins Study: A multidimensional analysis of a year-long human spaceflight | Science. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau8650 [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Hicks, J., Olson, M., Mitchell, C., Juran, C.M. & Paul, A.M. (2023) The Impact of Microgravity on Immunological States. ImmunoHorizons. 7 (10), 670–682. doi:10.4049/immunohorizons.2200063. Hobbs, Z. (2023) How many people have gone to space? | Astronomy.com. Astronomy Magazine. https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/how-many-people-have-gone-to-space/ . Mehta, S.K., Laudenslager, M.L., Stowe, R.P., Crucian, B.E., Feiveson, A.H., Sams, C.F. & Pierson, D.L. (2017) Latent virus reactivation in astronauts on the international space station. npj Microgravity. 3 (1), 1–8. doi:10.1038/s41526-017-0015-y. Surrey, U. Microgravity found to cause marked changes in gene expression rhythms in humans. https://phys.org/news/2024-03-microgravity-gene-rhythms-humans.html [Accessed: 16 August 2024]. Project Gallery

A glimpse into the early universe Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) 23/10/25, 10:22 Last updated: Published: 08/07/23, 13:11 A glimpse into the early universe June 2023 marked the early release of data from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI). This instrument will study the nature of Dark Energy, an elusive addition to our cosmological equations that is thought to explain the accelerating expansion of the Universe. Current models estimate that Dark Energy comprises 68% of the total mass and energy of the universe and is distinct from matter and radiation in the sense that as space expands, its energy density remains constant rather than diluting. Imagine your favourite concentrated juice drink tasting the same regardless of how much water you add! DESI will investigate the large-scale structure of the Universe, obtaining spectra of around 40 million galaxies and using their redshift to create 3-D distance maps. The five-year observation effort has aptly been dubbed an experiment in “cosmic cartography”. (Redshift is the phenomenon wherein the light from objects moving away from us is stretched to longer and redder wavelengths.) The revolutionary engineering behind this instrument enables the measurement of light from more than 100,000 galaxies in a single night! This includes 5,000 optical fibres, each connected to a robotic positioner programmed to aim at galaxies from a specified target list. The survey is conducted on the 4-metre Mayall Telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona. Another staggering feature DESI boasts is that the eventual sample size will outstrip the 20-year Sloan Digital Sky Survey by a factor of 10 in extra-galactic targets! The early release contains 80 Terabytes of data, representing 2% of the total dataset that should be available in 2026. See Figures 1 and 2. In 2005, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey found a signal that DESI will validate and make more precise. This signal is that of Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations (BAO). In the incredibly early universe, there were protons and neutrons, known as baryons, which existed in a hot, dense plasma with electrons. Photons were trapped in this plasma due to the extremely high probability of colliding with an electron. The universe was opaque. Only when the universe had cooled sufficiently so that protons and electrons could form neutral hydrogen atoms—an epoch known as recombination*—*did photons decouple from matter. The Cosmic Microwave Background is actually caused by these photons that were emitted after recombination. Before photons decoupled, the gravitational and high-pressure interactions in the plasma produced oscillations that radiated spherically outward from overdense regions, causing photons and baryons to travel through space together. However, as mentioned earlier, when the universe cooled and photons decoupled, the baryonic matter that was present in these oscillations became essentially frozen in space. The photons were free to stream throughout the now-transparent universe. This provided a so-called standard ruler, the distance that these baryons had travelled as an acoustic oscillation prior to recombination. Linking this back to Dark Energy requires the important detail that the radius of the spherical shell of baryons is tied to the expansion rate of the universe. As Dark Energy has propelled the Universe to expand, this standard ruler has expanded with it. See Figure 3. DESI's 3-D map of galaxies will provide a much clearer picture of the universe's large-scale structure, which is our only hope of finding the imprint of BAO. DESI will show (and has already shown) that there exists an overabundance of galaxies separated by a distance equivalent to the length of the standard ruler. Today, the size of this standard ruler is thought to be approximately 490 million lightyears. DESI represents an impressive step into the era of precision cosmology, and it will require the efforts of hundreds of scientists to make sense of the vast quantities of data we expect by 2026. Written by Joseph Brennan Related articles: Light Project Gallery

Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An introduction to epigenetics 09/07/25, 10:47 Last updated: Published: 04/10/23, 17:01 Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment In recent times, a new area of genetics termed epigenetics has emerged. It seeks to uncover the relationship between our genes and environment. At the core of this novel field is the principle that gene expression can be altered without modifications to the DNA sequence itself. Epigenetic changes to DNA involve the addition of methyl or acetyl groups. Methyl groups decrease gene expression by making DNA more tightly bound around histones, forming heterochromatin, whereas acetyl groups do the opposite; they increase gene expression by loosening histone-bound DNA, forming euchromatin. The addition of these chemical groups to DNA is mediated by enzymes that act on signals our bodies receive from our environment such as diet, stressors, and exercise. Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation have gained notoriety in the scientific community as it is suggested that these changes can be passed down to future generations through germline cells. This means that our grandparents’ diets can influence whether we develop diabetes or not. This neo-Lamarckian concept of evolution challenges the current Darwinian understanding of evolutionary genetics where phenotypic traits are believed to emerge due to genetic mutations and natural selection. Understanding epigenetic modifications opens new doors for potential clinical therapies as by modifying harmful epigenetic changes, we may be able to treat various diseases. This field also highlights the importance of a healthy lifestyle, proper nutrition, and avoiding stressors like smoking and radiation, not only for us but for future generations as well. A noteworthy study on exercise A study conducted by Sailani et. al delves into the effects of lifelong exercise on DNA methylation patterns in genes related to metabolism, skeletal muscle properties, and myogenesis. They used two groups with different levels of physical activity. Individuals from one group reported being physically active by playing various sports and engaging in other forms of activity such as cycling, hiking, running, and swimming; the other group were reported to be physically inactive but healthy. The active group exhibited promoter hypomethylation in genes related to insulin sensitivity, muscle repair and development, and mitochondrial respiratory complexes. Compared to the inactive individuals, a significant increase in hypomethylation was seen in 714 promoters in the active group. Bearing in mind that the inactive group were healthy despite being inactive, this significant difference in methylation pattern is remarkable to see and hits home the gravity of epigenetic influence in our lives. As a result of hypomethylation, these genes would have a higher rate of expression in the active individuals. An example of one such gene is GYG2 which codes for the glycogenin 2 enzyme involved in glycogen synthesis. With enhanced glycogen synthesis we can expect to see improved physical performance and recovery in the active individuals. Along with improved skeletal muscle properties and metabolic profiles, we can assume that the active group will have a higher life expectancy and quality of life than the inactive group. As we can see, epigenetics holds a lot of promise for the future of genetic research. By understanding the extent to which epigenetic modifications affect our lives, we can take measures to encourage positive changes to our genomes for greater health, happiness, and vitality. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage Related articles: How epigenetic modifications give the queen bee her crown / Complex disease I- schizophrenia / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery

The novelty of quantum computing Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Understanding Quantum Computing and Its Applications 05/02/26, 10:20 Last updated: Published: 03/06/23, 17:18 The novelty of quantum computing Relative to the inception of modern technology, quantum computing is fairly young. In 1998, Isaac Chuang of the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Neil Gershenfeld of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Mark Kubinec of the University of California at Berkeley created the first quantum computer that could be loaded with data and output a solution. This marked a significant breakthrough moment for the world of computing and technology. To understand quantum computing, we must first delve into the basics of a regular computer. At the core, a computer operates based on a binary system of 1s and 0s, akin to an on/off switch. However, quantum computers go beyond this simplicity. Quantum computers utilize quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in a superposition of states, representing both 0 and 1 simultaneously. This property allows quantum computers to perform parallel computations and leverage quantum phenomena like entanglement and interference to solve certain problems more efficiently than classical computers. Superposition, the ability of qubits to exist in multiple states simultaneously, is one of the unique properties of quantum mechanics that enables quantum computers to perform computations differently than classical computers. It offers new possibilities for information processing and solving complex tasks. One notable recent project in the field of quantum computing involved Google's use of a 53-qubit quantum computer named Sycamore. This quantum computer successfully performed a computation that would have taken the most powerful classical supercomputers thousands of years to complete, accomplishing it in just a few minutes. This research project exemplified the immense potential of quantum computers for tackling complex problems in a remarkable manner. As we continue to unlock the mysteries of quantum computing and overcome technical challenges, we stand at the brink of a new era of innovation and discovery. From advancements in drug discovery and optimization to revolutionizing cryptography and financial modelling, the possibilities are immense. While quantum computing is still in its early stages, the progress made so far is incredibly promising, and it is an exciting field that holds the key to tackling some of the world's most pressing challenges. Written by Jaspreet Mann Related articles: Quantum chemistry / Computational organic chemistry REFERENCES Chuang, I., Gershenfeld, N., & Kubinec, M. (1998). Experimental implementation of fast quantum searching. Physical Review Letters, 80(15), 3408–3411. Nielsen, M. A., & Chuang, I. L. (2010). Quantum Computation and Quantum Information: 10th Anniversary Edition. Cambridge University Press. Arute, F., et al. (2019). Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting processor. Nature, 574(7779), 505–510. Daskin, A., et al. (2021). Quantum Computing: Progress and Prospects. National Academies Press. Project Gallery

The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Plastics and their environmental impact: a double-edged sword 10/07/25, 10:29 Last updated: Published: 06/11/24, 12:25 The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Plastics have become an indispensable part of modern life. They are found in everything from electronics and packaging to construction materials and medical equipment. These multipurpose materials, mostly derived from petrochemicals, are successful because they are inexpensive, lightweight, and long-lasting. However, one of the biggest environmental problems of our time is their resilience, which makes them so beneficial. The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration, which causes environmental damage and widespread contamination. The chemistry behind plastics Most plastics are composed of polymers, which are lengthy chains of monomers—repeating molecular units. Depending on how the molecules are arranged and the chemical additives added during synthesis, these polymers can be made to have a variety of characteristics, including stiffness or flexibility. Hydrocarbons from natural gas or crude oil are polymerised to create common plastics like polypropylene, which is used in food containers, and polyethene, which is used in plastic bags. While these plastics are ideal for their intended purposes —protecting products, storing food, and more, they are extremely resistant to degradation. This is due to their stable carbon-carbon bonds, which natural organisms and processes find difficult to break down. As a result, plastics can remain in the environment for hundreds of years, breaking down into tiny bits rather than entirely dissolving. See Figure 1 . The problem of micro-plastics Plastics in the environment degrade over time into tiny fragments known as microplastics, which are defined as particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter. These microplastics originate from a variety of sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris, microbeads used in personal care products, synthetic fibres shed from textiles and industrial processes. They are now widespread in every corner of the globe, from the deepest parts of the oceans to remote mountain ranges, the air we breathe, and even drinking water and food. Microplastics are particularly problematic in marine environments. Marine animals such as fish, birds, and invertebrates often mistake microplastics for food. Once ingested, these particles can accumulate in the animals' digestive systems, leading to malnutrition, physical damage, or even death. More concerning is the potential for these plastics to work their way up the food chain. Predators, including humans, may consume prey that has ingested microplastics, raising concerns about the potential effects on human health. Recent studies have detected microplastics in various human-consumed products, including seafood, table salt, honey, and drinking water. Alarmingly, microplastics have also been found in human organs, blood, and even placentas, highlighting the pervasive nature of this contamination. While the long-term environmental and health effects of microplastics are still not fully understood, research raises significant concerns. Microplastics can carry toxic substances such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, posing risks to the respiratory, immune, reproductive, and digestive systems. Exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact has been linked to DNA damage, inflammation, and other serious health issues. Biodegradable plastics: a possible solution? One possible solution to plastic pollution is the development of biodegradable plastics, which are engineered to degrade more easily in the environment. These plastics can be created from natural sources such as maize starch or sugarcane, which are turned into polylactic acid (PLA), or from petroleum-based compounds designed to disintegrate more quickly. However, biodegradable polymers do not provide a perfect answer. Many of these materials require certain circumstances, such as high heat and moisture, to degrade effectively. These conditions are more commonly encountered in industrial composting plants than in landfills or natural ecosystems. As a result, many biodegradable plastics can remain in the environment if not properly disposed of. Furthermore, their production frequently necessitates significant quantities of energy and resources, raising questions about whether they are actually more sustainable than traditional plastics. Innovations in plastic recycling Given the limitations of biodegradable polymers, improving recycling technology has become the main issue in the battle against plastic waste. Traditional recycling