Search Index

Diving deep Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The science and controversy of water fluoridation 14/07/25, 15:02 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 17:00 Diving deep In the pursuit of national strategies to improve oral health, few interventions have sparked as much debate and divided opinions as water fluoridation. Whilst some have voiced concerns about water fluoridation in recent years, viewing it as mass medicalisation and an intrusion into personal choice, researchers and dental professionals continue to champion its benefits as a cost-effective, population-wide approach that can significantly reduce tooth decay and enhance the oral health of communities across the country. The statistics from 2021-2022 paint a concerning picture, with a staggering 26,741 extractions performed on 0-19-year-olds under the NHS due to preventable tooth decay, amounting to an estimated cost of £50 million. With the NHS bearing the responsibility of providing dental care to millions of people nationwide, the introduction of water fluoridation stands out as a promising ally in the quest for more efficient healthcare and the alleviation of the burden on our already-strained healthcare system, all while improving dental health in a cost-effective manner. Fluoride is a naturally occurring chemical element found in soil, plants and groundwater, which can reduce dental decay through a dual mechanism; fluoridating water reduces dental decay by both impeding demineralisation of enamel and enhancing remineralisation of teeth following acid attacks in the mouth. When sugars from food or drinks enter the mouth, the bacteria present in plaque act to convert these sugars to acid, demineralising the outer surface of teeth and leading to the formation of cavities. The incorporation of fluoride into the structure of tooth enamel during remineralisation strengthens and hardens the outer layer of teeth, rendering teeth less susceptible to damage and more resistant to acid-induced demineralisation. Moreover, fluoride has also been proven to reverse early tooth decay by repairing and remineralising weakened enamel, thus averting the need for restorative dental procedures such as fillings. The inhibition of demineralisation and encouragement of remineralisation overall prevents cavities forming and preserves the vitality of our smiles. The main adverse effect of fluoridating water is the risk of dental fluorosis, which affects the appearance of teeth. Dental fluorosis is a cosmetic dental condition caused by excessive fluoride exposure, resulting in changes in tooth colour and texture. It presents as small opaque white spots or streaks on the tooth surface. It is important to note that these conditions generally occur at fluoride levels significantly higher than those recommended for water fluoridation. Opponents of water fluoridation also argue on ethical grounds, citing concerns about mass medication infringing on personal choice and the right to decide whether to use fluoride or dental products containing fluoride. In some cases, opposition is rooted in conspiracy theories and scepticism about government motives. Findings from the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities and the UK Health Security Agency highlight the benefits of water fluoridation. The data collected illustrates young populations in areas of England with higher fluoride concentrations are up to 63% less likely to be admitted to hospital for tooth extractions due to decay compared to their counterparts in areas of lower fluoridation levels. This disparity is most pronounced in the most deprived areas, where children and young adults benefit the most from the addition of fluoride to the water supply. These findings strongly support the evidence for the advantages of water fluoridation and highlight how this simple method can substantially improve health outcomes for our population. While fluoridation has proven beneficial for communities, especially those from deprived backgrounds, it has demonstrated successful outcomes for individuals across all demographics, irrespective of age, education, employment, or oral hygiene habits. It's essential to emphasize that water fluoridation should not replace other essential oral health practices such as regular tooth brushing, prudent sugar intake, and dental appointments. Instead, it should complement these practices, working in synergy to optimize oral health. As of now, approximately 10% of the population in England receives water from a fluoridation scheme. While the protective and beneficial effects of fluoridation are well-established, the decision to move towards a nationwide water fluoridation scheme ultimately rests with the Secretary of State for Health in the coming years. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery

Nuclear medicine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Physics in healthcare 10/07/25, 10:28 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:47 Nuclear medicine When thinking about a career or what to study in university, many students interested in science think that they have to decide between a more academic route or something more vocational, such as medicine. Whilst both paths are highly rewarding, it is possible to mix the two. An example of this is nuclear medicine, allowing physics students to become healthcare professionals. Nuclear medicine is an area of healthcare that involves introducing a radioactive isotope into the system of a patient in order to image their body. A radioactive isotope is an unstable nucleus that decays and emits radiation. This radiation can then be detected, usually by a tool known as a gamma camera. It sounds dangerous, however it is a fantastic tool that allows us to identify abnormalities, view organs in motion and even prevent further spreading of tumours. So, how does the patient receive the isotope? It depends on the scan they are having! The most common route is injection but it is also possible for the patient to inhale or swallow the isotope. Some hospitals give radioactive scrambled eggs or porridge to the patient in gastric emptying imaging. The radioisotope needs to obey some conditions: ● It must have a reasonable half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for the isotope to decay to half of the original activity. If the half-life is too short, the scan will be useless as nothing will be seen. If it is too long, the patient will be radioactive and spread radiation into their immediate surroundings for a long period of time. ● The isotope must be non-toxic. It cannot harm the patient! ● It must be able to biologically attach to the area of the body that is being investigated. If we want to look at bones, there is no point in giving the patient an isotope that goes straight to the stomach. ● It must have radiation of suitable energy. The radiation must be picked up by the cameras and they will be designed to be most efficient over a specific energy range. For gamma cameras, this is around 100-200 keV. Physicists are absolutely essential in nuclear medicine. They have to understand the properties of radiation, run daily quality checks to ensure the scanners are working, they must calibrate devices so that the correct activity of radiation is being given to patients and so much more. It is essential that the safety of patients and healthcare professionals is the first priority when it comes to radiation. With the right people on the job, safety and understanding is the priority of daily tasks. Nuclear medicine is indeed effective and is implemented into standard medicine thanks to the work of physicists. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Nuclear fusion / The silent protectors / Radiotherapy Project Gallery

Conservation efforts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An end at the beginning: the tale of the Galápagos Tortoises 25/09/25, 09:21 Last updated: Published: 06/06/24, 11:20 Conservation efforts The Galápagos Islands Most who know of the name “Darwin” will be familiar with the Galápagos. These relatively uninviting islands protrude harsh, crashing waves like spears of mountainous rock, formed through millions of years of fierce volcanic activity. Even Charles Darwin himself thought life could not be sustained in such a remote and harsh environment, writing in his 1835 Journal of Researches: A broken field of basaltic lava, thrown into the most rugged waves, and crossed by great fissures, is everywhere covered by stunted, sun-burnt brushwood, which shows little signs of life. Little did the 22-year-old university graduate know at the time, these rugged islands would spark the most pivotal and influential theory in the field of modern biology. Due to the Hawaiian archipelago’s unique volcanic origins, the cluster of islands have grown jagged and fractured, with some islands showcasing altitudes as low as a few meters above sea level to others flexing spaces over 5000 feet above sea level. These extremely diverse habitats enable the observation of vastly different sub-populations of the same (or closely related) species*, exhibiting differing adaptations to their unique environments. These morphological distinctions lead to Darwin’s infamous 1859 book ‘On the Origin of Species’, detailing his evidence for the theories of evolution. *This article may refer to the Galápagos Tortoises as different subspecies or species interchanagably, as this remains a contentious area. The giant tortoises One most apparent examples of evolution that Darwin noted were the Galapagos tortoises, Chelonoidis niger , of which there were at least 15 subspecies. Darwin devoted almost four pages of his Journal of Researches to the Galapagos tortoise, more than he did to any other Galápagos species. These captivating reptiles can grow up to 5 feet in length and weigh over 220kg, making them the largest tortoises in the world. This miraculous species can survive over a year without food or water, able to store tremendous volumes of liquid in their bladders in periods of drought - one of the many adaptive characteristics that enable them to routinely live well over 150-years-old. Darwin notably observed the species’ two unique primary shell morphologies - saddleback and domed. Some subspecies, such as the Pinta Island Tortoise ( Chelonoidis niger abingdonii ), have saddle-shaped shells which raise at the front, making it easier for the neck to stretch upwards to feed on taller vegetation on hotter, more arid islands. Whereas the populations with the dome-shaped shells, including the Chelonoidis niger porteri , occupy islands where there’s an abundance of flora lower to the ground, making upward stretching of the neck unnecessary to feed. Features such as these are well documented in Darwin’s evidence for evolutionary adaptation throughout the islands. Torment and tragedy Only two centuries ago, the