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How metal compounds can be used as anti-cancer agents Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anticancer Metal Compounds 28/01/25, 15:02 Last updated: Published: 23/05/23, 08:17 How metal compounds can be used as anti-cancer agents Metal compounds such as platinum, cobalt and ruthenium are used as anticancer agents. Anticancer metal compound research is important as chemotherapy is not selective, being very toxic to patients damaging normal DNA cells. Such metal compounds act as anti-cancer agents with the metals being able to vary in oxidation states. Selectivity of metal compounds to target only cancer cells arises from the metals properties of varying oxidation states for redox reactions. As cancer exists in hypoxic environments, the oxidation state of the metal is able to vary releasing the cancer drug only in the cancer environment. For example prodrugs are relatively inert metal complexes with relatively high oxidation states. PtIV, and CoIII are selective carriers undergoing reduction by varying the metals oxidation state in cancerous hypoxic environments releasing anticancer drugs. CoIII reduced to CoII, PtIV reduced to PtII in hypoxic environments. CoIII two oxidation states: Cobalt (III) is kinetically inert with low-spin 3d6 configuration, CoII is labile (high-spin 3d7). When CoIII is reduced to CoII in hypoxic environments, the active molecule is released then restored to its active form killing cancer cells. Cobalt can also bind to ligands like nitrogen mustards and curcumin ligands, exhibiting redox reactivity for cancer therapy. Nitrogen mustards are highly toxic due to their DNA alkylation and cross-linking activity. In vivo they are not selective for tumour tissue however can be deactivated by coordination to CoIII, released on reduction to CoII in hypoxic tumour tissue. This reduces systemic toxicity concluding an efficient anticancer drug. Platinum anticancer metal compounds treat ovarian, cervical and neck cancer. Platinum ( Pt IV) (cisplatin) exhibits redox-mediated anticancer activity, highly effective towards tumours. Platinum causes severe side-effects for patients so PtIV prodrug is used selectively reducing tumour sites. Ruthenium is used for cancer therapy as a less toxic metal over platinum. Ruthenium targeted therapy selectively disrupts specific cellular pathways where cancer cells rely for growth and metastasis. Reduction of Ru (III) to Ru(II) selectively occurs in hypoxic reducing environments where tumours over express transferrin receptors, ruthenium binding to. Overall metal compounds for cancer treatment attracted high interest due to redox activity properties. Metal compounds are selective to cancer cells, limiting patients' side effects. Such therapy shows how inorganic chemistry is important to medicine. Written by Alice Davey Related article: MOFs in cancer drug delivery Project Gallery

From bonds to emotions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Emotional chemistry on a molecular level 26/06/25, 10:12 Last updated: Published: 16/01/24, 00:03 From bonds to emotions Emotions have a crucial role in how we perceive the world, behave, and interact with others. Our emotional states significantly influence how our lives are shaped, from the happiness of a long-awaited reunion to the grief of a heartbreaking farewell. But have you ever wondered what happens on a molecular level when we experience emotions? In this article, we will delve into the fascinating world of the chemistry behind emotions and explore how neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain regions collaborate to orchestrate the symphony of our feelings. Neurotransmitters , the chemical messengers in charge of transferring impulses between brain neurons, lie at the core of the chemistry of emotions. The "happiness hormone," serotonin , is known for its critical function in controlling mood, appetite, and sleep. Anxiety and sadness have been associated with low serotonin levels. Dopamine : this "reward neurotransmitter" is linked to reinforcement and pleasure. Dopamine is released when we like or receive a reward, which reinforces the behaviour and motivates us to seek out more of those kinds of experiences. Norepinephrine is a component of the body's fight-or-flight response that causes increased attention and arousal in reaction to stress or danger. Lastly, Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) , an inhibitory neurotransmitter, counteracts the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters to maintain emotional stability by calming and soothing the brain. Our emotional experiences are significantly shaped by hormones as well. These chemical messengers affect the brain and other organs by entering the circulation after being released by numerous glands throughout the body. Cortisol , also referred to as the "stress hormone," is a key component of the body's fight-or-flight response and is released while under stress. Anxiety and a sense of being overpowered might result from elevated cortisol levels. The "love hormone" or "bonding hormone," oxytocin , is a chemical that is released during social interactions, particularly during times of closeness, trust, and bonding. The body's