methods, like mechanical recycling, involve breaking down plastics and remoulding them into new products. However, this process can degrade the material's quality over time. However, this may compromise the material's quality over time. Furthermore, many types of plastics are difficult or impossible to recycle due to variances in chemical structure, contamination, or a lack of adequate machinery. Recent advances have been made to address these issues. Chemical recycling, for example, converts plastics back into their original monomers, allowing them to be re-polymerised into high-quality plastic. This technique has the ability to recycle materials indefinitely without compromising functionality. Another intriguing technique is enzymatic recycling, in which specially built-enzymes break down plastics into their constituent parts at lower temperatures, reducing the amount of energy required for the process. While these technologies provide hope, they are still in their early phases of development and face significant economic and logistical challenges. Expanding recycling infrastructure and developing more effective ways are critical to reduce the amount of plastic waste entering the environment. The way forward The environmental impact of plastics has inspired a global campaign to reduce plastic waste. Governments, industry, and consumers are taking action by prohibiting single-use plastics, increasing recycling efforts, and developing alternatives. However, addressing the plastic problem necessitates a multifaceted strategy. This includes advances in material science, improved waste management systems, and, perhaps most crucially, a transformation in how we perceive and utilise plastics in our daily lives. The chemistry of plastics is both fascinating and dangerous. While they have transformed businesses and increased quality of life, their long-term presence in the environment poses a substantial risk to ecosystems and human health. Rethinking how we make, use, and discard plastics in order to have a more sustainable relationship with these intricate polymers may be more important for the future of plastics than just developing new materials. Written by Laura K Related articles: Genetically-engineered bacteria break down plastic / The environmental impact of EVs Project Gallery

AI can process data sets and identify patterns and biomarkers Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link AI: the next step in diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases 08/07/25, 16:19 Last updated: Published: 23/03/24, 17:59 AI can process data sets and identify patterns and biomarkers With the development of more intricate Artificial Intelligence (AI) software, which has rapidly grown from the chaotic chatbots to the more well-formed ChatGPT, it is easy to think we are seeing the rise of powerful artificial intelligence that could potentially replace us all. However, there is one problem. Originality does not exist for AI, at least not complete originality. At its most basic, an AI program is trained on a set of data, whether this be an entire search engine’s worth of data, as is the case for ChatGPT, or a few images and phrases gathered from the internet. Therefore, an AI does not know any more than what it can quote or infer from the provided data, which means that a piece of art, a picture of a family, or any short story AI is asked to produce is often a replica of techniques or a chaotic and terrifying mess of images it has been given to use. However, here also lies its strength. AI can take in thousands of images and data sets and notice minor changes and differences the average person could not. It is, therefore, not AI’s ability to create the unique, but instead its ability to recognise the mundane that we can utilise, even in diagnosing and treating genetic disorders. Diagnosis By analysing PET, MRI, fMRI and genetic data, AI can process enormous data sets and identify subtle patterns and biomarkers that often elude human observations, enabling earlier and more precise diagnosis. When looking at examples of the application of AI in the diagnosis of genetic disorders, a good reference is the so-far successful use of AI in diagnosing Huntington’s disease. Huntington’s disease diagnosis using AI Huntington’s disease symptoms present as patients experience involuntary movements and a decline in decision-making processes. Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder, meaning it is caused by a faulty gene, in this case, a fault in the Huntingtin gene (Htt). The Huntington’s disease mutation in Htt results from CAG trinucleotide repeats, a highly polymorphic expansion of Htt consisting of the CAG (cytosine, adenine, guanine) nucleotides (DNA building blocks). Whilst CAG repeats are common and often normal and unharmful, individuals with Huntington’s disease possess an abnormally high number of these CAG repeats (more than 36). When an individual has an abnormally high number of CAG repeats, their Htt proteins do not fold into their proper shape, causing them to bond with other proteins and become toxic to a cell, which ultimately causes cell death in crucial medium spiny neurons (MSN) in the basal ganglia. Basal ganglia are brain structures responsible for the fine-tuning of our motor processes, which they do by essentially allowing neurons to respond in a preferred direction (a target muscle) rather than a null direction using MSNs. So, it is clear how Huntington's disease symptoms occur; mutant Htt leads to cell death in MSNs, leading to the basal ganglia’s inability to control movement, which causes characteristic involuntary behaviours, among other symptoms. Because we