Galápagos Islands were rife with life, with an estimated 250,000 giant tortoises. Today, multiple species are extinct, with only around 10% of the individuals surviving. The dramatic decline of the Galápagos tortoises has been characterised by frequent human failure, and in some instances, human design. Between the 1790s and 1800s, whalers began operating around the Galápagos, routinely taking long voyages to explore the Pacific Ocean. With whaling voyages lasting about a year, the tortoises were selected as the primary source of fresh meat for the whalers, with each taking 200 to 300 tortoises aboard. Here, in a ship’s hold, the hundreds of tortoises would live without food or water for months, before being killed and consumed. Documentation regarding how many tortoises were taken aboard by whalers is scarce, however estimates place the number between 100,000 and 200,000 by 700 whaling ships between 1800 and 1870. This initial decimation via over-consumption was then followed by the introduction of harmful invasive species. In the years since, multiple foreign species have been introduced to the archipelago, mainly for farming, including pigs (a lot of which are feral), dogs, cats, rats, goats and donkeys. These non-native species are an enduring threat to the giant tortoise populations, preying on their eggs and hatchlings, whilst also providing fierce and unprecedented competition for food. Furthermore, increasing temperatures attributed to climate change are thought to trigger atypical migrations. These migrations have the potential to reduce tortoise nesting success, further adding to the list of threats these species have had to endure. The Pinta giant tortoise, Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii , a species of the unique saddleback shell variety, was thought to be extinct since the early 20th century. But then, in 1971, József Vágvölgyi, a Hungarian scientist on Pinta island made a special discovery – Lonesome George. Seemingly a sole survivor of his kind, Lonesome George became an icon of the sparking conservation movement surrounding the Galápagos species. This lone Pinta individual could have been wandering the small island for decades in search for another member of his species - a search that would unfortunately never bear fruit. Despite selective breeding efforts, on June 24, 2012, at 8:00 A.M. local time, Lonesome George would pass away without producing any offspring, found by park ranger Fausto Llerena who had looked after him for forty years. Hope and the future Despite all the devastation the Galápagos tortoises have endured, not is all lost. Just like the story of Lonesome George, a microcosm of this larger crisis, there is a small light at the end of the tunnel. Just prior to George’s passing a remarkable discovery was made. During 2008, research conducted by the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department of Yale University on neighbouring Isabela Island, set out to genetically sequence the local giant tortoise population. Over 1,600 tortoises were tagged and sampled for their DNA, with analyses revealing an astonishing number of tortoises with mixed genetic ancestry. Within this sample, 17 individuals contained DNA from the Pinta tortoise species (and more contained DNA from the also extinct Floreana species). Retrospective study of old whaling logbooks seems to indicate that, in order to lighten the burden of their ships, whalers and pirates dropped large numbers of tortoises in Banks Bay, near Volcano Wolf, Isabela Island, likely accounting for these hybrids. This miracle discovery opens the door to selective breeding efforts, paving a future of reintroduction of the previously-extinct Pinta Island species. While only a fraction of their original numbers remain, the Galápagos tortoises continue to personify evolution’s stunning intricacies and persist as a bright beacon of hope for the greater world of conservation. It is vital that we do our part as human beings to correct the errors of our past and to respect and nurture these gentle giants and all that they represent in this world we call home. Written by Theo Joe Andreas Emberson Related articles: Conservation of marine iguanas / 55 years of vicuna conservation / Gorongosa National Park / Modern Evolutionary Synthesis REFERENCES Sulloway FJ. Tantalizing tortoises and the Darwin-Galápagos legend. J Hist Biol. 2009;42(1):3-31. doi:10.1007/s10739-008-9173-9 Patrick J. Endres. AlaskaPhotoGraphics.com Project Gallery

A glimpse into the early universe Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) 23/10/25, 10:22 Last updated: Published: 08/07/23, 13:11 A glimpse into the early universe June 2023 marked the early release of data from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI). This instrument will study the nature of Dark Energy, an elusive addition to our cosmological equations that is thought to explain the accelerating expansion of the Universe. Current models estimate that Dark Energy comprises 68% of the total mass and energy of the universe and is distinct from matter and radiation in the sense that as space expands, its energy density remains constant rather than diluting. Imagine your favourite concentrated juice drink tasting the same regardless of how much water you add! DESI will investigate the large-scale structure of the Universe, obtaining spectra of around 40 million galaxies and using their redshift to create 3-D distance maps. The five-year