By no means is this an exhaustive list on all the terminology relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. For more information, please refer to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). AAdenovirus- a group of related viruses. They were first removed from human adenoid glands (found at the back of the throat), hence the name. Asymptomatic- where a person is infected by the virus but does not present any symptoms. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Glossary for COVID-19 terms Last updated: 23/01/25 Published: 28/12/22 Key terms By no means is this an exhaustive list on all the terminology relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. For more information, please refer to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). – A Adenovirus- a group of related viruses. They were first removed from human adenoid glands (found at the back of the throat), hence the name. Asymptomatic- where a person is infected by the virus but does not present any symptoms. Can still pass the virus and infection onto others. C Coronavirus- a group of related viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. Named after the crown-like spike protein on the virus’s surface- ‘corona’ in Latin for crown. COVID-19/ COVID – the disease that coronavirus causes D DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid, the cell’s code to life. DNA instructs how to make proteins, which are essential for function in the body. Double helix. E Epicentre- the central point of the virus outbreak. This changed during the COVID-19 pandemic depending on the variant of virus. Epidemic- an outbreak in a localised area at a particular time H Herd immunity- when enough people are protected against the disease, that it lends immunity to those who are not protected. Can achieve protection against the disease through either previous infection, and/ or vaccination. I Immunity- achieving immunity means to be protected from future infections by viruses, and bacteria for example. You can achieve immunity through either previous infection, and/ or vaccination. Immunosuppressed- the immune system is suppressed. In other words, people who are immunosuppressed have a reduced ability to fight diseases. Thus preventing them from being infected in the first place is of great importance. Infection- the unnormal invasion of microorganisms into the body. Some infections present symptoms- at least straight away- while others do not show any symptoms. L Lockdown- preventing people from leaving where they are, to stop the transmission and contain the virus in the COVID-19 pandemic. M Mass vaccination- vaccinating many people in a certain area at a particular time mRNA- messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid). Single helix. Acts as a go-between for DNA and the proteins that are being made. P Pandemic- a global, or national outbreak Protein- an important molecule. Used as a fuel source, a building block, a carrier among other things, in the human body. R Restrictions- impeding or hindering movement and travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to contain the spread of the virus and curb transmission. S Shedding- (in biology) refers to viruses casting off viral particles which can then infect others Side effects- effects that are different and potentially harmful from the main, intended effects of a medication, treatment, or vaccine. Examples of some side effects: headaches, aches, pains, fever. Symptomatic- where a person is infected with the virus and does present symptoms. Can still pass the virus and infection onto others. Symptoms- the signs a person has been infected; this can be physical or mental. With COVID-19, you can show symptoms as symptomatic, or not present symptoms as asymptomatic, if infected. Examples of symptoms for COVID-19 include loss of taste and smell, a persistent cough, fever. T Transmission- how a particular disease, in this case coronavirus, is passed from one person to another. V Vaccination- the administration of vaccine into the body. Vaccine- a form of active immunity, where a weakened, live version of the infection agent is administered into the body. The immune system kicks in and destroys the infection agent, but not before taking note of the genetic material (e.g. mRNA or DNA from the protein) from the agent. The immune system will use this genetic material to ‘remember’ the infection next time it appears, so it can prepare a speedier, more efficient response. Vaccine hesitancy- uncertainty as to whether people should take the vaccine. This could be due to a variety of reasons: being unfamiliar with the vaccine and its contents, and/ or being distrusting of the government and those in the health organisation. Viral load- the amount of virus (or viral genetic material) a person has in their body at a particular time. A person not infected with the virus will have no viral load, whereas a person infected with the virus will have a much higher viral load. Virus- a microorganism. Some spread diseases as vectors, while some are ‘better’. To date, it is being argued whether viruses are alive or not. W Wuhan- Capital of Hubei Province in China. First epicentre of coronavirus. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related article: The origins of COVID-19

The closest planet to the Sun Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring the solar system: Mercury 09/07/25, 15:08 Last updated: Published: 27/06/23, 16:46 The closest planet to the Sun Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, holds a significant place in our understanding of the solar system and serves as our first stepping stone in the exploration of the cosmos. Its intriguing history dates back to ancient times when it was studied and recorded by the Babylonians in their celestial charts. Around 350 BC the ancient Greeks, recognized that the celestial body known as the evening and morning star was, in fact, a single entity. Impressed by its swift movement, they named it Hermes, after the swift messenger of their mythology. As time passed, the Roman Empire adopted the Greek discovery and bestowed upon it the name of their equivalent messenger god, Mercury, a name by which the planet is known today. This ancient recognition of Mercury's uniqueness paved the way for our continued exploration and study of this fascinating planet. Mercury's evolution As Mercury formed from the primordial cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula, it went through a process called accretion. Small particles collided and gradually merged together, forming larger bodies called planetesimals. Over time, these planetesimals grew in size through further collisions and gravitational attraction, eventually forming the protoplanet that would become Mercury. However, the proximity to the Sun presented