identified these changes in Htt and loss of MSN in the basal ganglia, PET, MRI, and fMRI scans are often used in the diagnosis of Huntington’s disease, in addition to genetic and mobility tests. By collecting and extracting clinical and genetic data, certain AI algorithms can analyse the broad range of Huntington’s disease clinical manifestations, identify differences, including even minute changes in the basal ganglia that a doctor may not have, and make an earlier diagnosis. One branch of AI that has proved effective is machine learning. Machine learning models in diagnosis Machine learning uses data and algorithms to imitate the way humans learn. For Huntington's disease diagnosis, this involves the identification of biomarkers and patterns in medical images, gene studies and mobility tests, and detecting subtle changes between data sets, distinguishing Huntington’s disease patients from healthy controls. While machine learning in Huntington’s disease diagnosis comes in many forms, the decision tree model, where the AI uses a decision tree as illustrated in the Project Gallery, has proven very effective. A decision tree model looks at decisions and their possible consequences and breaks them into subsets branching downward, going from decision to effect. Recent research using AI in Huntington’s disease diagnosis has utilised this model to analyse gait dynamics data. This data looks at variation in stride length, how unsteady a person is while walking, and the degree to which one stride interval (the time between strides) differs from any previous and any subsequent strides. For an individual, it is widely accepted that if they have abnormal variations in stride (their walking speed is reduced, their stance is widened), then they are exhibiting symptoms of Huntington’s disease. Therefore, by using this gait data, and having the machine learning model come up with a mean value for stride variation for trial patients, it will be able to discern which patients have stride variation associated with Huntington’s disease (a higher variation in stride) and those that do not. Researchers found that using this method of diagnosis, they were able to accurately identify which gaits belonged to Huntington's disease patients, with an accuracy of up to 100%. Furthermore, researchers also found decision tree models useful when identifying whether a gene links with Huntington’s disease when comparing patients' genetic information with prefrontal cortex samples, with this method’s accuracy being 90.79%. With these results and even more models showing incredible promise, AI is already proving itself useful when it comes to identifying and diagnosing sufferers of genetic disorders, such as those with Huntington’s disease. But this leads us to ask, can AI even help in the treatment of those suffering from genetic disorders? Treatment- current studies in cystic fibrosis While AI models can be applied diagnostically for disorders such as Huntington's disease, they may also be relied upon in disease treatment. The use of AI in tailored treatment is the focus of current research, with one even looking at improving the lives of those suffering from cystic fibrosis. Around 10,800 people are recorded as having cystic fibrosis in the UK, and this debilitating disorder results in a buildup of thick mucus, leading to persistent infections and other organ complications. The most common cause of cystic fibrosis is a mutation in the gene coding for the protein CFTR, resulting from a deletion in its coding gene, causing improper folding in the protein CFTR, as we saw in Huntington’s disease. This misfolding leads to its retention in the wrong place in a cell, so it can no longer maintain a balance of salt and water on body surfaces. Because of the complex symptoms arising from this imbalance, this disease is very difficult to manage, but there is hope, and hope comes as SmartCare. SmartCare involved home monitoring and followed 150 people with cystic fibrosis for six months, having them monitor their lung function, pulse, oxygen saturation and general wellness and upload recorded data to an app. Subsequently, researchers at the University of Cambridge used machine learning to create a predictive algorithm that used this lung, pulse, and oxygen saturation data, identifying patterns that were associated with a decline in a patient's condition, and then predicted this decline much faster than the patient of their doctor could. On average, this model could predict a decline in patient condition 11 days earlier than when the patient would typically start antibiotics, allowing health providers to respond quicker and patients to feel less restricted by their health. This project was, in fact, so successful that the US CF Foundation is now supporting a clinical implementation study, called Breath, which began in 2019 and continues to this day. Although there is a long way to go, using AI, the future can seem brighter. In Huntington’s disease and cystic fibrosis, we can see its effectiveness in both disease diagnosis and treatment. With the usage of AI predicted to increase in the future, there is a great outlook for patients and an opportunity for greater quality of care. This ultimately could ease patient suffering and prevent patient deaths. All this positive research tells us AI is our friend (although science fiction would often persuade us otherwise), and it will guide us through the tricky diagnosis and treatment of our most challenging diseases, even those engrained in our DNA. Written by Faye Boswell Related articles: AI in drug discovery / Can a human brain be linked to a computer? / AI in medicinal chemistry Project Gallery