observation effort has aptly been dubbed an experiment in “cosmic cartography”. (Redshift is the phenomenon wherein the light from objects moving away from us is stretched to longer and redder wavelengths.) The revolutionary engineering behind this instrument enables the measurement of light from more than 100,000 galaxies in a single night! This includes 5,000 optical fibres, each connected to a robotic positioner programmed to aim at galaxies from a specified target list. The survey is conducted on the 4-metre Mayall Telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona. Another staggering feature DESI boasts is that the eventual sample size will outstrip the 20-year Sloan Digital Sky Survey by a factor of 10 in extra-galactic targets! The early release contains 80 Terabytes of data, representing 2% of the total dataset that should be available in 2026. See Figures 1 and 2. In 2005, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey found a signal that DESI will validate and make more precise. This signal is that of Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations (BAO). In the incredibly early universe, there were protons and neutrons, known as baryons, which existed in a hot, dense plasma with electrons. Photons were trapped in this plasma due to the extremely high probability of colliding with an electron. The universe was opaque. Only when the universe had cooled sufficiently so that protons and electrons could form neutral hydrogen atoms—an epoch known as recombination*—*did photons decouple from matter. The Cosmic Microwave Background is actually caused by these photons that were emitted after recombination. Before photons decoupled, the gravitational and high-pressure interactions in the plasma produced oscillations that radiated spherically outward from overdense regions, causing photons and baryons to travel through space together. However, as mentioned earlier, when the universe cooled and photons decoupled, the baryonic matter that was present in these oscillations became essentially frozen in space. The photons were free to stream throughout the now-transparent universe. This provided a so-called standard ruler, the distance that these baryons had travelled as an acoustic oscillation prior to recombination. Linking this back to Dark Energy requires the important detail that the radius of the spherical shell of baryons is tied to the expansion rate of the universe. As Dark Energy has propelled the Universe to expand, this standard ruler has expanded with it. See Figure 3. DESI's 3-D map of galaxies will provide a much clearer picture of the universe's large-scale structure, which is our only hope of finding the imprint of BAO. DESI will show (and has already shown) that there exists an overabundance of galaxies separated by a distance equivalent to the length of the standard ruler. Today, the size of this standard ruler is thought to be approximately 490 million lightyears. DESI represents an impressive step into the era of precision cosmology, and it will require the efforts of hundreds of scientists to make sense of the vast quantities of data we expect by 2026. Written by Joseph Brennan Related articles: Light Project Gallery

They are on the IUCN red list as 'vulnerable' Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Conservation of marine iguanas 09/07/25, 13:34 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:40 They are on the IUCN red list as 'vulnerable' The marine iguana ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus ), also known as the sea iguana, is a unique species. It is the world’s only ocean- going lizard. Their main food source is algae; large males can dive to forage for this source, while females feed during low tide. They can be found on rocky shorelines, but also on marshes, mangrove swamps and beaches of the Galapagos. Their range is limited to the Galapagos islands, so they are an isolated species. Currently, they are on the IUCN red list as ‘vulnerable’ with a current population estimated at 200,000, and conservation efforts are needed to stabilise populations. Key threats There are three key threats to iguana populations. The first is invasive species; animals such as pigs, dogs and cats feed on young hatchlings and iguana eggs, which reduces the long-term survival rate of the species. Marine iguanas have not yet developed defence strategies against these predators. Even humans introduce pathogens to the islands that pose a threat to the species, because of their isolated habitat, the marine iguana lacks immunity to many pathogens and so has a higher risk of contracting diseases. Climate change is another key threat. El Niño is a weather event that prevents cold, nutrient-rich waters, that the marine wildlife depends on, from reaching the Eastern Tropical Pacific. This depletes algae populations, and this food drop drastically reduces iguana populations ( Figure 1 ). With global warming, El Niño events are expected to be more prominent and more frequent. In addition, pollution from humans like oil spills and microplastics are damaging their habitat. Current and future conservation methods Under the laws of Ecuador, marine iguanas are completely protected. Their land range is in the Galapagos National Park, and their sea range is within the Galapagos Marine Reserve. They are also listed on the CITES, which ensures monitoring the trade of endangered animals to inhibit damage to their numbers. Sanctuaries