own natural mood lifters and painkillers are called endorphins . Exercise, laughing, and other enjoyable activities all produce endorphins, which contribute to a feeling of pleasure. Emotions are orchestrated within various brain regions , each with its own role in processing and interpreting emotional stimuli. Some key brain regions associated with emotions are: Amygdala : The "emotional hub" of the brain is commonly referred to as the amygdala. It analyses emotional inputs, particularly those connected to aggressiveness and fear, and participates in the development of emotional memories. Prefrontal cortex: This part of the brain controls rational higher-order thought, judgement, and emotional regulation. Even in highly emotional situations, it supports our ability to control our emotions and make logical decisions. Hippocampus : The hippocampus helps people remember emotional memories in particular. It is essential for remembering previous emotional experiences and creating emotional bonds. In conclusion, the chemistry of emotion is a gorgeously sophisticated dance of neurotransmitters, hormones, and different parts of the brain. It highlights the delicate balance that shapes our emotional experiences and influences our behaviour and well-being. Understanding this molecular magic can provide insight into our emotional reactions and open the door to novel treatment strategies for treating emotional disorders and mental health issues. Next time you feel overwhelmed with joy, anger, or any emotion in between, remember that there's a symphony of chemicals and brain activity behind the scenes, composing the unique melody of your emotional journey. Embrace your emotions, for they are an essential part of what makes us human. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Exploring food at the molecular level / Psychology of embarrassment / Unmasking aggression / Chemistry of depression / Music and emotions Project Gallery

Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The game of life 11/07/25, 10:03 Last updated: Published: 20/11/23, 11:22 Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! I am a Maths graduate, a Maths teacher, and an all-rounder academic, yet in my twenties, when I began the process of buying a home, I had no idea where to start. I did not know how to get a mortgage, what shared ownership was, or when to get a solicitor involved. This is a problem, and this, I believe, is what needs to be taught from 16-18 years of age. The skills, opportunities, and options for young adults to simply move forward in this world. My suggestion: (for those who do not take A-Levels) To create a well-structured, virtual reality, cross-curricular running project about life, a little bit like an AI version of the ‘game of life.’ Students can begin the project in a virtual reality world of choice, and then slowly branch out depending on their interests. They can learn CV building skills , go to an AI job centre, choose the job they want to do and learn the skills for it by conducting research and completing online courses . At the same time within the project, students can be given a budget according to the job they are training for, in which they can forecast their savings and plan for the route that they would take in purchasing a property. Students would need to learn about shared ownership, the pros and cons of renting, the deposits needed for mortgage, all within a game format, like a PS5 game. This aspect of the project would be heavy with Maths. Students would be expected to write a final assessment piece summarising each of their decisions and why, which would include high levels of the English curriculum. To differentiate the project, we could ask students to use Geography, to find a country in the world where their skills may be more in demand and ask them to consider the possibility of relocating to another country for work, which would broaden the horizon of the project massively. They could look at tax laws in different countries, such as Dubai, and how that would benefit them in terms of salary, but what the importance of tax is in a country too. Students would get to explore countries which have free healthcare and schooling vs which countries do not. This would work on their analysis and deeper thinking skills. The game-like format of this project would be ideal for disengaged students who did not thrive with the traditional style of teaching in schools. We could include potential for earning points in the ‘game’ for each additional piece of research they conduct, and a real-life benefit to earning those points too, such as Amazon vouchers, as rewards. A project like this would enable all curriculums to get involved in, for students to understand the world better and a massive scope for AI, potentially asking Meta to design it, who are at the forefront of virtual reality. To make it work, the project would require teachers from all fields to come together to form a curriculum that is inclusive, considers British Values and mirrors the real-life that we live in today. There is potential for psychologist to be involved to ensure we are considering mental health implications as well as parents/guardians, who would need to be onboard with this too. In conclusion, I believe that 16-18 years do need guided learning that is standardised, but I do not think it is as simple as pushing Maths on to them. The future generation and their society will benefit from a holistic guided route to life, which will make them informed and educated individuals in topics that matter to THEM, based on THEIR lives, not chosen by us. Give students control over their education, over their lives... Written by Sara Altaf Project Gallery