unique challenges for Mercury's formation. The Sun emitted intense heat and powerful solar winds that swept away much of the planet's initial atmosphere and surface materials. This process, known as solar stripping or solar ablation, left behind a relatively thin and tenuous atmosphere compared to other planets in the solar system. The intense heat also played a crucial role in shaping Mercury's surface. The planet's surface rocks melted and differentiated, with denser materials sinking towards the core while lighter materials rose to the surface. This process created a large iron-rich core, accounting for about 70% of the planet's radius. Mercury's lack of significant geological activity, such as plate tectonics, has allowed its surface to retain ancient features and provide insights into the early history of our solar system. The planet's surface is dominated by impact craters, much like the Moon. These craters are the result of countless collisions with asteroids and comets over billions of years. The largest and most prominent impact feature on Mercury is the Caloris Basin, a vast impact crater approximately 1,525 kilometres in diameter. The impact of such large celestial bodies created shockwaves and volcanic activity, leaving behind a scarred and rugged terrain. Scientists estimate that the period known as the Late Heavy Bombardment, which occurred around 3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago, was particularly tumultuous for Mercury. During this time, the inner planets of our solar system experienced a high frequency of cosmic collisions. These impacts not only shaped Mercury's surface but also influenced the evolution of other rocky planets like Earth and Mars. Studying Mercury's geology and surface features provides valuable insights into the early stages of planetary formation and the impact history of our solar system. Exploration history Our understanding of Mercury has greatly benefited from a series of pioneering missions that ventured close to the planet and provided valuable insights into its characteristics. Let's delve into the details of these key exploratory endeavours: Mariner 10 (1974-1975): Launched by NASA, Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to conduct a close-up exploration of Mercury. It embarked on a series of three flybys, passing by the planet in 1974 and 1975. Mariner 10 captured images of approximately 45% of Mercury's surface, revealing its heavily cratered terrain. The spacecraft's observations provided crucial information about the planet's rotation period, which was found to be approximately 59 Earth days. Mariner 10 also discovered that Mercury possessed a magnetic field, albeit weaker than Earth's. MESSENGER (2004-2015): The MESSENGER mission, short for Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging, was launched by NASA in 2004. It became the first spacecraft to enter into orbit around Mercury in 2011, marking a significant milestone in the exploration of the planet. Over the course of more than four years, MESSENGER conducted an extensive study of Mercury's surface and environment. It captured detailed images of previously unseen regions, revealing the planet's diverse geological features, including vast volcanic plains and cliffs. MESSENGER's data also indicated the presence of water ice in permanently shadowed craters near Mercury's poles, surprising scientists. Furthermore, the mission discovered that Mercury possessed a global magnetic field, challenging previous assumptions about the planet's magnetism. MESSENGER's observations greatly expanded our knowledge of Mercury's geology, composition, and magnetic properties. BepiColombo (2018-Present): The BepiColombo mission, a joint endeavour between the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), aims to further enhance our understanding of Mercury. The mission consists of two separate orbiters: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) developed by ESA and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO) developed by JAXA. Launched in 2018, BepiColombo is currently on its journey to Mercury, with an expected arrival in 2025. Once there, the mission will study various aspects of the planet, including its magnetic field, interior structure, and surface composition. The comprehensive data collected by BepiColombo's orbiters will contribute significantly to our knowledge of Mercury and help answer remaining questions about its formation and evolution. These missions have played pivotal roles in advancing our understanding of Mercury. They have provided unprecedented insights into the planet's surface features, composition, magnetic field, and geological history. As exploration efforts continue, we can anticipate further revelations and a deeper understanding of this intriguing world. Future exploration While significant advancements have been made in understanding Mercury, there is still much more to learn. Scientists hope to explore areas of the planet that have not yet been observed up close, such as the north pole and regions where water ice may be present. They also aim to study Mercury's thin atmosphere, which consists of atoms blasted off the surface by the solar wind. Moreover, the advancement of technology may lead to the development of innovative missions to Mercury. Concepts such as landing missions and even manned exploration have been proposed, although the challenges associated with the planet's extreme environment and proximity to the Sun make such endeavours highly demanding. Nevertheless, the quest to unravel Mercury's mysteries continues, driven by the desire to deepen our knowledge of planetary formation, evolution, and the unique conditions that shaped this enigmatic world. Exploring the uncharted areas of Mercury, particularly the north pole, holds great scientific potential. The presence of water ice in permanently shadowed regions has been suggested by previous observations, and investigating these areas up close could provide valuable insights into the planet's volatile history and the potential for water resources. Additionally, studying Mercury's thin atmosphere is of significant interest. Comprised mostly of atoms blasted off the surface by the intense solar wind, understanding the composition and dynamics of this atmosphere could shed light on the processes that shape Mercury's exosphere. In conclusion, while significant progress has been made in unravelling the mysteries of Mercury, there is still much to explore and discover. Scientists aspire to investigate untouched regions, study the planet's thin atmosphere, and employ innovative mission concepts. The future may hold ambitious missions, including landing missions and potentially even manned exploration. As our knowledge and capabilities expand, Mercury continues to beckon us with its fascinating secrets, urging us to push the boundaries of exploration and expand our understanding of the wonders of the solar system. And with that we finish our journey into the history and exploration of Mercury and will move to Venus in the next article. Written by Zari Syed Related articles: Fuel for the colonisation of Mars / Nuclear fusion Project Gallery