are also in place to mitigate against extinction, but their specialised diet is challenging. So, what does the future hold for marine iguanas? The biggest challenge is the distribution of the species. The population is scattered across the different islands of the Galapagos as such, there are at least 11 subspecies. This brings more complications to marine iguana conservation. As these subspecies specialise, it becomes less likely they will breed, thus more difficult to maintain the species population. Introducing education and awareness programmes will better equip us to the dangers faced by marine iguanas and could be a tourism idea for the Galapagos. This species is one of a kind, which is why it is so important for them to be protected.There should be a monitoring scheme, as suggested by MacLeod and Steinfartz, 2016 ( Figure 2 ), but the location of these subspecies makes it difficult to monitor them. However, there was a recent study using drone-based methods which showed promising results ( Figure 3 ). The overarching question remains: do we continue to conserve the current population in the Galapagos, or should we relocate the species to a less endangered habitat. Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Conservation of Galapagos Tortoises / 55 years of vicuna conservation Project Gallery

You can have endometriosis and PCOS at the same time Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are PCOS and endometriosis sisters? 09/07/25, 10:52 Last updated: Published: 30/01/24, 21:33 You can have endometriosis and PCOS at the same time The label of PCOS or endometriosis can have physical and emotional consequences for women. It is important for both male and females to gain a better understanding of such conditions, the symptoms and the challenges they pose. Such knowledge can act as physical and emotional support in times of need. It creates a safe space where the person with PCOS is comfortable discussing their experiences, feelings and concerns knowing they are being heard and supported by the right people. With research fast developing there is a plethora of information out there, so WHAT do you believe in and WHAT do you ignore and WHOM do you believe and WHOM do you ignore? Endometriosis and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) both affect females and can have similar symptoms. However, the causes and some key symptoms are different. Endometriosis is a painful disorder in which tissue that normally lines the inside of your uterus grows outside the uterus. (Read more on Endometriosis breakthrough ). PCOS is an endocrine system disorder where small fluid-filled sacs develop in the ovaries. You can have endometriosis and PCOS at the same time. A 2015 study found that women with PCOS had a higher risk for a diagnosis of endometriosis. Another 2014 study determined that there is a strong link between endometriosis and PCOS with pelvic pain and trouble getting pregnant. What is a normal menstrual cycle? Let’s polish up the basics! The brain, ovaries and uterus work together to prepare the body per month for pregnancy. Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinising Hormone (LH) are made by the pituitary gland and progesterone and oestrogen are made in the ovaries. Many females with PCOS do not ovulate regularly and it may take these females longer to become pregnant. Irregular periods results in months where ovulation does not occur. Where the ovaries do not produce progesterone the lining of the uterus becomes thicker but shedding is very irregular which can lead to heavy and prolonged bleeding. PCOS affects 1 in 10 women in the UK. Women with PCOS experience irregular menstrual cycles, acne, excess hair growth, infertility, pregnancy complications and cardiovascular disease. PCOS can be associated with weight gain and obesity in approximately one-half of females. Females with PCOS can also be at increased risk of other problems that can impact quality of life. These include depression and anxiety, sexual dysfunction and eating disorders. Although PCOS is not ‘completely’ reversible there are many ways you can minimise the symptoms. Most females can lead a normal life and are able to conceive without significant complications. A pelvic examination is requested by your GP to assess the ovaries for a diagnosis to be made. Imaging tests for examining the ovaries are pelvic and intravaginal ultrasonography, however, the latter may be extremely uncomfortable if sexually inactive. Please be aware this article acts to capture your attention, encouraging you to delve further into the subject and continue your self-education on this topic and by no means is everything about PCOS. It is essential to consult with a healthcare professional if you suspect you may have symptoms of either PCOS or endometriosis. Proper diagnosis and management can help address specific concerns and improve overall reproductive health. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: Endometriosis breakthrough / Underreporting in endometriosis / Gynaecology REFERENCES R. Hart and D. A. Doherty, Fertility Specialists of Western Australia (R.H.), Bethesda Hospital, 6008. K. J. Holoch, R. F. Savaris, D. A. Forstein, P. B. Miller, H. Lee Higdon, C. E. Likes and B. A. Lessey, https://doi.org/10.5301/je.5000181 , 2014, 6, 79–83. R. J. Norman, D. Dewailly, R. S. Legro and T. E. Hickey, The Lancet, 2007, 370, 685–697. Project Gallery

Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Animal ethics: the good, the bad, and the ugly? 23/10/25, 10:20 Last updated: Published: 09/06/24, 11:07 Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide Many research trials involve using animals, specifically those labelled as ‘model organisms’. This refers to species of animals that are desirable for scientific research as they are usually cost-effective, easily manipulated, and well understood in terms of their genetic background. Good knowledge of their genetic background allows for these experiments to be applied with the intention of human benefit. Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide, albeit with various degrees of severity. One of the strictest regions when it comes to animal legislation is the United Kingdom. The Animal Scientific Procedures Act 1986 protects the use of animals in the UK; they, do this by only licensing trusted individuals and experiments that follow the principle of the ‘3Rs’. This principle aims to; r educe the number of animals used r efine procedures to reduce pain r eplace experiments on animals with artificial systems such as cell cultures. Research by Byron Blagburn and coworkers had some controversy as they tested four commercially available heartworm preventatives in dogs, as they first had to infect them. This parasitic worm that was infected in the dogs is extremely severe and life-threatening. The point of the experiment was to see which was the most effective treatment, and they did find that the combination of imidacloprid and moxidectin was 100% effective at eradicating the infection. Despite this research being approved by the Auburn University, Alabama USA Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, many ethical principles were breached. As the dogs had no choice but to participate in the experiment which completely disregards the autonomy of the dogs. However, Byron and his colleagues would counteract that argument by saying they acted with beneficence as the study’s intention was to find out what was the best treatment for the dogs to improve their health. But for this beneficence to be achieved, non-maleficence was broken as the dogs were given parasitic infections that inflicted pain. Unfortunately, according to the DxE investigators (Direct Action Everywhere), after 5 months the dogs were euthanised. Although the researchers defended the morality of their study by pointing out that all treatments were already in commerce, some have argued that the infection of a previously healthy dog with a parasite is morally wrong. Many religions and groups oppose the use of animals in research as they value animal life as much as human life. Buddhists, for example, believe that animals have moral significance, as the Buddha condemns occupations that involve harming animals and encourages his followers to help animals where they can. While many groups stand against this research, most of our findings and medicine today would not be available without the contribution of animals. According to the American Medical Association: Virtually every advance in medical science in the 20th century, from antibiotics and vaccines to antidepressant drugs and organ transplants, has been achieved either directly or indirectly through the use of animals in laboratory experiments. Thus, showing how important the use of animals is in terms of medical advancements and improvement of human life. One of the most vocal groups is People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA): PETA is an organisation advocating for animal rights and strongly opposing many of the current research studies. For example, the research of sepsis is undertaken at many universities like Pittsburgh and California involves puncturing of mice intestines while awake and then stitching multiple of these punctured mice together. This then leads to the excruciating death of these animals. Now, this has aided in the knowledge of sepsis and potential treatment. However, the autonomy of the animals is disregarded whilst the researchers act with maleficence. Therefore in 2024 we are at a vital stage with animal experimentation as the intention is for improving health and can be argued to be necessary for the advancing medicine for humans and animals. Nevertheless, religious groups and animal rights groups believe that justice is not being served as the animals are subject to harm without a choice. Despite the advancements of artificial systems such as organ-on-a-chip (OOC) - multi-channel 3-D microfluidic cell culture that simulates the activities, mechanics and physiological response of an entire organ or an organ system, the findings of animal studies are required before trialling within humans. When artificial systems improve and become more available there could be a world where animal studies are limited or non-existent to please animal rights activists and still aid the enhancements of modern-day medicine. Written by Harvey Wilkes Related articles: Regulation and policy of stem cell research / Miniature organs in biomedicine REFERENCES Blagburn, B.L., Arther, R.G., Dillon, A.R., Butler, J.M., Bowles, J.V., von Simson, C. and Zolynas, R., 2016. Efficacy of four commercially available heartworm preventive products against the JYD-34 laboratory strain of Dirofilaria immitis. Parasites & vectors, 9, pp.1-10. Mice stitched together, injected with bacteria-take action! (no date) PETA. Available at: https://support.peta.org/page/6980/action/1?locale=en-US (Accessed: 29 May 2024). Project Gallery

