Second most common anaemia Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anaemia of chronic disease 09/05/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 24/08/23, 17:06 Second most common anaemia This article is no. 3 of the anaemia series. Next article: sideroblastic anaemia . Previous article: Iron-deficiency anaemia. Pathogenesis The second most prevalent anaemia is anaemia of chronic disease (ACD); it is more often seen alongside chronic infections or malignancies. Other causes include infections, autoimmune diseases, and transplant rejection. The pathogenesis of the condition is greatly lead by the effectiveness of the immune system. The immune response to tumour cells and pathogens is to remove and deny access to iron, which is needed to thrive. The processes are mainly thought to be mediated through cytokines such as TNF, IL-6s and IFN as well as the acute phase protein hepcidin. IL-6 is a very powerful cytokine in that it can inhibit erythropoiesis through the downregulation of gene expression; SLC4a1 reducing haemoglobin production, it increases ferratin production whilst inhibiting TNF-α; this upregulates DMT-1, which is a protein (transmembrane) involved in iron uptake in macrophages, and it upregulates the production of hepcidin. Hepicidin Hepcidin is a peptide hormone, 25 amino-acid-chain protein, derived mainly from hepatic cells. Its synthesis is induced as a response to iron overload or inflammation. Its presence crucial in the diagnosis of ACD. IL-6 induces hepcidin release from hepatocytes. Upregulation causes the transport protein (ferroportin) degradation, inhibiting iron absorption in duodenum, enterocytes and macrophage recycling via upregulation of dMT-1, and mobilisation of stored iron, resulting in low iron plasma. Clinical presentation A patient with ACD may have low haemoglobin (Hb), and the reticulocyte index (new RBC) count may be reduced. Also, this is a common feature of an iron deficient anaemia (IDA). A blood film may help diagnose the underlying condition, but the red cell morphology varies greatly, as less than half can be microcytic or hypochromic. Iron studies are what helps ACD stand out from the other anaemias: raised IL-6, hepcidin and ferratin are the key markers; the presence of iron results with raised ferratin and iron will be seen if a blood film is stained correctly. There may also be reduced serum iron, % saturation and TIBC. Should erythrocyte sedimentation rates be high, rouleaux may be seen, which are aggregations of RBC. Conclusion The most efficient way to diagnose an anaemia is through serum biomarkers in a FBC, and iron studies. Hepcidin and other chemical markers play a key role in the diagnosis of ACD. Iron studies help to paint a clearer picture when diagnosing anaemias, but should be supported with a medical history alongside a clinical examination, as comorbidities may influence chronic inflammatory markers. Written by Lauren Kelly Project Gallery

How botox works in the cosmetic industry Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link From botulism to beauty: the evolution of botulinum toxins and botox 09/07/25, 15:10 Last updated: Published: 03/10/23, 15:07 How botox works in the cosmetic industry Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) rank amongst the most potent and lethal neurotoxins known to science. Yet, it's a fascinating journey to discover how these deadly substances have found their way into one of the most renowned cosmetic procedures in the world: Botox. BoNTs originate from the bacterium Clostridium botulinum , which produces some of the most potent neurotoxins in existence. They are central to the development of botulism, a condition that relentlessly targets the body's nervous system, resulting in challenges in breathing and muscle paralysis. Despite their perilous origins, these toxins have undergone a fascinating metamorphosis into a popular cosmetic procedure. They have been studied substantially due to their ability to block nerve functions leading to muscle paralysis and their unique pharmacological properties in therapeutic and cosmetic uses. They affect the neurotransmission process by blocking the release of acetylcholine that allows muscle contraction in the body. The toxins bind pre-synaptically to recognition sites on cholinergic nerve terminals resulting in the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. The toxin consists of a heavy chain and a light chain connected by a disulphide bond. This disulphide bond is vital in the entry of the metalloprotease chain in the cytosol. BoNTs have a unique binding characteristic as a dual receptor binder, which allows them to achieve a high affinity for neurons. These proteins possess the remarkable ability to specifically target and interfere with the neurotransmission process. At their core, BoNTs are proteases, enzymes specialised in cleaving specific proteins involved in nerve signal transmission. When administered as Botox, BoNTs are skillfully harnessed to their advantage due to these properties. By injecting small, controlled amounts into specific facial muscles, they temporarily disrupt the nerve signals that stimulate muscle contraction. This action leads to muscle relaxation, smoothing out wrinkles and lines on the skin's surface. Importantly, the effects are localised, preserving the natural expressiveness of the face. In 1989, BoNTs made their debut in the medical community by being recognised as a safe and effective treatment by the FDA for blepharospasm, which affects eye muscle control. However, in 2002 the FDA extended its endorsement, propelling Botox into the realm of beauty. This pivotal decision forever reshaped the landscape of cosmetic procedures, solidifying Botox's status as an iconic treatment for rejuvenation and enhancement. In conclusion, the evolution of botulinum toxins and the rise of Botox is a captivating journey that traverses the realms of science, medicine, and evolving beauty ideals. Written by Anam Ahmed Project Gallery