Investigating the outbreak in Devon, UK in May 2024 Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Cryptosporidium: bridging local outbreaks to global health disparities 20/03/25, 12:06 Last updated: Published: 01/09/24, 13:50 Investigating the outbreak in Devon, UK in May 2024 In early May, news emerged of numerous Devon (UK) residents experiencing vomiting and diarrhoea. Majorly affecting the Brixham region, over 40 people were diagnosed with cryptosporidiosis, and over 16,000 homes were advised to boil water before consuming it to kill potential pathogens ( Figure 1 ). Despite a controversial handling of the situation from South West Water (SWW) (from initial denial of the ‘crisis’, to major profit increases for the company), the outbreak was eventually linked to a broken pipe from where animal faeces could have entered, contaminating the water supply, a SWW representative suggested. In this article, we will investigate the disease and its relevance worldwide. So, what is Cryptosporidiosis? Cryptosporidiosis is commonly associated with gastrointestinal symptoms, such as vomiting, diarrhoea and severe abdominal cramps. It is caused by cryptosporidium, from the Apicocomplexa family. This microorganism is an intra-cellular gut parasite which invades the microvilli in the gut and depletes host nutrients. The parasite is spread via faecal-oral transmission, and it is commonly found in contaminated water, food and animals. Its life cycle starts with oocyst (egg) ingestion, leading to attachment to host gut epithelia, and asexual reproduction. This allows sexual reproduction to ensue, and oocyst formation. Eventually, the oocysts are released via faeces, for the cycle of infection to continue. Cryptosporidium species are often identified by the immune system via Toll-Like Receptors, specifically TLR-4, in the gut epithelia; Cryptosporidium-derived molecules are treated as TLR-4 ligands, since the microbe does not produce LPS molecules. Adaptive immune signalling pathways, such as NF-kB, are triggered, encouraging IL-8, CXCL1 and other chemokine secretion from the gut ( Figure 2 ). Consequently, gut inflammation is increased, as well as levels of Intracellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1), to aid immunocyte recruitment and improve pathogenic clearance. Other mechanisms the epithelial barrier uses to eliminate cryptosporidium infection include NO secretion and mucin production, to kill the pathogen, and prevent further infection by blocking extracellular oocyst binding, respectively. In some individuals, cryptosporidium can evade immune response due to its intracellular nature. Most immunocompetent patients suffer mild symptoms and so are offered symptomatic treatment, but some immunocompromised patients (those with HIV, for example) can develop chronic diarrhoea as a result of cryptosporidium infection. In this instance, managing fluid loss and rest is often insufficient; these patients are prescribed nitazoxanide, a broad-spectrum antiparasitic, to manage their diarrhoea. Cryptosporidiosis on a global scale Although controversial, the management of the cryptosporidium ‘crisis’ in Devon was resolved relatively quickly compared to outbreaks in other countries ( Figure 3 ). There are clear links between socio-economic dynamics and water-borne illness prevalence. In some developing regions, such as areas in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), cryptosporidiosis is considered endemic, due to poor quality water-sanitation centres, rapid population growth and inadequate potable water supply. Globally, 3.4 million people die each year from water-borne illnesses - and poor sanitation ranks higher in causes of human morbidity than war and terrorism. Additionally, in 2015, cryptosporidium was the fourth leading cause of death amongst children under 5, clearly highlighting the danger this parasite can cause. For children in developing countries, who are already predisposed to starvation, cryptosporidiosis can kick-start a malnutrition cycle. Here, cryptosporidium exacerbates host malnutrition due to its parasitic nature, potentially causing cognitive impairment and growth stunting. Cryptosporidiosis, although typically mild, can be devastating for some people (the immunocompromised and young children). Particularly, those who are malnourished can suffer severe effects. The water contamination in Devon (UK), handled by SWW, was unfortunate and many in the region experienced severe illness. Globally, cryptosporidiosis is a major problem and in some regions, it is considered endemic. Thus, it is important we spread awareness of the devastating effects of this disease, continue efforts to prevent transmission and strive for eradication. Written by Eloise Nelson REFERENCES Abuseir, S. (2023) ‘A systematic review of frequency and geographic distribution of water-borne parasites in the Middle East and North Africa’, Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal , 29(2), pp. 151–161. doi:10.26719/emhj.23.016. Chalmers, R.M., Davies, A.P. and Tyler, K. (2019) ‘Cryptosporidium’, Microbiology , 165(5), pp. 500–502. doi:10.1099/mic.0.000764. Hassan, E.M. et al. (2020) ‘A review of cryptosporidium spp. and their detection in water’, Water Science and Technology , 83(1), pp. 1–25. doi:10.2166/wst.2020.515. News, S. (2024) ‘Brixham: More than 50 people in Devon ill from contaminated water - as South West Water’s owner posts £166m profit’, Sky News , 21 May. Available at: https://news.sky.com/story/brixham-more-than-50-people-in-devon-ill-from-contaminated-water-as-south-west-waters-owner-posts-166m-profit-13140820#:~:text=More%20than%2050%20cases%20of,water%2C%20health%20bosses%20have%20said . Sparks, H. et al. (2015) ‘Treatment of cryptosporidium: What we know, gaps, and the way forward’, Current Tropical Medicine Reports , 2(3), pp. 181–187. doi:10.1007/s40475-015-0056-9. Caccio SM. Cryptosporidium : parasite and disease, Immunology of Cryptosporidiosis. Springer Verlag Gmbh; 2016. Project Gallery