Julius Oppenheimer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The chemistry of an atomic bomb 04/07/25, 12:57 Last updated: Published: 23/08/23, 16:29 Julius Oppenheimer Julius Robert Oppenheimer, often credited with leading the development of the atomic bomb, played a significant role in its creation in the early 1940s. However, it is essential to recognise the collaborative effort of many scientists, engineers, and researchers who contributed to the project. The history and chemistry of the atomic bomb are indeed fascinating, shedding light on the scientific advancements that made it possible. The destructive power of an atomic bomb stems from the rapid release of energy resulting from the splitting, or fission, of fissile atomic nuclei in its core. Isotopes such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are selected for their ability to undergo fission readily and sustain a self-sustaining chain reaction, leading to the release of an immense amount of energy. The critical mass of fissionable material required for detonation ensures that the neutrons produced during fission have a high probability of impacting other nuclei and initiating a chain reaction. To facilitate a controlled release of energy, neutron moderation plays a crucial role in the functioning of an atomic bomb. Neutrons emitted during fission have high velocities, making them less likely to be absorbed by other fissile material. However, by employing a moderator material such as heavy water (deuterium oxide) or graphite, these high-speed neutrons can be slowed down. Slowing down the neutrons increases the likelihood of their absorption by fissile material, enhancing the efficiency of the chain reaction and the release of energy. The sheer magnitude of the energy released by atomic bombs is staggering. For example, one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of uranium-235 can undergo complete fission, producing an amount of energy equivalent to that released by 17,000 tons (17 kilotons) of TNT. This tremendous release of energy underscores the immense destructive potential of atomic weapons. It is essential to note that the development of the atomic bomb represents a confluence of scientific knowledge and technological advancements, with nuclear chemistry serving as a foundational principle. The understanding of nuclear fission, the critical mass requirement, and the implosion design were key factors in the creation of the atomic bomb. Exploring the chemistry behind this devastating weapon not only provides insights into the destructive capabilities of atomic energy but also emphasises the responsibility that accompanies its use. In conclusion, while Oppenheimer's contributions to the development of the atomic bomb are significant, it is crucial to acknowledge the collective effort that led to its creation. The chemistry behind atomic bombs, from the selection of fissile isotopes to neutron moderation, plays a pivotal role in harnessing the destructive power of nuclear fission. Understanding the chemistry of atomic weapons highlights the remarkable scientific achievements and reinforces the need for responsible use of atomic energy. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Project Gallery

It's produced by European honeybees Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Medicinal Manuka 10/07/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 11/05/24, 10:57 It's produced by European honeybees Manuka honey has received considerable attention recently due to its impressive antimicrobial ability and potential for future clinical use. Manuka honey is produced by European honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) that visit the Manuka tree ( Leptospermum scoparium ) in New Zealand. It is most commonly distributed as monofloral honey (produced by bees that have visited predominantly one plant species—in this case, the Manuka bush); however, it can also be sold as multifloral. The Manuka tree, which the European honeybees visit, has a long history of use for its medicinal properties. The Māori (the indigenous Polynesian people of mainland New Zealand) valued it for its wide variety of uses, referring to the plant as ‘taonga’ (‘treasure’). The leaves from the tree were used to make infusions that could reduce fevers, and the gum produced from the tree was used to moisturise burns and soothe coughs. In the 18th century, European settlers contacted the Māori and became aware of this tree and its healing properties; they used the leaves as a medicinal tea to treat scurvy. In 1839, an English beekeeper, Mary Bumby, introduced bees to New Zealand, and by 1860, the bee population had grown extensively, and colonies were present throughout forests. The Māori learnt to harvest the honey produced by these bees and promoted the production of Manuka honey. The honey was used by the Māori for the same benefits they used the Manuka tree. In the 1980s, the biochemist Peter Molan launched the first scientific research on the antimicrobial properties of Manuka honey, evaluating its ability to kill microbes. Research has demonstrated that Manuka honey is an effective bactericidal (killer of microbes). Dr Jonathon Cox and his colleagues at Aston University showed that administering Manuka honey can be effective against Mycobacterium abscessus , which is fatal without treatment. Using a model of an artificial