Strategies for success and mathematical mastery Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How to excel in maths 09/07/25, 14:19 Last updated: Published: 01/10/23, 20:00 Strategies for success and mathematical mastery Mathematics is a subject that can be both daunting and rewarding. While some individuals seem to effortlessly grasp mathematical concepts, most of us need to put in extra effort to excel. This article is dedicated to the majority—the ones willing to work hard to achieve success in their A-level maths exams and beyond. By following a structured approach and embracing a growth mindset, you can unlock your mathematical potential and reach heights you may have never thought possible. Understanding the concepts Fundamentally, to be able to get anywhere in mathematics, you need to understand what you are doing with numbers and why. There is no point in knowing how to differentiate if you don’t know why you want to differentiate and why it works. Now, I am a strong believer that anyone can learn anything if they approach it with an open mind and determination to succeed. This is called having a growth mindset. However, there is a caveat with how maths is taught at school. When maths is taught, it is taught by someone who understands a concept in a particular way. We are all inherently different, and similarly, our minds all work slightly differently. So when your teacher explains how they understand something, it does not mean that you should also understand it as you both think differently. Now for some, they manage to grasp what their teacher is saying easily as they think similarly, but for others this may need an alternative approach. Some examples could be supplementary lessons with a tutor, buying a subscription to online lessons or asking for some 1-on-1 time with your teacher. But sometimes this may still not even work. If my teacher can’t help me, how can I learn? Well, for A-Levels and GCSEs, we are extremely blessed that there is a plethora of different resources that we can use, both written and in video format! Some of my favourites include, but are not limited to, TLMaths (Youtube), BBC Bitesize (GCSE only), and Khan Academy. (Also see: Extra Resources for more maths resources). YouTube really can be your best friend. There are thousands of videos explaining mathematical concepts, and they are not all as trivial as those shared by Numberphile. By simply searching for a topic that you are stuck on, you can get many different professionals to explain the same problem; with enough grit and determination, you’ll be able to find a video that you can easily understand! If, however, that does not seem to work, it may be an indicator that you need to step back and learn the fundamentals a bit better. There is little point in using the integral to calculate the area under a line graph if you don’t know what a line graph actually shows. Practice the concepts Once you’ve got the concepts down to the tee, there is only one option to go with. Practice. Practice. Practice. I foolishly made the mistake during my year 10 final exams, where instead of doing practice questions, I made notes from watching videos and thought that was enough. Not only is this not engaging, but when it comes to maths, practice is the only way to revise. Truthfully, I would never recommend taking notes in maths as it is not only quicker to look something up, but I believe the time spent making notes could be spent better elsewhere. The best way to practice for an exam is through practice papers. You may now be dashing off to find practice papers for your exam board; however, I would recommend not touching these until you are around 1 month away from your exam. If you are as crazy as I am, you could even leave it until the last week and complete 2 or 3 per day, but maybe for your sanity, I’d advise against this. Instead, use all of the resources that you are fortunate enough to have available to you thanks to the internet. Complete every question in your textbook and revision guide; complete predicted papers; do it all! This is the surefire way to get top marks and become a competent mathematician. But maybe you’re not studying for a big A-level exam just yet. By completing the questions that you may not have done in class and researching topic-specific questions (Math’s Genie and Physics and Maths Tutor are both excellent resources for this), you will, with time, start to develop your skills and put the theory into practice. By better applying these concepts, you begin to understand them and maybe even start to enjoy them. (Bonus tip: do your homework. It’s given out for a reason.) Apply the concepts to unfamiliar situations Now that you have mastered the concepts and put them to the test by answering every question you can get your hands on, comes the trickiest