The Design Argument vs science Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Anthropic Principle: Science or God? 20/11/25, 15:34 Last updated: Published: 08/11/24, 11:25 The Design Argument vs science One of the most common points of tension between science and religion is the Design Argument – an argument for the existence of an intelligent designer/creator of the universe or God. Individuals who tend to identify with one of the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) often also believe in a God who created the universe, although it is important to note that not every person agrees here. On the other hand, public opinion often says that scientists do not support the Design Argument because they are studying how the universe was ‘actually’ created, which leads to some tension between the two groups. However, there is some logical support for the Design Argument originating from scientific data: the Anthropic Principle, also known as the Observation-Selection Hypothesis. While there are different takes on the hypothesis, this article will briefly cover how it relates to physics and the Design Argument. In general, the Anthropic Principle states that the parameters of the universe are exactly what they are so that life (intelligent, conscious life) would ultimately be produced. The following are examples of factors that happen to be just right for life to be possible: The electromagnetic force is 39 times stronger than gravity, but if they were more evenly matched, stars would not survive long enough for life to develop on an orbiting planet. If gravity were 1 part in 1040 stronger, the universe would have utterly collapsed long ago. If the combined mass of a proton and electron were slightly more than the mass of a neutron (rather than slightly less as it currently is), then the hydrogen atom would become unstable, which would collapse stars like the Sun. If the mass of neutrinos (the most abundant particles with mass in the universe) was 5 x 10-34 kg instead of 5 x 10-35 kg, the universe would be contracting rather than expanding. There are many more examples, but isn’t it strange how absolutely exact the strengths of these kinds of fundamental forces are? This is the line of reasoning that leads to the Design Argument. How could the universe be so incredibly exact to produce life, unless it was specifically created that way? Such questions are asked by Science and Religion scholars, and while there are no answers yet, it opens the conversation up to explore what information different fields have to offer. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: Creatio ex Nihilo REFERENCES Davis, John Jefferson. “The Design Argument, Cosmic ‘Fine Tuning,’ and the Anthropic Principle.” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion 22, no. 3 (1987): 139–50. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40018832 . Gale, George. “The Anthropic Principle.” Scientific American 245, no. 6 (1981): 154–71. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24964627 . Project Gallery

Many commercial activities are negative, particularly the production and marketing of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which have contributed to a global obesity crisis. Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Dessert deception: how junk food advertising affects public health Last updated: 29/05/26, 18:22 Published: 04/06/26, 08:00 Many commercial activities are negative, particularly the production and marketing of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which have contributed to a global obesity crisis. Introduction Chocolate. Crisps. Popcorn. If you're living in the UK, these are things you will no longer see on TV before 9 pm and in paid-for online advertising. This is because the UK has recently implemented a landmark ban on junk food advertisements, with the aim of making unhealthy food less desirable and therefore less consumed by the public. However, research from the World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests that marketing restrictions are only one small part of a strategy to combat the global rise in obesity. Unfortunately, eating habits are no longer just a matter of individual choice: they are increasingly being affected by commercial determinants of health. Researchers have defined them as "strategies and approaches used by the private sector to promote products and choices that are detrimental to health". While some commercial activities can be positive, many are negative, particularly the production and marketing of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which have contributed to an obesity crisis globally. Frontier Economics calculated the cost of obesity to be approximately £74 billion a year for the UK in an analysis for the Tony Blair Institute, of which the cost to the NHS is more than £11 billion. The science of "engineered" cravings A review from Harvard, Michigan, and Duke University suggests that many UPFs share more characteristics with tobacco cigarettes than with natural foods like fruit or vegetables. The research identified some key strategies used by both the food and tobacco industries to drive addiction and compulsive consumption. They are "dose optimisation", "speed of delivery", "hedonic engineering" and "deceptive reformulation", seen in Table 1 . Table 1 - A comparison of key strategies used by both the food and tobacco industries to drive addiction and compulsive consumption. Source: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0009.70066 Strategy UPFs (ultra-processed foods) Cigarettes Dose optimisation UPFs are calibrated to hit a "hedonic sweet spot" of refined carbohydrates and added fats that maximise reward without causing aversion. Nicotine dose is standardised in cigarettes that maximise reward without causing aversion. Speed of delivery Processing techniques break down the food matrix, stripping away fibre and protein so that carbohydrates, sugar and added fats are instantly absorbed into the bloodstream. Additives are used to further increase the absorption speed and efficiency. This rapid delivery triggers a sharper dopamine surge in the brain's reward pathways, increasing the potential for addiction. Industrial processing breaks down the tobacco plant matrix, making it easy to rapidly absorb nicotine through inhalation, with additives added to increase nicotine's speed of delivery. Hedonic engineering Companies add artificial flavours, sweeteners, colourants and more to create "flavour bursts" that fade quickly, intentionally added to encourage repeated intake and amplify appeal. Cigarettes contain flavourings, menthol, and sweeteners for the same reason. Deceptive reformulation UPFs are marketed using "health-washing" claims and terms like "lighter", "low-fat", "sugar-free" and "vitamin-enhanced" to deflect regulation while maintaining addictive properties. Companies market "light" cigarettes and filters as being safer, even though they are still addictive. The UK's landmark 2026 junk food advertising ban On 5 January 2026, the UK implemented a nationwide ban on television and online advertisements for products high in fat, salt, and sugar (HFSS). This ban prohibits junk food ads on TV before the 9 pm watershed and imposes a total ban on paid-for online advertising. The