lung, Dr Cox found that the addition of Manuka honey reduced the dosage of the highly potent amikacin by 8-fold, which is an extremely significant difference to the quality of life of patients as a common consequence of the 13-month amikacin treatment is permanent hearing loss. Alternative remedies for bacterial infections are required to combat the growing concern of antibiotic resistance. Many molecules of Manuka honey are responsible for their antimicrobial activity, including methylglyoxal (MGO) content. MGO can interfere with the lipid bilayer structure of the bacterial membrane, leading to leakage of its cellular contents and cell death. MGO can also impair the function of enzymes involved in energy production and macromolecule synthesis within bacteria. Additionally, Manuka honey can also produce hydrogen peroxide, which generates highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) within bacterial cells. These ROS, such as hydroxyl radicals, can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, and DNA, leading to bacterial cellular death. Altogether, these mechanisms enable Manuka honey to disrupt bacterial growth and proliferation. Manuka honey is currently used as a medical product for professional wound care in European hospitals. The main advantage of Manuka honey is that the mechanisms behind its antibacterial activity are diverse, making it effective against resistant strains of bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) . A systematic review written by Jonathon Cox states that certain commercially available varieties of Manuka honey are effective against organisms that have a high degree of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, this leads to the promising preliminary conclusion that Manuka honey could be the answer to the investigation of finding an effective antimicrobial, an alternative to antibiotics. Written by Harvey Wilkes Related article: Natural substances as treatment to infection REFERENCES Nolan, V.C., Harrison, J. and Cox, J.A., 2022. In vitro synergy between manuka honey and amikacin against Mycobacterium abscessus complex shows potential for nebulisation therapy. Microbiology, 168(9), p.001237. Nolan, V.C., Harrison, J., Wright, J.E. and Cox, J.A., 2020. Clinical significance of manuka and medical-grade honey for antibiotic-resistant infections: a systematic review. Antibiotics , 9 (11), p.766. Project Gallery

A collaboration with the Mesothelioma Center (Asbestos.com), USA Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast Cancer and Asbestos 04/02/25, 15:44 Last updated: Published: 06/06/23, 10:03 A collaboration with the Mesothelioma Center (Asbestos.com), USA Breast cancer is a prevalent disease characterized by abnormal cell growth in the breast. There are various types of breast cancer, including invasive ductal carcinoma, invasive lobular carcinoma, Paget's disease, medullary mucinous carcinoma, and inflammatory breast cancer. In 2022, approximately 287,850 new cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed, making it the most commonly diagnosed cancer in women. Natural risk factors for breast cancer include gender, age, race, early onset of menstruation, family history, and genetics. Environmental factors, such as exposure to radiation, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and metals, may also contribute to the risk of developing breast cancer. Some studies have suggested a possible connection between asbestos exposure and breast cancer. While the link between asbestos and other health conditions like mesothelioma cancer is well-established, the exact relationship between asbestos and breast cancer remains unclear. Statistical significance refers to the level of confidence in the results of a study or experiment. In the context of studies investigating the correlation between asbestos exposure and breast cancer, Dr. Debra David points out that many studies fail to establish a conclusive link due to a lack of statistical significance. Certain factors can increase the risk of developing breast cancer, known as "partial risk factors." Some of these factors can be controlled by individuals, such as alcohol consumption. However, many other partial risk factors are not within an individual's control without compromising their overall health. For example, receiving radiation therapy to the chest or making decisions regarding childbirth can be deeply personal choices that impact breast cancer risk. Examples of partial risk factors include consuming more than two alcoholic drinks per day, having children after the age of 30, not having children, not breastfeeding, using the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) to prevent miscarriage, recent use of birth control pills, receiving hormone replacement therapy (HRT), undergoing radiation therapy to the chest area, and exposure to toxic substances or carcinogens. According to the American Cancer Society, approximately 5 to 10% of breast cancer cases can be directly attributed to inherited gene mutations. However, many other factors, such as exposure to carcinogens, may be beyond a cancer patient's control. Summary written by the Mesothelioma Center ( Asbestos.com ) For more information, visit their website , and also read important facts breast cancer and mesothelioma survival rate . For further information, particularly the legal consequences, check out the Lanier Law Firm, which has more specific information Project Gallery