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 09/03/26, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs We are in the era of innovation and cutting-edge technology in biosciences and health. This article goes through some of the most remarkable technologies slowly conquering the world of biosciences. Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Gene editing is based on the idea that correcting the genetic mistake that causes a disease offers a permanent result than curing the symptoms. This technique allows scientists to alter the DNA of cells by deleting, adding or modifying genes. There are numerous ways to edit a gene. The most widely used and revolutionary method for gene editing is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR- associated protein 9. The process begins with the design of a synthetic RNA molecule, known as guide RNA (gRNA) that matches the target gene sequence. The gRNA, combined with the Cas9 protein, forms a complex that is then introduced into the target cells. Cas9 acts like scissors, guided by the gRNA, to locate the precise location on the DNA where the genetic modification is intended. Once the target site is identified, Cas9 induces a break in the DNA strand. The cell's natural DNA repair mechanisms then come into play. The non- homologous end joining pathway introduces insertions and deletions at the site, resulting in gene knockout or inactivation. On the other hand, once a DNA template with homology to the sequences is present, the homology-directed repair pathway allows the incorporation of a desired genetic sequence, facilitating gene insertion or replacement. Several other gene-editing techniques have been developed, each with unique approaches. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) are two examples. These methods also use proteins that act as molecular scissors to cut the DNA at specific locations. ZFNs use zinc finger proteins to bind to target DNA sequences, while TALENs use transcription activator-like effector proteins. As the field of gene editing rapidly advances, these diverse methods contribute to the expanding toolkit available for researchers and hold promise for addressing a wide array of applications, from medical treatments to agricultural improvements. CAR T-cells Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a new type of immunotherapy, considered to be the new fighters in the war on cancer. In general, immunotherapies use the patient’s immune system to fight the cancer. This therapy promises more specificity than traditional therapies and more permanent results. T-cells naturally exist in the human organism, supporting the adaptive immune system. They are a group of lymphocytes in the blood or lymph tissue that target or kill specific pathogens. Each type of T-cell recognises specific pathogens. T-cells have proteins on their outer surface, called receptors and these receptors recognize specific proteins on the outer surface of the pathogen. Depending on the type of T-cell, after recognizing the specific pathogen, they are either killing the pathogen (killer T-cells) or signaling to other elements of immune system to attack the pathogen (helper T-cells). CAR T-cell therapy involves modifying a patient’s own T-cells to express a specific CAR on their surface. The receptor is designed to recognise antigens commonly found on the surface of cancer cells. To introduce CARs on the outer surface of T-cells, the patient’s T-cells are genetically modified in the lab. A viral vector is often used to knock out the original T-cell receptors and express the CAR construct. The newly created CAR-T-cells are introduced into the patients, where they target and destroy cancer cells expressing the specific antigen for which the CAR is designed. Incretins The scientific journal “Science” proclaimed glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists The Breakthrough of 2023. These medications, originally approved for type 2 diabetes, demonstrated remarkable weight-loss benefits. GLP-1 is a natural hormone produced in the intestines that plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we eat a meal, incretins, GLP-1 and Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), are released into the bloodstream. They bind to specific receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas, triggering insulin release. Incretins also suppress the release of glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of stored glucose. GLP-1 receptor agonists are medications that mimic the effects of GLP-1. They bind to the GLP-1 receptors on pancreatic beta cells, promoting insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon release. By mimicking the actions of GLP-1, these medications help to lower sugar levels, improve glucose control, and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia. At the same time, they seem to regulate the appetite and delay gastric emptying. New GLP-1 medicines have been produced to combat weight loss with high efficacies; some are available on the NHS while others can be purchased privately. iPSCs Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are becoming a new powerful weapon in lab research. They are a type of stem cell that can be generated from adult cells, such as skin or blood cells, through reprogramming. The process of creating iPSCs involves introducing a set of specific genes into the adult cells. These reprogramming factors reset the adult cells' developmental clock, turning them back into a pluripotent state, similar to embryonic stem cells. Once iPSCs are generated, they can be expanded indefinitely in the laboratory and induced to differentiate into various cell types. iPSCs are a valuable tool for studying human development and disease, as well as for drug discovery and regenerative medicine. iPSCs can be derived from patients with genetic diseases or other conditions, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms in a dish. By differentiating iPSCs into the relevant cell types affected by the disease, researchers can observe how the disease develops and test potential treatments. Moreover, iPSC-derived cells can screen potential drugs for safety and efficacy. Because iPSCs can differentiate into many different cell types, they provide a more accurate model of human biology than traditional cell culture methods. Finally, because iPSCs can be derived from individual patients, they offer the potential for personalised therapies. iPSCs could be used to generate patient-specific cells for transplantation or to test drugs for individual patients. Conclusion These cutting-edge technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for targeted interventions in the treatment of genetic disorders, cancer, diabetes, and a myriad of other diseases. However alongside their immense promise, these biotechnological techniques and therapies also raise important ethical, social and regulatory considerations. The implications of gene editing on human germline cells, the accessibility of advanced therapies, and the long-term safety of these interventions are critical areas that warrant careful attention and thoughtful deliberation. Embracing these innovative techniques with diligence holds the key to unlocking a future where previously incurable conditions become manageable, and where the boundaries of medical possibility are continually expanded. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Medical biotechnology / Mesenchymal stem cells Project Gallery

Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An introduction to epigenetics 09/07/25, 11:47 Last updated: Published: 04/10/23, 18:01 Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment In recent times, a new area of genetics termed epigenetics has emerged. It seeks to uncover the relationship between our genes and environment. At the core of this novel field is the principle that gene expression can be altered without modifications to the DNA sequence itself. Epigenetic changes to DNA involve the addition of methyl or acetyl groups. Methyl groups decrease gene expression by making DNA more tightly bound around histones, forming heterochromatin, whereas acetyl groups do the opposite; they increase gene expression by loosening histone-bound DNA, forming euchromatin. The addition of these chemical groups to DNA is mediated by enzymes that act on signals our bodies receive from our environment such as diet, stressors, and exercise. Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation have gained notoriety in the scientific community as it is suggested that these changes can be passed down to future generations through germline cells. This means that our grandparents’ diets can influence whether we develop diabetes or not. This neo-Lamarckian concept of evolution challenges the current Darwinian understanding of evolutionary genetics where phenotypic traits are believed to emerge due to genetic mutations and natural selection. Understanding epigenetic modifications opens new doors for potential clinical therapies as by modifying harmful epigenetic changes, we may be able to treat various diseases. This field also highlights the importance of a healthy lifestyle, proper nutrition, and avoiding stressors like smoking and radiation, not only for us but for future generations as well. A noteworthy study on exercise A study conducted by Sailani et. al delves into the effects of lifelong exercise on DNA methylation patterns in genes related to metabolism, skeletal muscle properties, and myogenesis. They used two groups with different levels of physical activity. Individuals from one group reported being physically active by playing various sports and engaging in other forms of activity such as cycling, hiking, running, and swimming; the other group were reported to be physically inactive but healthy. The active group exhibited promoter hypomethylation in genes related to insulin sensitivity, muscle repair and development, and mitochondrial respiratory complexes. Compared to the inactive individuals, a significant increase in hypomethylation was seen in 714 promoters in the active group. Bearing in mind that the inactive group were healthy despite being inactive, this significant difference in methylation pattern is remarkable to see and hits home the gravity of epigenetic influence in our lives. As a result of hypomethylation, these genes would have a higher rate of expression in the active individuals. An example of one such gene is GYG2 which codes for the glycogenin 2 enzyme involved in glycogen synthesis. With enhanced glycogen synthesis we can expect to see improved physical performance and recovery in the active individuals. Along with improved skeletal muscle properties and metabolic profiles, we can assume that the active group will have a higher life expectancy and quality of life than the inactive group. As we can see, epigenetics holds a lot of promise for the future of genetic research. By understanding the extent to which epigenetic modifications affect our lives, we can take measures to encourage positive changes to our genomes for greater health, happiness, and vitality. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage Related articles: How epigenetic modifications give the queen bee her crown / Complex disease I- schizophrenia / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery

Resources such as: other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help! Aiding university students studying STEM subjects. Extra Resources A masterlist of other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help with your studies, research and revision. You may also like: A-level resources, IB resources, Entrance exam preparation, FREE CV and PS checks!, STEM book reviews Representation in STEM Sisterhood in STEM GENERAL INFORMATION Referencing guide: Cite Them Right Cite this for me ZoteroBib (fast, free reference generator) Phrasebank to help with essays Free notes and textbooks: Studocu Grammar checker: Grammarly (available as a browser extension) Money financing for students: Save the Student Others: New Scientist (print and online magazine) BBC iPlayer science and nature documentaries WEBSITES TO AID STUDIES Science and maths: MME Revise Cognito Resources Access Tuition Maths Genie LibreTexts: biology , chemistry , physics , maths , engineering , and medicine HELP WITH RESEARCH Databases: - PubMed - MEDLINE (by National Library of Medicine) - ScienceDirect - Web of Science - Literature search: Google Scholar - Participate in actual research: Zooniverse - citizen science - Top multi-disciplinary journal in the field: Nature PHARMACOLOGY AND RELATED Reference sites: - Pharmgkb - Drug Bank - Check which drugs are in trial Textbooks: - Katzung's Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, 16th edition by Todd Vanderah, PhD - The Top 100 Drugs: Clinical Pharmacology and Practical Prescribing by Andrew Hitchings, Daniel Burrage, Dagan Lonsdale and Emma Baker BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES TEXTBOOKS Biology: - Campbell & Reece - Molecular biology and genetics: Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition - Molecular Cell Biology by Lodish et al - Anatomy and physiology: Marieb - Principles of Animal Physiology by Moyes and Schulte - Animal Physiology by Hill, Wyse, and Anderson - Developmental Biology by Barresi and Gilbert - Cancer: The Biology of Cancer by Robert A. Weinberg Biochemistry: - Medical Biochemistry b y N. Mallikarjuna Rao Neuroscience: - Purves et. al - Kandel Immunology: - Immunobiology, 5th edition The Immune System in Health and Disease Genetics: - Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics and Genomics by Turnpenny & Ellard - Lewin’s Genes by Krebs, Goldstein, and Kilpatrick - Human Molecular Genetics by Strachan and Read CHEMISTRY TEXTBOOKS Physical chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Solid State Chemistry (Fourth Edition) by Lesley Smart and Elaine Moore Organic chemistry: - Jonathan Clayden Organic Chemistry (latest edition) Inorganic chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Housecroft Inorganic Chemistry (latest edition) - Electronic Structure (Basic Theory and Practical Methods) by Richard M. Martin PSYCHOLOGY Resources: - QMUL resource guides - Psychology Today - Royal Holloway activities and research - Verywell Mind - Two-minute Neuroscience - Amoeba Sisters (biology related) - Khan Academy (all STEM based) - TEDx Talk - Royal Society (range of science videos) - NumberPhile - patrickJMT (maths) - Tyler DeWitt (general chemistry) - Crash Course - Stanford Medicine (wellness) PHYSICS Resources: - Astronomy Picture of the Day - NASA STEM activities Textbooks- Foundational: - University Physics by Young and Freedman - Space, Time, and Geometry by Sean M. Classical electromagnetism: - Introduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths - Electricity and Magnetism by Morin and Purcell - ' SQUIDs, the Josephson Effects and Superconducting Electronics' by J.C Gallop Thermal physics & classical mechanics: - Introductory Statistical Mechanics by Bowley & Sanchez - Statistical Mechanics: A Survival Guide by Glazer & Wark - Concepts in Thermal Physics by Blundell and Blundell Quantum mechanics: - Introduction to Quantum Mechanics by Griffiths - Modern Quantum Mechanics (Third Edition) by J. J. Sakurai and Jim Napolitano Quantum field theory: - Quantam Field Theory for the Gifted Amateur by Tom Lancaster & Stephen J. Blundell - Condensed Matter Field Theory (Second Edition) by Alexander Altland and Ben Simons Particle physics: - Introduction to Elementary Particles by Griffiths Condensed matter physics: - Introduction to Solid State Physics by Mittel & McEuen - Solid State Physics by Ashcroft and Mermin - Condensed Matter Physics by Michael P. Marder - The Physics of Semiconductors: An Introduction Including Nanophysics and Applications by Marius Grundmann - Density Functional Theory by David S. Sholl and Janice A. Steckel MATHS Textbooks: - Mathematical Methods for Physicists and Engineers by Riley Benson and Hobson - Mathematics for Natural Scientists 1 and 2 by Lev Kantorovich - Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig - Thomas's Calculus by George B. Thomas - Mathematical Methods for Science students by G Stephenson - Contemporary Abstract Algebra by Joseph A. Gallian Read this article on how to excel in maths COMPUTER SCIENCE AND RELATED Resources: - Codeacademy - W3Schools ( has tutorials for HTML/ CSS/ Javascript, Python, Java, and many other languages) - Adacomputerscience - TeachComputing - Codewars (practise coding with your friends) - freeCodeCamp ENGINEERING Resources: - eFunda- formulae - Engineering statistics handbook - The Engineering Toolbox - free tools, calculators, and more - Engineers Edge - Online Ethics - ethics in engineering and science INFORMATIVE YOUTUBE CHANNELS

Navigating the silence Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unveiling the underreported challenges of endometriosis 09/03/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 25/11/23, 11:22 Navigating the silence What is endometriosis? Endometriosis is a chronic, neuro-inflammatory disease that affects 1 in 10 women in the UK. It is associated with debilitating chronic pelvic pain caused by tissue alike the lining of the womb (uterus) grows outside the uterus in other places like the ovaries and fallopian tubes. Endometriosis can affect any woman of reproductive age with a lifelong impact and can even lead to infertility. During a normal menstrual cycle, the body undergoes monthly hormonal changes. Natural hormonal release causes the uterus lining to thicken in preparation of a fertilised egg. If there is no pregnancy, the uterus lining will break down and bleed and is then released from the body in the form of a period. In endometriosis, tissue alike to the uterus lining tissue behaves in the same way the uterus tissue behaves every month during the menstrual period: building up, breaking down then bleeding. Unlike the womb tissue broken down blood, this blood has no way to leave. The internal bleeding causes inflammation, debilitating pain, and scar tissue formation. The symptoms are: · Painful, heavy, long periods · Infertility · Pain during or after sex · Painful bowel movements · Mood disorders like anxiety or depression · Chronic fatigue · Chronic pelvic pain The challenges of endometriosis Contrary to popular belief, period pain is not normal and can be experienced by those without endometriosis. The main point is if your period pain is interfering with your daily life, please consult your doctor. There are many challenges behind endometriosis from the hard time a patient has to get a diagnosis, to the severely under-research of the condition. Unfortunately, since endometriosis shares symptoms with many other conditions, diagnosis can be delayed and strenuous with recent research showing the average time to get a firm diagnosis being 7.5 years. A 2021 focus group in the Netherlands also shows the many issues with diagnosing endometriosis. Many of the focus group reported having a hard time finding a doctor who does not dismiss their concerns, undermine their pain, or dismiss them with paracetamol or ibuprofen which patients have reported as not strong for the pain endometriosis causes. Little research has been done on how effective paracetamol or ibuprofen is with endometriosis pain, but anecdotal evidence suggests it is not effective. Many of them reported their concerns being unheard, told to come back when they want to have a child and that their pain is normal, so they don’t need to see a doctor. Research for endometriosis is heavily underfunded; women reproductive health disorders are generally underfunded. There is a huge gender disparity with disorders that mostly affect men being over-funded while disorders affecting mostly women being underfunded. A 2018 analysis by the UK Clinical Research Collaboration reported findings of only 2.1% of public funded medical research going towards childbirth and reproductive health which is down from 2.5% in 2014. A 16% funding decrease over a 4-year period. The UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) has funded just over 40 endometriosis-related projects since 2003. However, diabetes which has the same incident rate but affecting both sexes instead of one like endometriosis has been funded 1891 projects in the same time. Just over 1m was funded to 6 of the endometriosis projects compared almost 250 diabetes projected with more than 10 receiving funding greater than £10 million. In 2020 the UK’s All-Part Parliament Group (APPG) report on endometriosis calls the attention of the cause of the disorder being unclear: Historically, with limited investment in research into women’s health in general, there’s been so little investment in research into endometriosis that we don’t even know what causes it, and without knowing the cause, a cure cannot be found. The APPG called for more investment into the cause, diagnosis, treatment, and management options of endometriosis. Without investment in research, this condition will rob the next generation of women [of] the education, care, and support they deserve. With more awareness being brought up by endometriosis charities, researchers and the affected group, the hard work and motivation may pay off soon. That being said, relugolix combination therapy for this disease was approved in March 2025, with linzagolix being approved a few months later in May 2025- both under the NHS. Written by Blessing O. Related articles: Breakthrough in endometriosis treatment / Gynaecology Project Gallery