legislation targets the most vulnerable demographic: children, whose developing dietary habits are easily manipulated by high-energy and colourful branding. The UK government expects this action to remove up to 7.2 billion calories from UK children's diets every year, reduce the number of children living with obesity by 20,000 and deliver approximately £2 billion in health benefits over time. The ban is supported by evidence from the National Child Measurement Programme's annual report for the academic year 2024/2025 , which shows that at the start of primary school, approximately 10% of children in England are already living with obesity. This figure rises to more than 22% by the time children leave primary school, as seen in Figure 1 . However, while public health experts have said that the ban is "long overdue", they warn that industry loopholes are undermining its effectiveness. In the UK, while specific products like pizzas or burgers are banned, the "brand-only" exemption allows companies to advertise their brand (e.g., the McDonald's "Golden Arches") as long as specific HFSS products aren't shown. This has led to a shift in marketing strategy: research from the Food Foundation shows that food companies increased their outdoor advertising spend, including billboards and public transport, by 28% between 2021 and 2024. Examples can be seen in Figure 2a and Figure 2b . McDonald's alone has spent £86 million on outdoor ads in 2024, up 71% since 2021, according to the Health Foundation . The WHO's perspective on why pricing matters While the UK focuses on advertising, the WHO warns that harmful products are becoming cheaper globally. Recent WHO reports reveal that weak tax systems are failing to keep pace with inflation and income growth, making sugary drinks and alcohol more affordable than they were years ago. Due to this, the WHO advocates for health taxes as one of the strongest tools for promoting well-being. Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General, explains that "health taxes are one of the strongest tools we have for promoting health and preventing disease". In the UK, the 2018 Soft Drinks Industry Levy is cited as a major success; it generated £338 million in revenue in 2024 and has been associated with lower obesity rates in girls, particularly in deprived areas. However, the WHO notes that globally, sugary drink taxes often account for only 2% of the retail price, which is far too low to be effective compared to the 50-60% tax rates seen on tobacco. To address this, the WHO launched the "3 by 35" initiative , aiming to significantly increase the real prices of tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 through tax increases. The economic win Contrary to industry arguments that these restrictions harm the economy, new research from the Sheffield Addictions Research Group suggests that reducing consumption of unhealthy products is actually a net economic gain for the UK. Because money spent on local services stays in the UK and money spent on global junk food brands often goes to the companies, reallocating just 10% of spending from confectionery to other domestic sectors could boost the UK economy by £389 million and create nearly 7,000 new jobs. Conclusion The UK's 2026 ban on junk food adverts is a significant step towards holding the food industry accountable. However, this must be seen as the first of many steps, rather than a final solution. While the ban restricts TV and online ads, industry giants are already exploiting loopholes to maintain their influence over people's food preferences, especially children's. To achieve its ambition of raising the healthiest generation of children ever, the UK must acknowledge that many UPFs are not just poor dietary choices but industrially engineered substances designed to influence human biology and drive compulsive consumption, much like tobacco. A truly effective strategy requires a whole systems approach that moves beyond individual responsibility to food industry accountability. This includes closing loopholes in outdoor advertising and sports sponsorship, and implementing health taxes aligned with the WHO's "3 by 35" initiative that rise with inflation to ensure harmful products do not become more affordable over time. Instead of harming finances, this shift is actually a significant economic win. This means transitioning from a model of "treating sickness" to one of active prevention is not just a public health imperative; it is also a strategic investment in the country's long-term economic and social prosperity. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Rising food prices / Food at the molecular level / Childhood obesity Project Gallery

PTSD and Tetris Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can Tetris help treat Post Traumatic Stress Disorder? 13/06/26, 16:47 Last updated: Published: 06/03/24, 11:47 PTSD and Tetris This is the last part (Part II) in the two-part series on PTSD and intrusive memories, discussing how a common and well-loved visuospatial game, Tetris, can reduce the presence of the core clinical symptom. Previous article: Boom, and you're back! As discussed in an earlier article , psychological trauma resulting from threat to life or serious injury from events such as vehicle accidents or assault, among others, can result in development of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The core clinical feature is intrusive memories, where memories of the event involuntarily intrude into a person’s consciousness after being triggered by environmental cues, resulting in extreme emotional distress. Two of the most common and effective treatments for PTSD include trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy. These approaches address an individual’s memory of the event alongside their emotional understanding of the experience. Unfortunately, there is a lack of qualified therapists and patients are often wary of delving into the event details. This results in many patients not receiving sufficient treatment. Following an event, the memory must be consolidated into long-term memory for it to be remembered at a later date. Memory consolidation theory states that the memory is flexible several hours following the event, meaning it can be interfered with. Engaging in a visuospatial task during this period may weaken the consolidation of the traumatic memory because the tasks compete with limited cognitive resources. Therefore, completing tasks with high visuospatial demands in the consolidation period may reduce the occurrence of intrusive memories. Many studies have looked into this, using Tetris to disrupt the memory up to six hours post exposure, and have found positive results. One study took this outside of the laboratory, recruiting patients in an emergency department following serious vehicle