part of mathematical mastery: These are the questions that separate the A’s and the A*’s. The geniuses and the sedulous, but more importantly, those who can do maths, and those who understand maths. By applying the mathematical concepts that you’ve learned to unfamiliar situations, you start to develop an extremely sought-after skill. Problem solving. By using maths in an unfamiliar context, most students are hasty to give up, and this is why the last question on the test is so ‘difficult’, but in fact it's the same as the prior questions but in disguise. To conquer these questions, you have to be able to decipher what the question is asking and then apply the appropriate techniques to solve it. The only way that you will know which techniques to use is by attempting similar questions that push you, and in time, your brain's pattern recognition will kick in and you’ll start to find that you just know what to do. You can't explain it; you just want to differentiate here, factor out here, and expand these brackets here, and bam! You’ve got the answer. But the only way you can get there is by putting in the hours and attempting questions that are outside your comfort zone. At the beginning of the article, I said it would be tough, but maths does not require you to spend 4 hours every night (until you are smack in the middle of your A-level exams), but instead a mere 20 minutes, maybe only 5 days a week, but I promise you that this small amount of time after school, before bed, or during break, if uninterrupted and follows the rules that I have just suggested, will work absolute wonders on your mathematical ability. Imagine the impact of dedicating just 20 minutes a day to math starting right now. If you're in year 13, with your first math paper 38 weeks away on June 4th, time will fly. By committing to 20 minutes daily, five days a week, you'll accumulate over 63 hours of revision. Bump it up to half an hour, and you'll hit almost 100 hours. This early start saves you precious time closer to exams, allowing you to focus on other subjects. Unlike some subjects, math doesn't require rote memorisation. Building these skills gradually pays off. Yes, 20 minutes daily may seem modest, but consistency can be challenging. Skipping just one day can turn into a week, then a month. Dedication, determination, and discipline are essential for success. If you maintain this routine, you can achieve remarkable results, even surpassing natural mathematical geniuses. Now with the three steps to mathematical freedom: Understand the concepts. Practice the concepts. Apply the concepts to unfamiliar situations. Go out there and give it your best shot! I wish you all the best of luck in your journey to mathematical mastery! Written by George Chant Related articles: The game of life / Teaching maths / Topology Project Gallery

Through AI Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Revolutionising sustainable agriculture 11/07/25, 09:51 Last updated: Published: 27/06/23, 15:34 Through AI Artificial Intelligence (AI) is taking the world by storm. Recent developments now allow scientists to integrate AI into sustainable farming. Through transforming the way we grow crops, manage resources and pests, and most importantly- protect the environment. There are many applications for AI in agriculture. Outlined below are some of the areas in which the incorporation of AI systems improves sustainability: Precision farming Artificial intelligence systems help improve the overall quality and accuracy of harvesting – known as precision farming. Artificial intelligence technology helps detect plant diseases, pests, and malnutrition on farms. AI sensors can detect and target weeds, then decide what herbicide to use in an area. This helps reduce the use of herbicides and lower costs. Many tech companies have developed robots that use computer vision and AI to monitor and precisely spray weeds. These robots can eliminate 80% of the chemicals normally sprayed on crops and reduce herbicide costs by 90%. These intelligent AI sprayers can drastically reduce the amount of chemicals used in the field, improving product quality, and lowering costs. Vertical farming Vertical farming is a technique in which plants are grown vertically by being stacked on top of each other (usually indoors) as opposed to the ‘traditional way’ of growing plants and crops on big strips of land. This approach offers several benefits for sustainable agriculture and waste reduction. The use of AI brings even more significant advancements making vertical farming more sustainable and efficient- Intelligent Climate Control: AI can use algorithms to measure and monitor temperature, humidity, and lighting conditions to optimise climate control in vertical farms. Thus, reducing energy consumption and improving resource efficiency. Creating an enhanced climate-controlled environment also allows for repeatable and programmable crop production. Predictive Plant Modelling: the difference between a profitable year and a failed harvest can just be the specific time the seeds were sowed. By using AI, farmers can use predictive analysis tools to determine the exact date suitable for sowing seeds for maximum yield and reduce waste from overproduction. Automated Nutrient