Applications of ancient DNA analysis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are aliens on Earth? 09/04/26, 18:08 Last updated: Published: 04/10/23, 18:13 Applications of ancient DNA analysis During the congressional hearing regarding UFOs held by Mexico on the 13th of September 2023, two alleged alien corpses were presented by UFO enthusiast Jaime Maussan. These artefacts were met with scepticism due to Maussan’s previous five claims to have found aliens, all debunked as mummified human remains. To verify the newly found remains as alien, various lab tests have been performed, one being a carbon-14 analysis by researchers at the Autonomous National University of Mexico. This analysis estimated the corpses to be approximately 1000 years old. Determination of the corpses’ genetic make-up is another essential technique for the verification of the supposed alien remains, but is it possible for these ancient remains to undergo DNA analysis? Yes; in fact, there are methods specialised for cases such as these that enable ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis. The relatively recent advent of high throughput sequencing technology has streamlined DNA sequencing into becoming a more rapid and inexpensive process. However, aDNA has fundamental qualities that complicate its analysis such as postmortem damage, extraneous co-extracted DNA and the presence of other contaminants. Therefore, extra steps are essential in the bioinformatics workflow to make sure that the aDNA is sequenced and analysed as accurately as possible. So, let’s talk about the importance of aDNA analysis in various areas and how looking at the genetics of the past, and potentially space, can unearth information for modern research. Applications of aDNA sequencing and analysis Analysis of ancient DNA is a useful technique for the discovery of human migration events from hundreds of centuries ago. For example, analyses of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have repeatedly substantiated the “Recent African Origin” theory of modern human origins; the most common ancestor of human mtDNA was found to exist in Africa about 100,000-200,000 years ago. There have also been other recent studies within phylogeography; an aDNA study on skeletal remains of ancient northwestern Europeans carried out in 2022 showed that mediaeval society in England was likely the result of mass migration across the North Sea from the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark. Thus, these phylogeographic discoveries improve our knowledge of the historic evolution and migration of human populations. Paleopathology, the study of disease in antiquity, is another area for which ancient DNA analysis is important. Analysis of DNA from the victims of the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death facilitated the identification of Yersinia Pestis and determined it as the causal agent in these pandemics. The contribution of aDNA analysis is consequently important to reveal how diseases have affected past populations and this derived genetic information can be used to identify their prevalence in modern society. Exciting yet debatably ethical plans for the de-extinction of species have also been announced. The biotech company Colossal announced plans in 2021 to resurrect the woolly mammoth among other species such as the Tasmanian tiger and the dodo bird. Other groups plan to resurrect the Christmas Island rat and Steller’s sea cow. In theory, this is exciting, or scary from certain ecological perspectives, but is complicated in practice. Even though the number of nuclear genomes sequenced from extinct species exceeds 20, there has been no restoration of species to date. Are aliens on Earth? Thus, ancient DNA analysis can be applied to a multitude of areas to give historical information that we are able to carry into the modern world. But, finally, are these ‘alien’ corpses legitimately from outer space? José Zalce Benitez is the director of the Health Sciences Research Institute in the secretary of the Mexican Navy’s office and he reports on the scientists’ findings. The DNA tests were allegedly compared with over one million species and found not to be genetically related to “what is known or described up to this moment by science.” In essence, genetic testing has not conflicted with Maussan’s claim that these remains are alien so the possibility of their alien identity cannot yet be dismissed. However, this genetic testing does not appear to be peer-reviewed; NASA is reportedly interested in the DNA analysis of these corpses, so we await further findings. Ancient DNA analysis will undoubtedly provide intriguing information about life from outer space or, alternatively, how this DNA code was faked. Whatever the outcome, ancient DNA analysis remains an exciting area of research about life preceding us. Written by Isobel Cunningham Related article: Astro-geology of Lonar Lake Project Gallery

An exposé to the undisclosed condition Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast cancer in males 03/07/25, 11:26 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 16:51 An exposé to the undisclosed condition This is article no. 2 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Herpes vs devastating skin disease . Previous article: Rare zoonotic diseases . Following the breakthroughs and increasingly successful screening programmes in most recent years, breast cancer in women has become increasingly talked about. Throughout October, social media is filled with information on breast cancer in women, what to do if diagnosed, memorable fundraising events that will generate thousands of pounds, and the heartwarming stories of survivors and patients fighting against this horrible disease. In the UK, 1 in 7 females will be diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in their lifetime. If we look at other areas in the world, this statistic shifts significantly: in the USA 1 in 8 females will develop the condition, whilst in Japan, it is 1 in 38 females. Although the percentages of breast cancer incidence differ around the globe, they all underline one common characteristic: many women and their families throughout the globe will suffer because of breast cancer ( Figure 1 ). Interestingly, though, with how prevalent breast cancer is in women, breast cancer in men is hardly ever mentioned. Whilst breast cancer is much more common in women, with around 55 thousand diagnoses every year, only 400 males a are diagnosed annually, which is equivalent to 1% of breast cancer diagnoses in the UK. However, the unlikelihood of a disease does not mean that it is any less significant. Conditions like epilepsy, strangulated inguinal hernias, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and Paget’s disease are all conditions with an incidence of around 1% or less. Nevertheless, they all may severely change the lifestyle of patients and even cause death - the fact that they have a low presence makes them no less important. This makes one wonder, what causes breast cancer in men and women to differ so extensively in numbers, and why is breast cancer in men so undisclosed? To answer this question, we must first understand what breast cancer is. Cancers are cells that grow uncontrollably, often forming tumours in the tissue or organs of the body and usually caused by a mutation or environmental factors, such as carcinogens. Cancers can be classified as benign and malignant, the difference being that benign cancers will stay in the original location, whilst malignant cancers are invasive. In other words, the tumour may spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes or metastasise, spreading to other locations in the body. Breast cancer can be divided further into several types – this is one of the reasons finding a “cure” for breast cancer is so complicated. In men, the two most common types of breast cancer are invasive ductal carcinoma, which can spread through the ducts to the body, and ductal carcinoma in situ, which arises in the ductal lining of the breast tissue. But what causes these cancers to develop in men? There are multiple risk factors to consider when it comes to breast cancer in men, one of the most common being genetic mutations. Genetic mutations are when a copy of the DNA sequence in a gene has a change, and it can cause a different function or phenotype of the gene. In breast cancer, two critical and potentially inheritable mutations are in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, which increase the risk of breast cancer in both men and women. Furthermore, this is why taking the family history of breast cancer is essential: an individual with a positive family history for breast cancer may wish to take a genetic test to confirm whether they have the mutated genes. After all, genes are inherited. Hence, if one parent has the mutated gene, they could pass it on to their children. In addition, it is important to understand how breast cancer can only occur in breast tissue. Therefore, even if a male has the mutated gene, they could only have said cancer if there is breast tissue where the hormones oestrogen and progesterone can bind to and lead to mutation, causing the cancer to further multiply and spread – this is not always the case. Another genetic risk for breast cancer is a diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome. This syndrome, which affects less than 1% of newborn males, involves having an extra X chromosome, leading to the body producing higher levels of oestrogen and lower levels of androgen. Androgens are a group of sex hormones, usually found at higher levels in men, one example being testosterone. Meanwhile, oestrogen appears to be another risk factor. This natural hormone has been shown to correlate with breast cancer. A study in the Nature Journal found that the inhibition of oestrogen has decreased the incidence of cancer in patients considered high-risk. But how are men exposed to the hormone? Aside from being diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome, men can be exposed to hormone therapy treatments, which include drugs that could contain oestrogen. Likewise, another treatment that’s considered a risk factor is chest radiation therapy. Radiation is one of the known carcinogens of cancer, causing cells to mutate. Therefore, elevated levels of radiation could increase the risk for a patient. Other factors such as obesity, age and liver disease should also be carefully considered. As you can see, the list of risk factors for men is abundant, so why is it that breast cancer is still more present in women? And why is the general male public less aware of these risks, as they are for women? The answer to the first question is easy enough. Although the list of risk factors for breast cancer in men seems extensive, it is even longer for women. Furthermore, women are considered at higher risk as certain risk factors that both men and women share are more prevalent in women. For instance, oestrogen is produced in larger quantities by women. Additionally, a higher proportion of women are taking hormone replacement therapy drugs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) drugs are usually given to post-menopausal women to supplement more hormones, such as oestrogen. In the 90s alone, one study found that 22% of post-menopausal women took HRT whilst another study found that 51% of women have discussed taking the drug with their doctors. Meanwhile, the number of men taking HRT is much smaller, and usually these have a lower quantity of oestrogen, focusing more on testosterone. Although it is important to consider that within this time, incidences of individuals taking the hormones could change as the culture, awareness and research into hormone therapy changes. The second question, on the other hand, is slightly more complicated to answer. Of course, regardless of the rarity and prevalence of a condition in the population, the aim would be to treat and cure all. However, despite the significant impact and importance the NHS has on British healthcare, its limited resources meant that the most pressing and widespread issues were given priority. For instance, concentrating resources towards the C-19 virus during the last few years. Similarly, all healthcare systems globally are under constant pressure of this public health issue, managing its resources. Nevertheless, this does not mean that treating and raising awareness towards male breast cancer is less urgent and necessary. Another issue is the misinformation towards male breast cancer. In March 2023, a study in the American Journal of Men’s Health found that 61.1% of the participants (a total of 270 women and 141 men) were unaware that men could, in theory, have breast cancer. If we think about breast cancer, it is in many incorrect ways associated with femininity, perhaps from the organ it is found it arises on and to the colour (pink) used to represent breast cancer. Therefore, it all boils down to a convenient misconception, often