accidents. The intervention involved two steps, first patients were asked to remember the accident and state the most traumatising experience they observed. Following this they played Tetris for a minimum of 10 minutes, which competed with the visual memories they had just produced. It was found that 62% of those in the Tetris intervention group had a reduction in intrusive memories in the subsequent week, compared to those in the control group. However, it is not always practical to play a video game in the direct aftermath of the event. The memory consolidation theory also states that memories become flexible to change when they are remembered and subsequently must be reconsolidated into long-term memory. Therefore, other studies have investigated using Tetris as an intervention for those already experiencing PTSD. In this case, combining Testis game play with EMDR therapy has been found useful. After completion of therapy, both control and Tetris groups were found to have a reduction in symptoms at 6-months. However, only the Tetris group had reductions in anxiety and depression. Remember in the previous article we spoke about the neuroanatomy of PTSD and how that related to intrusive memories. Research has shown those with PTSD have reductions in hippocampus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex volume, with the reduced hippocampal volume correlating to symptom severity. In fact, studies investigating the use of Tetris have shown that playing this during psychological therapy increases the hippocampal volume, and this increase correlates to the reduced symptoms 6-months following treatment. Currently, the interventions for PTSD have limitations surrounding the longevity of symptom improvements. Therefore, combining Tetris playing with psychotherapies may maintain the symptom improvements long term by increasing the hippocampal volume. Not only this, but videogames with high visuospatial demands like Tetris, may provide some utility as preventative interventions, which are currently lacking. Considering patients involved in vehicle accidents wait upto four hours in emergency departments in the UK, there is an opportunity to reach patients within the memory consolidation window. This approach is not only cost-effective and requires straightforward training for implementation but has been found acceptable in clinical populations. Notably, the earlier study found 48% of patients engaged in this approach, surpassing participation rates of 10% in a psychotherapy trial and 8% in a pharmacological trial within the same emergency department. In line with this, a groundbreaking study (Beckenstrom et. al, 2026), published in the Lancet, demonstrated that Tetris gameplay had a huge potential as an easily accessible digital treatment for PTSD patients worldwide. Overall, interfering with memory consolidation using Tetris could provide a good treatment option for intrusive memories in PTSD. Research is still being undertaken, with some even investigating the effects of other visuospatial games such as Candy Crush. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Project Gallery

Second most common anaemia Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anaemia of chronic disease 09/05/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 24/08/23, 17:06 Second most common anaemia This article is no. 3 of the anaemia series. Next article: sideroblastic anaemia . Previous article: Iron-deficiency anaemia. Pathogenesis The second most prevalent anaemia is anaemia of chronic disease (ACD); it is more often seen alongside chronic infections or malignancies. Other causes include infections, autoimmune diseases, and transplant rejection. The pathogenesis of the condition is greatly lead by the effectiveness of the immune system. The immune response to tumour cells and pathogens is to remove and deny access to iron, which is needed to thrive. The processes are mainly thought to be mediated through cytokines such as TNF, IL-6s and IFN as well as the acute phase protein hepcidin. IL-6 is a very powerful cytokine in that it can inhibit erythropoiesis through the downregulation of gene expression; SLC4a1 reducing haemoglobin production, it increases ferratin production whilst inhibiting TNF-α; this upregulates DMT-1, which is a protein (transmembrane) involved in iron uptake in macrophages, and it upregulates the production of hepcidin. Hepicidin Hepcidin is a peptide hormone, 25 amino-acid-chain protein, derived mainly from hepatic cells. Its synthesis is induced as a response to iron overload or inflammation. Its presence crucial in the diagnosis of ACD. IL-6 induces hepcidin release from hepatocytes. Upregulation causes the transport protein (ferroportin) degradation, inhibiting iron absorption in duodenum, enterocytes and macrophage recycling via upregulation of dMT-1, and mobilisation of stored iron, resulting in low iron plasma. Clinical presentation A patient with ACD may have low haemoglobin (Hb), and the reticulocyte index (new RBC) count may be reduced. Also, this is a common feature of an iron deficient anaemia (IDA). A blood film may help diagnose the underlying condition, but the red cell morphology varies greatly, as less than half can be microcytic or hypochromic. Iron studies are what helps ACD stand out from the other anaemias: raised IL-6, hepcidin and ferratin are the key markers; the presence of iron results with raised ferratin and iron will be seen if a blood film is stained correctly. There may also be reduced serum iron, % saturation and TIBC. Should erythrocyte sedimentation rates be high, rouleaux may be seen, which are aggregations of RBC. Conclusion The most efficient way to diagnose an anaemia is through serum biomarkers in a FBC, and iron studies. Hepcidin and other chemical markers play a key role in the diagnosis of ACD. Iron studies help to paint a clearer picture when diagnosing anaemias, but should be supported with a medical history alongside a clinical examination, as comorbidities may influence chronic inflammatory markers. Written by Lauren Kelly Project Gallery