Monitoring: to optimise plant nutrition, AI systems monitor and adjust nutrient levels in hydroponic (plants immersed in nutrient containing water) and aeroponic setups (plants growing outside the soil, with nutrients being provided by spraying the roots). Genetic engineering AI plays a pivotal role in genetic engineering, enhancing the sustainability and precision of crop modification through- Targeted Gene Editing: AI algorithms help in gene editing to produce desirable traits in crops, such as resistance to disease or improved nutritional content. This allows genetic modification without the need to conduct extensive field trials. Thus, saving time and resources. Computational Modelling: by combining AI modelling with gene prediction, farmers will be able to predict which combinations of genes have the potential to increase crop yield. Pest management and disease detection Artificial intelligence solutions such as smart pest detection systems are being used to monitor crops for signs of pests and diseases. These systems detect changes in the environment such as temperature, humidity, and soil nutrients, then alert farmers when something is wrong. This allows farmers to act quickly and effectively, taking preventive measures before pests cause significant damage. Another way to achieve this is by using computer vision and image processing techniques. AI can detect signs of pest infestation, nutrient deficiencies and other issues that can affect yields. This data can help farmers make informed decisions about how to protect their crops. By incorporating AI into these aspects of sustainable agriculture, farmers can achieve high yields, reduce waste and enable more sustainable farming practices, reducing environmental impacts while ensuring efficient food production. Written by Aleksandra Zurowska Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Plant diseases and nanoparticles Project Gallery

Understanding the problem and solutions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The rising threat of antibiotic resistance 14/07/25, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 13:47 Understanding the problem and solutions An overview and history of antibiotics Antibiotics are medicines that treat and prevent bacterial infections (such as skin infections, respiratory infections and more). Antibiotic resistance is the process of infection-causing bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. As the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated, antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich discovered the first antibiotic, Salvarsan, used to treat syphilis at the time. His idea was to create anti-infective medication, and Salvarsan was successful. The golden age of antibiotic discovery began with the accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He noticed that mould had contaminated one of the petri dishes of Staphylococcus bacteria. He observed that bacteria around the mould were dying and realised that the mould, Penicillium notatum , was causing the bacteria to die. In 1940, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated penicillin and began clinical trials, showing that it effectively treated infectious animals. Penicillin was then used to treat patients by 1943 in the United States. Overall, the discovery and use of antibiotics in the 21st century was a significant scientific discovery, extending people’s lives by around 20 years. Factors contributing to antibiotic resistance Increasing levels of antibiotic resistance could mean routine surgeries and cancer treatments (which can weaken the body’s ability to respond to infections) might become too risky, and minor illnesses and injuries could become more challenging to treat. There are various factors contributing to this, including overusing and misusing antibiotics and low investment in new antibiotic research. Antibiotics are overused and misused due to misunderstanding when and how to use them. As a result, antibiotics may be used for viral infections, and an entire course may not be completed if patients start to feel better. Some patients may also use antibiotics not prescribed to them, such as those of family and friends. Moreover, there has not been enough investment to fund the research of novel antibiotics. This has resulted in a shortage of antibiotics available to treat infections that have become resistant. Therefore, more investment and research are needed to prevent antibiotic resistance from becoming a public health crisis. Combatting antibiotic resistance One of the most effective ways to combat antibiotic resistance is through raising public awareness. Children and adults can learn about when and how to use antibiotics safely. Several resources are available to help individuals and members of the public to do this. Some resources are linked below: 1. The WHO has provided a factsheet with essential information on antibiotic resistance. 2. The Antibiotic Guardian website is a platform with information and resources to help combat antibiotic resistance. It is a UK-wide campaign to improve and reduce antibiotic prescribing and use. Visit the website to learn more, and commit to a pledge to play your part in helping to solve this problem. 3. Public Health England has created resources to support Antibiotic Guardian. 4. The E-bug peer-education package is a platform that aims to educate individuals and provide them with tools to educate others. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Anti-fungal resistance / Why bacteria are essential to human survival Project Gallery

An explanation of how cumulus clouds form and grow in the atmosphere Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The physics behind cumulus clouds 14/07/25, 14:58 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 12:51 An explanation of how cumulus clouds form and grow in the atmosphere When you think of a cloud, it is most likely a cumulus cloud that pops into your head, with its distinct fluffy, cauliflower-like shape. The word ‘cumulus’ means ‘heaped’ in Latin, and aptly describes the clumpy shape of these detached clouds. They are one of the lowest clouds in the sky at altitudes of approximately 600 to 1000 metres, while the highest clouds form nearly 14 km up in the atmosphere. Depending on the position of the clouds in relation to the sun, they can appear in a brilliant white colour, or in a more foreboding grey colour. Cumulus clouds are classified into four different species: cumulus humilis clouds which are wider than they are tall, cumulus mediocris which have similar widths and heights, cumulus congestus which are taller than they are wide, and finally, cumulus fractus which have blurred edges as this is the cloud in its decaying form. Cumulus clouds are often associated with fair weather, with cumulus congestus being the only species that produces rain. So, how do cumulus clouds form, and why are they associated with fair weather? To understand the formation of these clouds, think of a sunny day. The sun shines on the land and causes surface heating. The warm surface heats the air above it which causes this air to rise in thermals, or convection currents. The air in the thermal expands and becomes less dense as it rises through surrounding cool air. The water vapour that is carried upwards in the convection current condenses when it gets cool enough and forms a cumulus cloud. Due to the varying properties of different surface types, some types are better at causing thermals than others. For example, the sun’s radiation will warm the surface of land more efficiently than the sea, leading to the formation of cumulus clouds over land rather than the sea. This is because water has a higher heat capacity than land, meaning it will take more heat to warm the water than the land. As cumulus clouds form on the top of independent thermals, they appear as individual floating puffs. But, what happens when cumulus clouds are knocked off the perch of their thermal by a breeze? How do they keep growing from an innocent, lazy cumulus humilis to a dark cumulus congestus, threatening rain showers? Latent heat gives us the answer. This is the energy that is absorbed, or released, by a body when it changes state. A cumulus cloud forms at the top of a thermal as the water molecules condense (changing state from a gas to a liquid) to form water droplets. When this happens, the warmth given off by the latent heat of condensation heats up the surrounding air causing it to expand and rise further, repeating the cycle and forming the characteristic cauliflower mounds of the cloud. The development of a cumulus humilis to cumulus congestus depends on the available moisture in the atmosphere, the strength of the sun’s radiation to form significant thermals, and whether there is a layer of warmer air higher up in the atmosphere that can halt the rising thermals. If the conditions are right, a cumulus congestus can keep growing and form a cumulonimbus cloud, which is an entirely different beast, more than deserving of its own article. So, the next time you see a cumulus cloud wandering through the sky, you will know how it came to be there. Written by Ailis Hankinson Related article: The physics of LIGO Project Gallery

Can CRISPR/Cas9 overcome the challenges posed by current HIV treatments? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A potential treatment for HIV 08/07/25, 16:16 Last updated: Published: 21/07/23, 09:50 Can CRISPR/Cas9 overcome the challenges posed by current HIV treatments? The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was recorded to affect 38.4 million people globally at the end of 2021. This virus attacks the immune system, incapacitating CD4 cells: white blood cells (WBCs) which play a vital role in activating the innate immune system and fighting infection. The normal range of CD4 cells in our body is from 500 to 1500 cells/mm3 of blood; HIV can rapidly deplete the CD4 count to dangerous levels, damaging the immune system and leaving the body highly susceptible to infections. Whilst antiretroviral therapy (ART) can help manage the virus by interfering with viral replication and helping the body manage the viral load, it fails to eliminate the virus altogether. The reason for this is due to the presence of latent viral reservoirs where HIV can lay dormant and reignite infection if ART is stopped. Whilst a cure has not yet been discovered, a promising avenue being explored in the hopes of eradicating HIV has been CRISPR/Cas9 technology. This highly precise gene-editing tool has been shown to have the ability to induce mutations at specific points in the HIV proviral DNA. Guide RNAs pinpoint the desired genome location and Cas9 nuclease enzymes act as molecular scissors that remove selected segments of DNA.  Therefore, CRISPR/Cas9 technology provides access to the viral genetic material integrated into the genome of infected cells, allowing researchers to cleave HIV genes from infected cells, clearing latent viral reservoirs. Furthermore, the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing tool can also prevent HIV from attacking the CD4 cells in the first place. HIV binds to the chemokine receptor, CCR5, expressed on CD4 cells, in order to enter the WBC. CRISPR/Cas9 can cleave the genes for the CCR5 receptor and therefore preventing the virus from entering and replicating inside CD4 cells. CRISPR/Cas9 technology provides a solution that current antiretroviral therapies cannot solve. Through gene-editing, researchers can dispel the lasting reservoirs unreachable by ART that HIV is able to establish in our bodies. However, further research and clinical trials are still required to fully understand the safety and efficacy of this approach to treating HIV before it can be implemented as a standard treatment. Written by Bisma Butt Related articles: Antiretroviral therapy / mRNA vaccines Project Gallery

Pathology and promising therapeutics Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Secondary bone cancer 11/07/25, 09:52 Last updated: Published: 13/12/23, 17:27 Pathology and promising therapeutics Introduction: what is secondary bone cancer? Secondary bone cancer occurs when cancer cells spread to the bones from a tumour that started somewhere else in the body. The site where the tumour first develops is called primary cancer. Cancer cells can break away from the primary cancer, travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, and establish secondary cancers, known as metastasis. Bones are among the most common sites to which cancer can spread. Most type of cancer has the potential to metastasise to the bones, with the most frequent occurrences seen in prostate, breast, lung, thyroid, kidney, and myeloma cancers. Throughout the literature, secondary cancer in the bones is referred to as bone secondaries or bone metastases. The most common areas of secondary bone cancer are the spine, ribs, pelvis, humerus (upper bone of the arm), femur (upper bone of the leg) and skull. There are two main types of bone cancer referred to as osteolytic and osteoblastic metastases. In osteolytic metastases, cancer cells break down the bone, leading to significant weakening. This type of metastasis is more common than osteoblastic metastases and often occurs when breast cancer spreads to the bone. In osteoblastic metastases, cancer cells invade the bone and stimulate excessive bone cell formation. This process results in the bone becoming very dense (sclerotic). Osteoblastic metastases frequently occur when prostate cancer spreads to the bone. Although new bone forms, it grows abnormally, which weakens the overall bone structure. Hormone therapy Like primary bone cancer, treatment for secondary bone cancer includes surgical excision, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Treatment for secondary bone cancer aims to control the cancer growth and symptoms. Treatment depends on several factors, including the type of primary cancer, previous treatment, the number of bones affected by cancer, whether cancer has spread to other body parts, overall health, and symptoms. Breast and prostate cancers rely on hormones for their growth. Reducing hormone levels in the body can be effective in managing the proliferation of secondary cancer. Hormone therapy, also known as endocrine therapy, uses synthetic hormones to inhibit the impact of the body’s innate hormones. Typical side effects include hot flashes, mood fluctuations, changes in weight, and sweating. Bisphosphonates Bone is a dynamic tissue with a continuous process of bone formation and resorption. Osteoclasts are cells responsible for breaking down bone tissue. In secondary bone cancer, cancer cells often produce substances that stimulate the activity of osteoclasts. This leads to elevated levels of calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia), resulting in feelings of nausea and excessive thirst. Treating secondary bone cancer involves strengthening bones, alleviating bone pain and managing hypercalcaemia). One option for bone-strengthening is bisphosphonates. Bisphosphonates can be administered orally or intravenously. They have been in clinical practice for over 50 years and are used to treat metabolic bone diseases, osteoporosis, osteolytic metastases, and hypercalcaemia. These compounds selectively target osteoclasts to inhibit their function. Bisphosphonates can be classified into two pharmacologic categories based on their mechanism of action. Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates, the most potent class, function by suppressing the activity of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase, a key factor in facilitating the binding of osteoclasts to bone. Consequently, this interference causes the detachment of osteoclasts from the bone surface, effectively impeding the process of bone resorption. Examples of these bisphosphonates include alendronate and zoledronate. Bisphosphonates without nitrogen in their chemical structure are metabolised intracellularly to form an analogue of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), known as 5'-triphosphate pyrophosphate (ApppI). ApppI is a non-functional molecule that disrupts cellular energy metabolism, leading to osteoclast cell death (apoptosis) and, consequently, reduced bone resorption. Examples of these bisphosphonates include etidronate and clodronate. Non-nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates can inhibit bone mineralisation and cause osteomalacia, a condition characterised by bones becoming soft and weak. Due to these considerations, they are not widely utilised. Denosumab Denosumab is another option for bone strengthening. It is administered as an injection under the skin (subcutaneously). Denosumab is a human monoclonal antibody that inhibits RANKL to prevent osteoclast-mediated bone resorption. Denosumab-mediated RANKL inhibition hinders osteoclast maturation, function, and survival in contrast to bisphosphonates, which bind to bone minerals and are absorbed by mature osteoclasts. In some studies, Denosumab demonstrated equal or superior efficacy compared to bisphosphonates in preventing skeletal-related events (SREs) associated with bone metastasis. Denosumab’s mechanism of action provides a targeted approach that may offer benefits for specific populations, such as patients with renal impairment. Bisphosphonates are excreted from the human body by the kidneys. A study by Robinson and colleagues demonstrated that bisphosphonate users had a 14% higher risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage progression (including dialysis and transplant) than non-users. On the other hand, denosumab is independent of renal function and less likely to promote deteriorations in kidney function. Take-home message Secondary bone cancer, resulting from the spread of cancer cells to the bones, poses challenges across various cancers. Two main types, osteolytic and osteoblastic metastases, impact bone structure differently. Hormone therapy, bisphosphonates, and Denosumab have shown promising results and offer effective management of secondary bone cancers. Ultimately, the decision between treatments should be made in consultation with a healthcare professional who can evaluate the specific clinical situation and individual patient factors. The choice should be tailored to meet the patient’s needs and treatment goals. Written by Favour Felix-Ilemhenbhio Related article: Bone cancer Project Gallery

Decoding diversity in clinical settings Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Solving the mystery of ancestry with SNPs and haplogroups 10/02/25, 14:37 Last updated: Published: 15/01/24, 19:47 Decoding diversity in clinical settings Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are genetic variants whereby one DNA base becomes substituted for another between individuals or populations. These tiny but influential changes play a pivotal role in defining the differences between populations, affecting disease susceptibility, response to medications, and various biological traits. SNPs serve as genetic markers and are widely used in genetic research to understand the genetic basis of complex traits and diseases. With advancements in sequencing technologies, large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have become possible, enabling scientists to identify associations between specific SNPs and various phenotypic traits. Haplotypes refer to clusters of SNPs commonly inherited together, whereas haplogroups refer to groups of haplotypes commonly inherited together. Haplogroups are frequently used in evolutionary genetics to elucidate human migration routes based on the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis. Notably, the study of mitochondrial and Y-DNA haplogroups has helped shape the phylogenetic tree of the human species along the female line. Haplogroup analysis is also instrumental in forensic genetics and genealogical research. Additionally, haplogroups play a crucial role in population genetics by providing valuable insights into the historical movements of specific populations and even individual families. Certain SNPs in some genes are of clinical importance as they may either increase or decrease the likelihood of developing a particular disease. An example of this is that men belonging to haplogroup I have a 50% higher likelihood of developing coronary artery disease 1 . This predisposition is due to SNPs present in some Y chromosome genes. Cases like these highlight the possibility of personalised medical interventions based on an individual’s haplogroup and therefore, SNPs in their genome. In this case, a treatment plan of exercise, diet, and lifestyle recommendations can be given as preventative measures for men of haplogroup I to mitigate genetic risk factors before they develop the disease. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage REFERENCE https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002191501300765X?via%3Dihub [02/12/2023 - 14:53] Project Gallery