following illogical stereotypes, that “large, strong, macho men” would never have this “women-only condition”. But how do we diagnose men with a condition they may not even know they could have? Following the process for diagnoses, specialists may recommend men with a strong family history to do regular screenings from the age of 35. Whilst screening is found to be an effective method when diagnosing women, its success in men is limited. For a majority of men, their process for diagnosis will start by noticing symptoms. Symptoms can be as obscure as a “different feel” to the breast tissue, or something more visible like a lump or hard mass. In theory, this would encourage men to approach their GPs which can then lead to the next steps of screening. However, many go seek experts late, often when seriously ill. This can both be explained culturally (such as Hispanics) and generationally, where older generations avoid medical consultations. This is very dangerous, as men often only received an official diagnosis of breast cancer six months after noticing symptoms, allowing the cancer to significantly grow within this time. On the other hand, an early diagnosis can allow for a swifter start to treatment, greater possibilities in treatment options, and could be less brutal for the patient. Hence, a better chance of treatment success and recovery. In summary, the procedures for the treatment of breast cancer in men do exist. However, for this treatment to be effective, healthcare professionals could consider increasing the awareness of the importance of regular screenings and appointments for early treatment. Overall, breast cancer in men is indeed rare. However, one must not overlook its consequences or its significance solely due to statistics. Breast cancer in men impacts many lives of both the patient and their families. Understanding the risks and the process for diagnosis could be essential in the early treatment of male patients. However, a further understanding of the astigmatisms and culture around breast cancer could be useful when educating the public on this condition. This article used “men” and “women” when describing breast cancer in patients. However, note that many individuals may not identify within these categories but could still be diagnosed and affected by breast cancer. Written by Inês Isabel Couto André ------------------ Learn more about this disease with Against Breast Cancer Take action and donate to Breast Cancer UK , and Cancer Research UK ------------------ Related articles: New radiation therapy to treat cancer / Apocrine carcinoma (a rare form of breast cancer) / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Project Gallery

Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101 09/05/26, 15:01 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 12:32 Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Epilepsy is a condition that affects millions of people worldwide, often causing unprovoked seizures due to irregular brain activity. But what exactly happens in the brain when someone has epilepsy? It is important to establish that not everyone with seizures has epilepsy. While epilepsy can start at any age, it often begins in childhood, or in people over the age of 60. Epilepsy can be due to genetic factors - 1 in 3 people with epilepsy have family history- or brain damage from causes like stroke, infection, severe head injury or a brain tumour. However, around half of epilepsy cases have an unknown cause. Now, imagine your brain as a big city with lots of lights. Each light represents a part of your brain that controls things like movement, feelings, and thoughts. Epilepsy is like when the lights in the city start flickering or shut completely. There are three main types of epilepsy, and each affects the lights in different ways: 1) Generalised epilepsy: when all the lights in the city flicker or go out at once, affecting the whole brain. There are two main kinds: Generalised Motor (Grand Mal) Seizures: Imagine the lights in the city going wild, making everything shake. This is like the shaking or jerking movements during myoclonic or tonic-clonic seizures. Generalised Non-Motor (Absence) Seizures: Picture the lights suddenly pausing, making everything freeze. During these seizures, a person might stare into space or make small, repeated movements, like lip-smacking. 2) Focal epilepsy: when only the lights in one part of the city flicker or go out. This means only one part of the brain is affected: Focal Aware Seizures: The lights flicker, but people in that part of the city know what’s happening. The person stays aware during the seizure. Focal Impaired Awareness Seizures: The lights flicker, and people lose track of what’s going on. The person might not remember the seizure. Focal Motor Seizures: Some lights flicker, causing strange movements, like twitching, rubbing hands, or walking around. Focal Non-Motor Seizures: The lights stay on, but everything feels strange, like sudden change in mood or temperature. The person might feel odd sensations without moving in unusual ways. 3) ‘Unknown’ epilepsy: ‘Unknown’ epilepsy is like a power outage where no one knows where it happened because the person was alone or asleep during the seizure. Doctors might later figure out if it's more like generalised or focal epilepsy. Some people can even have both types. But how do doctors find out if someone has epilepsy? A range of tests could be used to look at the brain’s activity and structure, including: Electroencephalogram (EEG): detects abnormal electrical activities in the brain using electrodes. This procedure can be utilised in Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG), a more invasive method where the electrodes are placed directly on or within the brain to locate the abnormal electrical activities more precisely. Computerized Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): form images of the brain to detect abnormal brain structures such as brain scarring, tumours or damage that may cause seizures. Blood tests: test for genetic or metabolic disorders, or health conditions such as anaemia, infections or diabetes that can trigger seizures. Magnetoencephalogram (MEG): measures magnetic signals generated by nerve cells to identify the specific area where seizures are starting, to diagnose focal epilepsy. Positron emission tomography (PET): detects biochemical changes in the brain, detecting regions of the brain with lower-than-normal metabolism linked to seizures. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): identifies seizure focus by measuring changes in blood flow in the brain during or between seizures, using a tracer injected into the patient. The seizure focus in this scan is seen by an increase in blood flow to that region. So, how does epilepsy affect the brain? For most people, especially those with infrequent or primarily generalised seizures, cognitive issues are less likely compared to those with focal seizures, particularly in the temporal lobe. The following cognitive functions can be affected: Memory : seizures can disrupt the hippocampus in the temporal lobe, responsible for storing and receiving new information. This can lead to difficulties in remembering words, concepts, names and other information. Language : seizures can affect areas of the brain responsible for speaking, understanding and storing words, which can lead to difficulties in finding familiar words. Executive function: seizures can impact the frontal lobe of the brain which is responsible for planning, decision making and social behaviour, leading to challenges in interacting, organising thoughts and controlling unwanted behaviour. While epilepsy itself cannot be cured, treatments exist to control seizures including: Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDs; now also called Anti-Seizure Medications (ASMs)) : suppress the brain’s ability of sending abnormal electrical signals - effective in 70% of patients. Diet: ketogenic diets can reduce seizures in some medication- resistant epilepsies and in children as they alter the chemical activity in the brain. Surgery: 1) Resective Surgery: removal of the part of the brain causing the seizures, such as temporal lobe resection, mainly for focal epilepsy. 2) Disconnective Surgery: cutting the connections between the nerves through which the seizure signals travel in the brain, such as in corpus callosotomy, mainly for generalised epilepsy. 3) Neurostimulation device implantation (NDI): insertion of devices in the body to control seizures by stimulating brain regions to control the electrical impulses causing the seizures. This includes vagus nerve stimulation and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS). Even though epilepsy can be challenging, many people manage it successfully with the right treatment. Continued research offers hope for even better, long lasting treatments in the future. Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Different types of epilepsy seizures / Alzheimer's disease / Parkinson's disease / Autism REFERENCES D’Arrigo, T. (n.d.). What Are the Types of Epilepsy? [online] WebMD. Available at: https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/types-epilepsy [Accessed 5 Aug. 2024]. Epilepsy Foundation. (n.d.). Thinking and Memory. [online] Available at: https://www.epilepsy.com/complications-risks/thinking-and-memory [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. GOSH Hospital site. (n.d.). Invasive EEG monitoring. [online] Available at: https://www.gosh.nhs.uk/conditions-and-treatments/procedures-and- treatments/invasive-monitoring/ [Accessed 9 Aug. 2024]. My Epilepsy Team.com. (2016). Epilepsy: What People Don’t See (Infographic) | MyEpilepsyTeam. [online] Available at: https://www.myepilepsyteam.com/resources/epilepsy-what-people-dont-see- infographic [Accessed 29 Aug. 2024]. National institute of Neurological Disorders and stroke (2023). Epilepsy and Seizures | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. [online] www.ninds.nih.gov . Available at: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health- information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. NHS (2020). Epilepsy. [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/ [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. Project Gallery

Julius Oppenheimer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The chemistry of an atomic bomb 04/07/25, 13:57 Last updated: Published: 23/08/23, 17:29 Julius Oppenheimer Julius Robert Oppenheimer, often credited with leading the development of the atomic bomb, played a significant role in its creation in the early 1940s. However, it is essential to recognise the collaborative effort of many scientists, engineers, and researchers who contributed to the project. The history and chemistry of the atomic bomb are indeed fascinating, shedding light on the scientific advancements that made it possible. The destructive power of an atomic bomb stems from the rapid release of energy resulting from the splitting, or fission, of fissile atomic nuclei in its core. Isotopes such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are selected for their ability to undergo fission readily and sustain a self-sustaining chain reaction, leading to the release of an immense amount of energy. The critical mass of fissionable material required for detonation ensures that the neutrons produced during fission have a high probability of impacting other nuclei and initiating a chain reaction. To facilitate a controlled release of energy, neutron moderation plays a crucial role in the functioning of an atomic bomb. Neutrons emitted during fission have high velocities, making them less likely to be absorbed by other fissile material. However, by employing a moderator material such as heavy water (deuterium oxide) or graphite, these high-speed neutrons can be slowed down. Slowing down the neutrons increases the likelihood of their absorption by fissile material, enhancing the efficiency of the chain reaction and the release of energy. The sheer magnitude of the energy released by atomic bombs is staggering. For example, one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of uranium-235 can undergo complete fission, producing an amount of energy equivalent to that released by 17,000 tons (17 kilotons) of TNT. This tremendous release of energy underscores the immense destructive potential of atomic weapons. It is essential to note that the development of the atomic bomb represents a confluence of scientific knowledge and technological advancements, with nuclear chemistry serving as a foundational principle. The understanding of nuclear fission, the critical mass requirement, and the implosion design were key factors in the creation of the atomic bomb. Exploring the chemistry behind this devastating weapon not only provides insights into the destructive capabilities of atomic energy but also emphasises the responsibility that accompanies its use. In conclusion, while Oppenheimer's contributions to the development of the atomic bomb are significant, it is crucial to acknowledge the collective effort that led to its creation. The chemistry behind atomic bombs, from the selection of fissile isotopes to neutron moderation, plays a pivotal role in harnessing the destructive power of nuclear fission. Understanding the chemistry of atomic weapons highlights the remarkable scientific achievements and reinforces the need for responsible use of atomic energy. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Project Gallery