How botox works in the cosmetic industry Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link From botulism to beauty: the evolution of botulinum toxins and botox 09/07/25, 15:10 Last updated: Published: 03/10/23, 15:07 How botox works in the cosmetic industry Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) rank amongst the most potent and lethal neurotoxins known to science. Yet, it's a fascinating journey to discover how these deadly substances have found their way into one of the most renowned cosmetic procedures in the world: Botox. BoNTs originate from the bacterium Clostridium botulinum , which produces some of the most potent neurotoxins in existence. They are central to the development of botulism, a condition that relentlessly targets the body's nervous system, resulting in challenges in breathing and muscle paralysis. Despite their perilous origins, these toxins have undergone a fascinating metamorphosis into a popular cosmetic procedure. They have been studied substantially due to their ability to block nerve functions leading to muscle paralysis and their unique pharmacological properties in therapeutic and cosmetic uses. They affect the neurotransmission process by blocking the release of acetylcholine that allows muscle contraction in the body. The toxins bind pre-synaptically to recognition sites on cholinergic nerve terminals resulting in the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. The toxin consists of a heavy chain and a light chain connected by a disulphide bond. This disulphide bond is vital in the entry of the metalloprotease chain in the cytosol. BoNTs have a unique binding characteristic as a dual receptor binder, which allows them to achieve a high affinity for neurons. These proteins possess the remarkable ability to specifically target and interfere with the neurotransmission process. At their core, BoNTs are proteases, enzymes specialised in cleaving specific proteins involved in nerve signal transmission. When administered as Botox, BoNTs are skillfully harnessed to their advantage due to these properties. By injecting small, controlled amounts into specific facial muscles, they temporarily disrupt the nerve signals that stimulate muscle contraction. This action leads to muscle relaxation, smoothing out wrinkles and lines on the skin's surface. Importantly, the effects are localised, preserving the natural expressiveness of the face. In 1989, BoNTs made their debut in the medical community by being recognised as a safe and effective treatment by the FDA for blepharospasm, which affects eye muscle control. However, in 2002 the FDA extended its endorsement, propelling Botox into the realm of beauty. This pivotal decision forever reshaped the landscape of cosmetic procedures, solidifying Botox's status as an iconic treatment for rejuvenation and enhancement. In conclusion, the evolution of botulinum toxins and the rise of Botox is a captivating journey that traverses the realms of science, medicine, and evolving beauty ideals. Written by Anam Ahmed Project Gallery

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 09/03/26, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs We are in the era of innovation and cutting-edge technology in biosciences and health. This article goes through some of the most remarkable technologies slowly conquering the world of biosciences. Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Gene editing is based on the idea that correcting the genetic mistake that causes a disease offers a permanent result than curing the symptoms. This technique allows scientists to alter the DNA of cells by deleting, adding or modifying genes. There are numerous ways to edit a gene. The most widely used and revolutionary method for gene editing is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR- associated protein 9. The process begins with the design of a synthetic RNA molecule, known as guide RNA (gRNA) that matches the target gene sequence. The gRNA, combined with the Cas9 protein, forms a complex that is then introduced into the target cells. Cas9 acts like scissors, guided by the gRNA, to locate the precise location on the DNA where the genetic modification is intended. Once the target site is identified, Cas9 induces a break in the DNA strand. The cell's natural DNA repair mechanisms then come into play. The non- homologous end joining pathway introduces insertions and deletions at the site, resulting in gene knockout or inactivation. On the other hand, once a DNA template with homology to the sequences is present, the homology-directed repair pathway allows the incorporation of a desired genetic sequence, facilitating gene insertion or replacement. Several other gene-editing techniques have been developed, each with unique approaches. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) are two examples. These methods also use proteins that act as molecular scissors to cut the DNA at specific locations. ZFNs use zinc finger proteins to bind to target DNA sequences, while TALENs use transcription activator-like effector proteins. As the field of gene editing rapidly advances, these diverse methods contribute to the expanding toolkit available for researchers and hold promise for addressing a wide array of applications, from medical treatments to agricultural improvements. CAR T-cells Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a new type of immunotherapy, considered to be the new fighters in the war on cancer. In general, immunotherapies use the patient’s immune system to fight the cancer. This therapy promises more specificity than traditional therapies and more permanent results. T-cells naturally exist in the human organism, supporting the adaptive immune system. They are a group of lymphocytes in the blood or lymph tissue that target or kill specific pathogens. Each type of T-cell recognises specific pathogens. T-cells have proteins on their outer surface, called receptors and these receptors recognize specific proteins on the outer surface of the pathogen. Depending on the type of T-cell, after recognizing the specific pathogen, they are either killing the pathogen (killer T-cells) or signaling to other elements of immune system to attack the pathogen (helper T-cells). CAR T-cell therapy involves modifying a patient’s own T-cells to express a specific CAR on their surface. The receptor is designed to recognise antigens commonly found on the surface of cancer cells. To introduce CARs on the outer surface of T-cells, the patient’s T-cells are genetically modified in the lab. A viral vector is often used to knock out the original T-cell receptors and express the CAR construct. The newly created CAR-T-cells are introduced into the patients, where they target and destroy cancer cells expressing the specific antigen for which the CAR is designed. Incretins The scientific journal “Science” proclaimed glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists The Breakthrough of 2023. These medications, originally approved for type 2 diabetes, demonstrated remarkable weight-loss benefits. GLP-1 is a natural hormone produced in the intestines that plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we eat a meal, incretins, GLP-1 and Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), are released into the bloodstream. They bind to specific receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas, triggering insulin release. Incretins also suppress the release of glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of stored glucose. GLP-1 receptor agonists are medications that mimic the effects of GLP-1. They bind to the GLP-1 receptors on pancreatic beta cells, promoting insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon release. By mimicking the actions of GLP-1, these medications help to lower sugar levels, improve glucose control, and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia. At the same time, they seem to regulate the appetite and delay gastric emptying. New GLP-1 medicines have been produced to combat weight loss with high efficacies; some are available on the NHS while others can be purchased privately. iPSCs Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are becoming a new powerful weapon in lab research. They are a type of stem cell that can be generated from adult cells, such as skin or blood cells, through reprogramming. The process of creating iPSCs involves introducing a set of specific genes into the adult cells. These reprogramming factors reset the adult cells' developmental clock, turning them back into a pluripotent state, similar to embryonic stem cells. Once iPSCs are generated, they can be expanded indefinitely in the laboratory and induced to differentiate into various cell types. iPSCs are a valuable tool for studying human development and disease, as well as for drug discovery and regenerative medicine. iPSCs can be derived from patients with genetic diseases or other conditions, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms in a dish. By differentiating iPSCs into the relevant cell types affected by the disease, researchers can observe how the disease develops and test potential treatments. Moreover, iPSC-derived cells can screen potential drugs for safety and efficacy. Because iPSCs can differentiate into many different cell types, they provide a more accurate model of human biology than traditional cell culture methods. Finally, because iPSCs can be derived from individual patients, they offer the potential for personalised therapies. iPSCs could be used to generate patient-specific cells for transplantation or to test drugs for individual patients. Conclusion These cutting-edge technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for targeted interventions in the treatment of genetic disorders, cancer, diabetes, and a myriad of other diseases. However alongside their immense promise, these biotechnological techniques and therapies also raise important ethical, social and regulatory considerations. The implications of gene editing on human germline cells, the accessibility of advanced therapies, and the long-term safety of these interventions are critical areas that warrant careful attention and thoughtful deliberation. Embracing these innovative techniques with diligence holds the key to unlocking a future where previously incurable conditions become manageable, and where the boundaries of medical possibility are continually expanded. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Medical biotechnology / Mesenchymal stem cells Project Gallery

Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An introduction to epigenetics 09/07/25, 11:47 Last updated: Published: 04/10/23, 18:01 Unveiling the dance between genes and the environment In recent times, a new area of genetics termed epigenetics has emerged. It seeks to uncover the relationship between our genes and environment. At the core of this novel field is the principle that gene expression can be altered without modifications to the DNA sequence itself. Epigenetic changes to DNA involve the addition of methyl or acetyl groups. Methyl groups decrease gene expression by making DNA more tightly bound around histones, forming heterochromatin, whereas acetyl groups do the opposite; they increase gene expression by loosening histone-bound DNA, forming euchromatin. The addition of these chemical groups to DNA is mediated by enzymes that act on signals our bodies receive from our environment such as diet, stressors, and exercise. Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation have gained notoriety in the scientific community as it is suggested that these changes can be passed down to future generations through germline cells. This means that our grandparents’ diets can influence whether we develop diabetes or not. This neo-Lamarckian concept of evolution challenges the current Darwinian understanding of evolutionary genetics where phenotypic traits are believed to emerge due to genetic mutations and natural selection. Understanding epigenetic modifications opens new doors for potential clinical therapies as by modifying harmful epigenetic changes, we may be able to treat various diseases. This field also highlights the importance of a healthy lifestyle, proper nutrition, and avoiding stressors like smoking and radiation, not only for us but for future generations as well. A noteworthy study on exercise A study conducted by Sailani et. al delves into the effects of lifelong exercise on DNA methylation patterns in genes related to metabolism, skeletal muscle properties, and myogenesis. They used two groups with different levels of physical activity. Individuals from one group reported being physically active by playing various sports and engaging in other forms of activity such as cycling, hiking, running, and swimming; the other group were reported to be physically inactive but healthy. The active group exhibited promoter hypomethylation in genes related to insulin sensitivity, muscle repair and development, and mitochondrial respiratory complexes. Compared to the inactive individuals, a significant increase in hypomethylation was seen in 714 promoters in the active group. Bearing in mind that the inactive group were healthy despite being inactive, this significant difference in methylation pattern is remarkable to see and hits home the gravity of epigenetic influence in our lives. As a result of hypomethylation, these genes would have a higher rate of expression in the active individuals. An example of one such gene is GYG2 which codes for the glycogenin 2 enzyme involved in glycogen synthesis. With enhanced glycogen synthesis we can expect to see improved physical performance and recovery in the active individuals. Along with improved skeletal muscle properties and metabolic profiles, we can assume that the active group will have a higher life expectancy and quality of life than the inactive group. As we can see, epigenetics holds a lot of promise for the future of genetic research. By understanding the extent to which epigenetic modifications affect our lives, we can take measures to encourage positive changes to our genomes for greater health, happiness, and vitality. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage Related articles: How epigenetic modifications give the queen bee her crown / Complex disease I- schizophrenia / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery