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The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Understanding diverticular disease 14/07/25, 15:08 Last updated: Published: 27/11/24, 11:31 The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries Diverticulosis, diverticula, diverticulum, and diverticulitis - they may sound similar, but each term describes a specific aspect of diverticular disease. Before diving into diverticular disease, let’s clarify these key terms: Diverticulum: a small, bulging pouch that forms in a weak spot in the lining of the large intestine. Diverticula: the plural form of a diverticulum, indicating multiple bulging pouches in the large intestine's lining. Diverticulosis: a condition where multiple diverticula are present in the large intestine. Diverticulitis: this occurs when one or more diverticula become inflamed or infected. What is diverticular disease? Diverticular disease can be broadly categorised into two main conditions: diverticulosis and diverticulitis. Both involve the presence of diverticula in the colon, but the key difference lies in inflammation. In diverticulitis, the diverticula become inflamed or infected, leading to symptoms. On the other hand, diverticulosis is typically asymptomatic. However, there is a third condition, referred to as symptomatic uncomplicated diverticular disease (SUDD), where diverticula are present without inflammation, but the patient still experiences symptoms. The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries, largely due to the typical 'Western diet', which is high in red meat and low in fibre. Additionally, lifestyle factors such as obesity, smoking, and physical inactivity contribute to this rise. Age is also a significant factor, with 85% of diverticulosis cases occurring in individuals over the age of 50. Pathophysiology The formation of diverticula in the colon is primarily due to three factors: structural abnormalities in the colonic wall, disordered intestinal motility, and a deficiency of dietary fibre. The large intestine has two layers of muscle that work together to move its contents: an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The outer layer consists of three bands called the taeniae coli, which run longitudinally along the colon. The gaps between these muscle bands are areas of weakness, making them vulnerable to the development of diverticula. Age-related weakening of the connective tissue further increases the risk of developing diverticula in these vulnerable areas. In some patients, abnormal gut motility can lead to areas of high pressure in the bowel, causing the mucosa to bulge outward, forming diverticula. Similarly, a lack of fibre in the diet can increase bowel pressure and lead to irregular movement, which also promotes outpouching. As we've discussed, some patients with diverticula may remain asymptomatic, while others experience varying levels of discomfort. The transition from diverticulosis to diverticulitis occurs when undigested food or a fecalith becomes trapped in these pouches, causing a blockage. This leads to bacterial growth and multiplication, resulting in infection and inflammation of the pouch. Symptoms Diverticular disease comes with a range of symptoms, some of which are quite common and could be easily mistaken for other conditions. General symptoms like nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever often overlap with other digestive problems, making diagnosis tricky. However, certain symptoms can hint more strongly at diverticular disease. For instance, experiencing pain in the lower left side of the abdomen (known as the left iliac fossa) or noticing rectal bleeding are more specific indicators that may point towards this condition. Recognising these symptoms can help in getting a more accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Management Managing diverticular disease depends on the individual patient and the severity of their symptoms. For some, simple, conservative treatments are enough—this might include staying hydrated, eating a high-fibre diet, and giving the bowel a short rest by temporarily avoiding food. However, if a patient is experiencing significant pain or signs of infection, medical treatment is necessary. This may involve pain relief based on the WHO pain ladder or antibiotics to tackle the infection. In more serious cases, where other treatments haven’t worked or the patient is in a life-threatening situation, surgery might be required. A common procedure for these severe cases is the Hartmann’s procedure. This surgery removes the damaged section of the large intestine, usually due to infection or blockage. The healthy end of the intestine is brought out through an opening in the abdomen, creating a temporary colostomy that allows waste to leave the body through a bag. This setup gives the intestine time to heal, and in some cases, a follow-up surgery can reconnect it for normal function. Complications There are both short-term and long-term complications associated with diverticulitis, particularly in more severe cases that require more aggressive treatment such as surgery (see Figure 4 ). Future directions Recent changes in the management of diverticulitis have shifted how clinicians approach treatment. One significant update involves the use of antibiotics. Traditionally, diverticulitis was treated with routine antibiotic prescriptions. However, newer guidelines suggest that antibiotics may not be necessary for uncomplicated cases, helping to reduce both antibiotic resistance and the potential medication side effects for patients. Another emerging trend is treating uncomplicated diverticulitis on an outpatient basis. This allows patients to be managed at home with pain relief and dietary adjustments, which in turn frees up hospital resources for those with more severe conditions. Additionally, the management of complicated diverticulitis has evolved. For instance, abscesses may now be treated with percutaneous drainage rather than resorting to emergency surgery. Conclusion In summary, diverticular disease can vary widely in its symptoms and required treatments, ranging from dietary changes to surgical interventions for severe cases. Identifying specific signs and understanding the treatment options can empower patients and help them make informed choices. Advances in treatment approaches are also helping to improve outcomes and quality of life for those affected. Written by Abbasali Gulamhussein Related articles: Crohn's disease / The gut microbiome / Interplay of hormones and microbiome REFERENCES Cater, M. (2023). Foods for Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis . [online] www.hopkinsmedicine.org . Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/foods-for-diverticulosis-and-diverticulitis . Matrana, M.R. and Margolin, D.A. (2009a) Epidemiology and pathophysiology of diverticular disease , Clinics in colon and rectal surgery . Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2780269/ (Accessed: 12 October 2024). Miller, A.S. et al. (2021) The Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland consensus guidelines in emergency colorectal surgery , Colorectal disease : the official journal of the Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland . Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9291558/ (Accessed: 12 October 2024). NHS (2019). Diverticular disease and diverticulitis . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diverticular-disease-and-diverticulitis/ . Sciencedirect.com . (2019). Hartmann Procedure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics . [online] Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/hartmann-procedure . Singh, B., May, K., Coltart, I., Moore, N. and Cunningham, C. (2008). The Long-Term Results of Percutaneous Drainage of Diverticular Abscess. The Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England , [online] 90(4), pp.297–301. doi: https://doi.org/10.1308/003588408x285928 . Ubhi, L. (2023). Prescribing Analgesia and the WHO Analgesic Ladder | Geeky Medics . [online] geekymedics.com . Available at: https://geekymedics.com/prescribing-analgesia-and-the-who-analgesic-ladder/ . Project Gallery

Lyra is a prominent constellation, largely due to Vega which forms one of its corners, and is one of the brightest stars in the sky. Interestingly, Vega is defined as the zero point of the magnitude scale - a logarithmic system used to measure the brightness of celestial objects. Technically, the brightness of all stars and galaxies are measured relative to Vega! Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Lyrids meteor shower Last updated: 14/11/24 Published: 10/06/23 The Lyrids bring an end to the meteor shower drought that exists during the first few months of the year. On April 22nd, the shower is predicted to reach its peak, offering skygazers an opportunity to witness up to 20 bright, fast-moving meteors per hour which leave long, fiery trails across the sky, without any specialist equipment. The name Lyrids comes from the constellation Lyra - the lyre, or harp - which is the radiant point of this shower, i.e. the position on the sky from which the paths of the meteors appear to originate. In the Northern Hemisphere Lyra rises above the horizon in the northeast and reaches the zenith (directly overhead) shortly before dawn, making this the optimal time to observe the shower. Lyra is a prominent constellation, largely due to Vega which forms one of its corners, and is one of the brightest stars in the sky. Interestingly, Vega is defined as the zero point of the magnitude scale - a logarithmic system used to measure the brightness of celestial objects. Technically, the brightness of all stars and galaxies are measured relative to Vega! Have you ever wondered why meteor showers occur exactly one year apart and why they always radiate from the same defined point in the sky? The answer lies in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, which takes 365 days. During this time, Earth may encounter streams of debris left by a comet, composed of gas and dust particles that are released when an icy comet approaches the Sun and vaporizes. As the debris particles enter Earth’s atmosphere, they burn up due to friction, creating a streak of light known as a meteor. Meteorites are fragments that make it through the atmosphere to the ground. The reason that the Lyrids meteor shower peaks in mid-late April each year is that the Earth encounters the same debris stream at the point on its orbit corresponding to mid-late April. Comets and their debris trails have very eccentric, but predictable orbits, and the Earth passes through the trail of Comet Thatcher in mid-late April every year. Additionally, Earth’s orbit intersects the trail at approximately the same angle every year, and from the perspective of an observer on Earth, the constellation Lyra most accurately matches up with the radiant point of the meteors when they are mapped onto the canvas of background stars in the night sky. The Lyrids meteor shower peaks in mid-late April each year. Image/ EarthSky.org This year, there is a fortunate alignment of celestial events. New Moon occurs on April 20th, meaning that by the time the Lyrids reach their maximum intensity, the Moon is only 6% illuminated, resulting in darker skies and an increased chance to see this dazzling display. Written by Joseph Brennan Related article: L onar Lake

The properties and nature of matter, and energy. Read up on insights on astro-archaelogy, uncover the concept of building physics, and look at transformers. Physics Articles The properties and nature of matter, and energy. Read up on insights on astro-archaelogy, uncover the concept of building physics, and look at transformers. You may also like: Maths, Technology , Engineering Chaco Canyon, New Mexico Cities designed to track the heavens. Article #1 in a series on astro-archaelogy The Anthropic Principle Science or God? This theory is explained by physics Building Physics The field of study of how buildings interact with the environment to design comfortable and energy-efficient structures The pyramids of Giza, Egypt The astronomical symbolism of these great structures. Article #2 in a series on astro-archaelogy Lonar Lake The astro-geography of this structure in India Basics of transformers An overview on conventional transformers, and Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law The celestial blueprint of time The astronomical important of the structures at Stonehenge, UK. Article #3 in a series on astro-archaelogy Light How is light one of the biggest mysteries in physics? Looking at the Observer Effect and more Creatio ex Nihilo The intersection of physics and religion Previous

Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Antiretroviral therapy: a key to helping HIV patients 09/07/25, 10:51 Last updated: Published: 12/10/24, 11:34 Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Human Immunodeficiency Virus, commonly called HIV, is a sexually transmitted disease that affects approximately 40 million people worldwide and is mostly common in ages 15-49 years. It is spread through direct contact with the blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, and vaginal fluids of an infected person through mucous membranes—contact with male and female genital tracks. Additionally, HIV can be spread through breast milk from mother to child—studies have shown that infants likely contract the virus when the milk makes contact with the mucous membranes of the gut. How does HIV affect immune cells? HIV is a retrovirus—enveloped RNA viruses that can evade the immune defense system and live within host cells indefinitely. To infect cells HIV uses several mechanisms to make contact with the host cell's membrane. This involves the binding of HIV envelope protein (Env) with the cell receptor CD4 of an immune cell (T-helper cells). Env then binds to a co-receptor on the surface of the cell membrane, triggering membrane fusion. Membrane fusion leads to formation of a fusion pore where HIV successfully enters into the cell's cytoplasm through. Following this, HIV converts its RNA to DNA using enzyme reverse transcriptase and then uses integrase enzymes to become a permanent part of the host cell’s DNA. This allows HIV to replicate at a rapid rate, eventually causing the cells to bloat and rupture, killing the cell all while also “hiding” from the immune defense system and going into latency. Such a process is what weakens the immune system as there is a significant depletion in T-helper cells—cells that fight off infections and diseases. The evolution of ART For the reasons above, HIV is almost impossible to cure. While research is still being conducted to find a cure for HIV, most studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). ART is a revolutionary treatment introduced in the late 198 0s that aims to prevent transmission of HIV, prolong survival, improve immune function and increase CD4 cell count, and improve overall mortality. The first drug released in the late 1980’s was Zidovudine, a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that essentially prevents HIV’s RNA from being converted to DNA. This restricted replication hence increasing T-helper cell count. However, while shown to improve the condition of HIV patients, zidovudine did not work well on its own and caused drug resistance from prolonged use. Combination therapy was later introduced where scientists discovered zidovudine to be effective when used alongside another NRTI (dideoxycytidine). This combination did improve CD4 cell count and the overall condition of most patients, not in patients with advanced HIV who had prior use of zidovudine alone. Now, several medications such as NRTIs, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors have been introduced and are used in a combination of three (Triple-Drug Therapy) to help suppress viral load to undetectable levels in the blood and improve the overall quality of life for patients. Triple-drug therapy can be tailored by doctors to improve the patient's condition. HIV is a sexually transmitted, chronic condition that affects less than 1% of the world's population. There is no cure for HIV, however, treatments (ART) have been introduced to reduce the viral load of HIV as well as improve the overall quality of life of patients. Compared to the past where these medications had to be taken multiple times a day, often causing severe side effects, patients can now take just a single tablet daily. This has changed the course of HIV treatment, allowing people to live lengthy, normal lives with the disease. Written by Sherine A Latheef Related article: CRISPR-Cas9 to potentially treat HIV REFERENCES Guha D, Ayyavoo V. Innate immune evasion strategies by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. ISRN AIDS . 2013;2013:954806. Published 2013 Aug 12. doi:10.1155/2013/954806 AlBurtamani N, Paul A, Fassati A. The Role of Capsid in the Early Steps of HIV-1 Infection: New Insights into the Core of the Matter. Viruses . 2021;13(6):1161. Published 2021 Jun 17. doi:10.3390/v13061161 Pau AK, George JM. Antiretroviral therapy: current drugs. Infect Dis Clin North Am . 2014;28(3):371-402. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.06.001 Mayers, Douglas L. “Prevalence and Incidence of Resistance to Zidovudine and Other Antiretroviral Drugs.” The American Journal of Medicine , vol. 102, no. 5, May 1997, pp. 70–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9343(97)00067-3 . Accessed 5 Dec. 2021. “Antiretroviral Drug Discovery and Development | NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.” Www.niaid.nih.gov , www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/antiretroviral-drug-development#:~:text=D urable%20HIV%20Suppression%20with%20Triple%2DDrug%20Therapy&text=In %20December%201995%2C%20saquinavir%20became. CDC. “How HIV Spreads.” HIV , 14 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/hiv/causes/index.html . clinicalinfo.hiv.gov . (n.d.). Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH . [online] Available at: https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/glossary/protease-inhibitor-pi . www.who.int . (n.d.). HIV . [online] Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/hiv-aids#:~:text=Globally%2C%2039.9 %20million%20%5B36.1%E2%80%93. Project Gallery

Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are pandemics becoming less severe? Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 25/04/23 Ever since the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic in March 2020, many people have become more aware of future pandemics and best management strategies for these health disasters. For example, an online article from 2022 discussed ways to prepare for the next pandemic such as surveilling zoonotic diseases and planning for faster vaccine production; these can be effective in overcoming another pandemic in the future, though it is important to consider factors that may inhibit the above strategies aside from exacerbating future pandemics. With this said, this article will compare the reasons for pandemics becoming less severe and the reasons why they can become worse. Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Firstly, vaccinations reduced the spread of and prevented serious symptoms of many infectious diseases ranging from the eradicated smallpox to the seasonal influenza. Therefore, undermining the success of vaccines during pandemics is not ideal since this has negative consequences, mainly prolonging pandemics and killing more people. Secondly, there are antimicrobial treatments for a person infected with either a viral, bacterial, protozoal, or fungal infection. For instance during World War 2, penicillin has decreased bacterial pneumonia’s death rate from 18% to 1% in soldiers as well as saving 14% of the UK’s injured soldiers. Therefore, this event prevented bacterial spread and a potential pandemic that could have occurred without penicillin or other antibiotics. Another important treatment is for malaria. A review and meta analysis from Ethiopia showed that for artemether-lumefantrine in 10 studies involving 1179 patients, 96.7% did not have a fever and 98.5% did not have the malaria parasite after they were treated for 3 days. Again, artemether-lumefantrine with other antiparasitic drugs reduced the possibility of a malarial pandemic. Additionally, there are non-medical interventions that may decrease the severity of pandemics. For instance, a cross-panel analysis discovered that enforcing a lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic saw new cases declining around 10 days after execution and this benefit grows after 20 days of the lockdown. Similarly, a review highlighted that social distancing of more than 1 metre between individuals led to reduced COVID-19 transmission risk by 5 times while the impact of protection two-fold for each extra 1 metre. Considering both of these methods, re-using them for future pandemics can reduce infectious disease spread in combination with vaccinations and antimicrobial drugs. On the other hand, it is crucial to consider the counter argument of why pandemics may worsen in the future. To illustrate, there is the possibility that diseases could resurge into more fatal variants similar to COVID-19, which lead to more deaths and vaccines becoming less effective. Alternatively, there may a current contagious pathogen that can combine with another one to form a new disease; this is how HIV/AIDS become virulent since the 1980s to present day as researchers uncovered that the virus collaborates with non-viral diseases like malaria and tuberculosis and viral diseases such as hepatitis C to harm/kill the patient. These instances can occur for viral pathogens along with other types (protists, bacteria and fungi). As for non-viral pathogens, it is likely that future pandemics originate from them with a review discussing bacteria like MRSA or ones causing water-borne and unsanitary food infections infecting humans and animals. It elaborated that multi-drug resistant bacteria would be arduous to destroy opposed to non-resistant ones, resulting in higher: mortalities, medical logistics, costs and hospitalisations. Going back to penicillin with other antibiotics, although it was used since World War 2 for bacterial infections, resistance towards them has exponentially increased whereby countless types of bacteria overpower their effects because antibiotics have been overprescribed and their use in agriculture has made bacteria stronger. Another reason to consider pandemics becoming worse is the counter-effectiveness of lockdowns. An article stated that comparing them between countries is insufficient because there is a lack of evidence for them tackling COVID-19 and the 1918-1920 Spanish Flu. Also, it found that it is expensive to enforce them and suggested a 20 fold death rate, indicating that a cost-benefit analysis is needed before utilising lockdowns to stop the spread of infectious diseases. Additionally, COVID-19 not only had detrimental impacts on health, it influenced non-health factors such as economics, culture and politics. For example, lots of Iranian people went to crowded places and business centres as the government did not have the finances during their lockdown to protect citizens from the virus. Overall, everyone should collaborate to prepare for the inevitability of future pandemics because historically, using a multitude of methods: lockdowns, vaccines, social distancing and antimicrobial drugs in order to minimise the time span and consequences of the pandemics. Referring back to deadliest pandemics from the past like the Black Death and Spanish Flu, it is our responsibility to prevent history from repeating itself. Written by Sam Jarada Related article: Rare zoonotic diseases REFERENCES Sridhar D. Five ways to prepare for the next pandemic. Nature. 2022 Oct 26;610(7933):S50–0. Jarus O. 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history. livescience.com. 2020 Mar 3. Rayner C. How the discovery of penicillin has influenced modern medicine - The Oxford Scientist. The Oxford Scientist. 2020 June 1. Ayalew MB. Therapeutic efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 2017 Nov 15;6(1). Alfano V, Ercolano S. The Efficacy of Lockdown Against COVID-19: A Cross-Country Panel Analysis. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy. 2020 Jun 3;18(4):509–17. Sun KS, Lau TSM, Yeoh EK, Chung VCH, Leung YS, Yam CHK, et al. Effectiveness of different types and levels of social distancing measures: a scoping review of global evidence from earlier stage of COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open. 2022 Apr 1;12(4):e053938. Singer M. Pathogen-pathogen interaction. Virulence. 2010;1(1):10–8. Salazar CB, Spencer P, Mohamad K, Jabeen A, Abdulmonem WA, Fernández N. Future pandemics might be caused by bacteria and not viruses: Recent advances in medical preventive practice. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2022;16(3):1–3. Ventola CL. The Antibiotic Resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and Threats. P & T : a peer-rev10. Yanovskiy M, Socol Y. Are Lockdowns Effective in Managing Pandemics? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jul 29;19(15):9295. Yoosefi Lebni J, Abbas J, Moradi F, Salahshoor MR, Chaboksavar F, Irandoost SF, et al. How the COVID-19 pandemic effected economic, social, political, and cultural factors: A lesson from Iran. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2020 Jul 2;67(3):002076402093998.

The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beyond the bump: unravelling traumatic brain injuries 13/11/25, 12:27 Last updated: Published: 15/10/24, 11:32 The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most serious and complex injuries sustained by the human body, often with profound and long-term effects on an individual’s physical, emotional, behavioural and cognitive abilities. What is a traumatic brain injury? A TBI results from an external force which causes structural and physical damage to the brain. The primary injury refers to the immediate damage to the brain tissue which is caused directly by the event. Whereas secondary injuries result from the cascade of cellular and molecular processes triggered by the initial injury and develop from hours to weeks following the initial TBI. Typically, the injury can be penetrating, where an object pierces the skull and damages the brain, or non-penetrating which occurs when the external force is large enough to shake the brain within the skull causing coup- contrecoup damage. Diagnosis and severity The severity of a TBI is classified as either mild (aka concussion), moderate, or severe, using a variety of indices. Whilst more than 75% of TBIs are mild, even these individuals can suffer long-term consequences from post-concussion syndrome. Here are two commonly used measures to initially classify severity: The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is an initial neurological examination which assesses severity based on the patient’s ability to open their eyes, move, and respond verbally. It is a strong indicator of whether an injury is mild (GCS 13-15), moderate (GCS 9-12) or severe (≤8). Following the injury and any period of unconsciousness, when a patient has trouble with their memory and is confused, they are said to have post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). This is another measure of injury severity and lasts up to 30 30 minutes in mild TBI, between 30 minutes and 24 hours in moderate TBI, and over 24 hours in severe TBI. Imaging tests including CT scans and MRIs are used to detect brain bleeds, swelling or any other damage. These tests are essential upon arrival to the hospital, especially in moderate and severe cases to understand the full extent of the injury. Leading causes of TBI Common causes of TBI are a result of: Falls (most common in young children and older adults) Vehicle collisions (road traffic accidents- RTAs) Inter-personal violence Sports injuries Explosive blasts Interestingly, the rate of TBI is 1.5 times more common in men than women. General symptoms The symptoms and outcome of a TBI depend on the severity and location of the injury. They differ from person to person based on a range of factors which include pre-injury sociodemographic vulnerabilities including age, sex and level of education, as well as premorbid mental illnesses. There are also post-injury factors such as access to rehabilitation and psychosocial support which influence recovery. Due to this, nobody will have the same experience of a TBI, however there are some effects which are more common than others which are described: Mild TBI: Physical symptoms: headaches, dizziness, nausea, and blurred vision. Cognitive symptoms: confusion, trouble concentrating, difficulty with memory or disorientation. Emotional symptoms: mood swings, irritability, depression or anxiety. Moderate-to-severe TBI: Behavioural symptoms: aggression, personality change, disinhibition, impulsiveness. Cognitive symptoms: difficulties with attention and concentration, decision making, memory, executive dysfunction, information processing, motivation, language, reasoning, self-awareness. Physical symptoms: headaches, seizures, speech problems, fatigue, weakness or paralysis. Many of these symptoms are ‘hidden’ and can often impact functional outcomes for an individual, such as their capacity for employment and daily living (i.e., washing, cooking, cleaning etc.). The long-term effects of TBI can vary, with some returning to normal functioning. However, others might experience lifelong disabilities and require adjustments in their daily lives. For more information and support, there are some great resources on the Headway website, a leading charity which supports individuals after brain injury. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Related articles: Why brain injuries affect adults and children differently / Neuroimaging / Different types of seizures Project Gallery

The true cost Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Turkey Teeth 14/07/25, 15:06 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:57 The true cost Coined as 'Turkey teeth,' the rising trend of dental tourism has gained increasing popularity among the British population, largely influenced by social media. Many people are now traveling abroad for veneers, crowns, and implants, in the hope of achieving the perfect smile at a fraction of the cost in the UK. However, patients may be paying with their future oral health in the long run, as evidence emerges of botched procedures, with crucial steps missed and patients having long-lasting pain following their treatment. Many young people opt to visit cosmetic dentistry clinics in European countries to obtain veneers due to their cheaper costs compared to the UK dental fees, given that cosmetic dentistry is not covered under the subsidised NHS prices. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that many consumers are in fact receiving full dental crowns without their knowledge, as opposed to veneers, thus sacrificing more of their natural tooth structure in the trade for a seemingly perfect smile. A critical difference between crowns and veneers is the amount of natural tooth structure removed to fit the prosthesis. Veneers are a much more minimally invasive fix, whereby 0.5mm of enamel is shaved away to allow a porcelain cover to fit to the surface of the tooth. Veneers are primarily used to conceal enamel discoloration, variations in shades, and natural tooth shapes. The minimally invasive procedure preserves tooth tissue and can even be potentially reversible in cases where there has been no preparation to the tooth. Crowns in the UK are vastly indicated for badly broken-down teeth and teeth deemed unrestorable. The preparation for a crown is far more invasive, with a significant amount of tooth structure irreversibly removed. This process sees teeth shaved down, with almost 2mm of the structure being irreversibly removed. Filing down teeth when they are otherwise perfectly clinically healthy can have dire consequences, and many patients returning to England have found themselves needing corrective work to rectify the procedures they underwent abroad. A study conducted by the Irish Dental Association revealed that 75% of those who travelled abroad for dental procedures required corrective work back home. The harsh reality of this treatment is that it can result in severe infections, long-lasting tooth pain, inflamed gums, exposed nerves, and heightened sensitivity. The destructive process of crown preparations in clinically healthy teeth increases the likelihood of exposing the tooth's pulp as more tooth tissue is removed, making the tooth more susceptible to infection. If the tooth's pulp becomes exposed, a costly and uncomfortable root canal procedure may be necessary. In the long term, these patients are more likely to lose the affected teeth altogether, as irreversible damage has occurred to the teeth. Another disadvantage of quick-fix dentistry abroad is the lack of follow-up appointments. In the UK, services such as occlusion checks are offered to ensure the bite is correct and that the veneers provide the desired result while lasting for an extended period. In contrast, dental procedures abroad are often expedited, sometimes limited to a single appointment as tourists return home swiftly to resume their daily lives. This can raise the risk of rushed procedures and a lack of follow-up to ensure the prosthetics' longevity. This has seen patients crowns falling off, and leaving their teeth exposed. In a typical UK dental clinic, the process involves an initial assessment, a dental health check, trial designs, and finally, the fitting of new veneers. Teeth are meticulously assessed for potential issues, including periodontal disease, and bite evaluations are performed to ensure that the prosthetics do not interfere with the occlusion. This comprehensive approach differs significantly from the one-appointment dentistry often observed abroad. Love Island's Jack Finham underwent the procedure and documented his experience across social media to thousands of followers. He later went on to reveal that in hindsight, he would not have chosen the procedure has he known its intricacies. Influencers are slowly turning to reveal the true costs of fast dentistry abroad, and it can only be hoped that consumers become better informed on the processes performed abroad, and are more well informed before making an irreversible decision for their teeth. In conclusion, it is imperative for consumers to be well-informed when considering dental procedures, especially when faced with the allure of cheaper veneers, or rather crowns abroad. While the cost savings may initially seem enticing, the potential risks associated with overseas treatments, including inadequate follow-ups, irreversible damage to natural tooth structure, and a lack of comprehensive assessments, should not be overlooked. Opting for dentistry in the UK provides a safer and more comprehensive approach, with qualified professionals who prioritize patients' oral health and long-term well-being. While affordability is a significant consideration, the adage "you get what you pay for" holds true in the realm of dental care. Informed decision-making and prioritizing one's health should always take precedence when seeking dental treatments, ensuring not only a beautiful smile but also lasting oral health. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery

AI has long been a controversial topic, with some people fearing its potential consequences. This has been exacerbated by popular culture, with movies such as "The Terminator" and "2001: A Space Odyssey" depicting AI systems becoming self-aware and turning against humans. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The evolution of AI: understanding the role of NLP technologies Last updated: 08/03/25 Published: 08/05/23 Artificial intelligence (AI) has long been a controversial topic, with some people fearing its potential consequences. This has been exacerbated by popular culture, with movies such as The Terminator and 2001: A Space Odyssey depicting AI systems becoming self-aware and turning against humans. Similarly, The Matrix portrayed a dystopian future where AI systems had enslaved humanity. Fast forward to 2023- AI has become a normal part of our everyday life, whether we realise it or not. From virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa to personalised movie and product recommendations, AI-powered technologies have revolutionised the way we interact with technology. AI also plays a critical role in industries such as healthcare, finance, and transportation, with algorithms helping to analyse data, identify patterns, and make predictions that lead to better decision-making. As with any industry, the AI industry is very much prone to evolution. In fact, this is especially relevant for the AI industry, given that it engages user habits to learn and redefine its understanding. This has led to the introduction of unforeseen technologies. One of the most studied and developed AI modelling techniques, Natural Language Processing (NLP), has been particularly placed under focus recently with the emergence of technologies such as Open AI’s ChatGPT, Google’s Gemini (formerly Bard) AI and Microsoft’s Bing AI- known as Copilot. ChatGPT in particular, was one of the first technologies of this kind to garner significant fame. Within its first year of release, the GPT-3 model had more than 10,000 registered developers and over 300 applications built on its application programming interface (API). In addition, Microsoft acquired OpenAI's exclusive license to the GPT-3 technology in 2020, further solidifying its position as a leading language model in the industry. ChatGPT works as an advanced artificial intelligence technology designed to understand and process human language. Built on the GPT-3.5 architecture, it uses NLP to comprehend and generate responses that simulate human conversation. ChatGPT is classified as a large language model, which means it has been trained on vast amounts of data and can generate high-quality text that is both coherent and relevant to the input provided. While concerns have been raised about the potential impact of NLP technologies, there are several reasons why we should not fear their emergence. Firstly, NLP has already enabled a wide range of useful applications that have the potential to improve efficiency, convenience, and accessibility. Furthermore, the development and deployment of NLP technologies is subject to ethical considerations and regulations that aim to ensure their responsible use. NLP technologies are not designed to replace humans, but rather to complement and enhance human capabilities. While some jobs may be impacted by automation, new jobs are likely to emerge that require human skills that are not easily replicated by machines. Ultimately, the impact of NLP technologies depends on how they are developed and used. There are always likely to be risks, but by taking a proactive approach to their development and deployment, we can ensure that they are used to benefit society and advance human progress. Written by Jaspreet Mann Related articles: AI: the good, the bad, and the future / Latent space transformations / Markov chains REFERENCES Hirschberg, Julia, and Christopher D. Manning. “Advances in Natural Language Processing.” Science, vol. 349, no. 6245, July 2015, pp. 261–66. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa8685. What Is Natural Language Processing? | IBM. https://www.ibm.com/topics/natural-language-processing. Accessed 1 May 2023. Biswas, Som S. “Role of Chat GPT in Public Health.” Annals of Biomedical Engineering, vol. 51, no. 5, May 2023, pp. 868–69. Springer Link, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-023-03172-7. Davenport, T.H. (2018). The AI Advantage: How to Put the Artificial Intelligence Revolution to Work. MIT Press. Bird, S., Klein, E., & Loper, E. (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. O'Reilly Media.

- And face masks! No need to say they don’t work either. No matter the number of layers in the mask. Nothing is ever 100% efficient, and face masks are not exempt from this. Face masks help a lot by stopping you from inhaling COVID-19 particles in the air, indeed spread by people not wearing, or cannot wear, masks. Not just COVID-19 particles, Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Misconceptions about COVID-19 and its vaccine Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 28/12/22 Three years into the pandemic, after huge losses in lives, livelihoods, and freedoms, misinformation about the coronavirus and now its vaccines, are still in circulation on the internet. It will take time to completely eradicate these misconstructions, but it is not impossible. I will begin discussing some myths and theories about the coronavirus itself, and then continue on to the vaccines science has developed to battle the virus. The misunderstandings are not listed in any order. Coronavirus The virus is called many different names: coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). The disease it causes is called COVID-19, or simply COVID. – Getting COVID is no big deal. It is just another flu. It is true yes that COVID-19 is only a mild condition for most people, however for those who are elderly and/ or clinically vulnerable it is anything but mild. Getting COVID-19 depends on the immune system, and if the immune system is already weakened, it is a big deal. As for the flu, it has been around for years mutating each time, but it is never less of a threat. – Only the elderly contract it. In most cases, it is the elderly who fall victim to the disease. But there are many factors at play; age is only one of them. Pre-existing health conditions regardless of age (for those clinically vulnerable), ethnicity, wealth, gender (does not factor that much), all determine who contracts it and how long it will take for someone to recover from the disease. – Children and teenagers are immune to it. Not necessarily true. For the better part of a year, children and younger adults seemed to evade COVID-19 but now more and more are falling ill to it. It is probably due to the emerging variants and how vulnerable children are. – Herd immunity is the way out. We do this by sacrificing said elderly to save the economy. It would have been the ideal solution to continue working and travelling while the virus ravages entire nations to protect the economy, but it would also have meant exposing society’s most vulnerable, namely the elderly, to the virus. Not a good solution to only protect one generation of society and not another. – Yes, because lockdowns don’t work. Lockdowns tend to have a rapid effect; they act to break the circuit of virus transmission up and down the country. They work. This is the reason why they last no more than one month or so when put in place. However, lockdown costs people’s freedoms and mental health so it should only be imposed when crucial. – But we need to work! How will we support ourselves? Very understandable. But if you suddenly contract COVID, you will not be able to work anyway. Many government initiatives have been started to support workers in the past year or so. - What is this 2m/ 6ft rule? No social contact whatsoever? The particles don’t even travel that far. The major way coronavirus travels is by droplets in the air between human contact. Not through surfaces (very little evidence supporting this), not by sharing needles, not by parasites and animals (vectors that bring the virus to humans). - And face masks! No need to say they don’t work either. No matter the number of layers in the mask. Nothing is ever 100% efficient, and face masks are not exempt from this. Face masks help a lot by stopping you from inhaling COVID-19 particles in the air, indeed spread by people not wearing, or cannot wear, masks. Not just COVID-19 particles, but any other harmful particles. You’re still able to take oxygen in and carbon dioxide out- these molecules are much smaller, 1-3 atoms big, so they can pass through the mask. Multiple layers of the mask offer more protection, however one is enough. - Antibiotics can be used to treat COVID-19. Antibiotics are anti-bacteria. Coronavirus is a virus- only antivirals will help. - Surely if bleach cleans and wipes out pathogens on surfaces and on just about anything else, it can do the same inside our bodies. Bleach is for surfaces only; they are not for consumption or administration as medicine. They will cause untold amount of damage inside the body. Bleach also turns things white. Whatever cleaning and wiping of pathogen need to be done, your immune system will do it. No need for bleach. - How does opening windows help prevent the spread of COVID-19? As mentioned before, COVID-19 respiratory particles travel by air. So opening windows and increasing the circulation of air, helps the particles to be blown away from you and the people with you and reduces the chance of becoming infected with the virus. Going outside for this reason helps (if not under lockdown or other restrictions). - How does fresh air help? As above. Vaccine – I think they will inject a microchip under the pretence of a vaccine and will track my every movement. There is no microchip. All the ingredients and chemicals used to produce the vaccines are available to view on the respective pharmaceutical website. None of the ingredients have any tracking potential. – Or they are just making money. Usually the government or state orders and buys the vaccines from the different companies. The expenses are on them. The rest of the population get the vaccine for free. - Vaccines hurt. Only a pinprick when the vaccine is being administered. After that only mild side effects and taking paracetamol or other painkillers will help. - And we are part of a big experiment. All the testing and experimenting was done during the three phases of clinical trials. The vaccines have been approved for (temporary) nationwide use. - Vaccines don’t work anyway. There is always a story in the news detailing the efficacies of the vaccines. They have an efficiency of 70-96% depending on the vaccine, and vaccine dose. Generally, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks that come from it. - Yes, because they cause shedding. Check the context and definition of this word. ‘Shedding’ here refers to the vaccine releasing or discharging its viral components onto others and infecting them. Once inside the body, the vaccine has no way to expel the viral contents.The only way the virus will shed its components is when the person is infected and sneezes, coughs, or causes the particles to travel in the air (i.e. when NOT vaccinated). - And, fertility issues. No biological mechanism or pathway has been discovered over the centuries that shows vaccines cause fertility issues. In fact, the reproductive system itself suppresses the immune system (not the other way round). - They will definitely cause issues if given to children. Vaccines were originally produced to provide protection to adults 18 years and older. Though there are vaccines that only children take as routine e.g. MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) and children don’t typically have any problems with them, COVID-19 vaccines aren’t among them. - Vaccines contain meat, and/ or made from animal products (and I am against this). As mentioned already, all the ingredients of the different vaccines can be found on the individual drug company websites. None of the vaccines contain meat, and if religion-conscious, scriptures advise the use of health agents even if they contain meat, to better your well-being. Anyway, the vaccine is used as medicine and not as an item for consumption. – You can pay to get a vaccine made from glucose sugar and water, and I believe it does the same thing as the official vaccine. Sugar solution is not a vaccine. It does not prevent against COVID-19. No trials have been conducted in favour of this. For a vaccine to be a vaccine, it is essential to have the actual weakened version or mRNA form of the virus. - Please take the time to read, watch, or listen to official government or health system information on coronavirus and vaccines. Millions if not billions have listened so far, be a part of this number. As with any public health guidance, education and spreading awareness are always key. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: COVID-19 glossary / Origins of COVID-19 / Digital disinformation / Fake science websites

How music can manipulate our emotional processes Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The cognitive orchestra Last updated: 17/06/25, 11:21 Published: 26/06/25, 07:00 How music can manipulate our emotional processes Introduction Music has considerably always been a universal way of communicating. Every day, we are introduced to new genres and concepts despite the differences in language or musical techniques. As a result, psychology has increasingly researched music and its effects on human cognition. Music as a means of therapy The common way most people use music is to regulate their emotions. When we are feeling down, we are more than likely to choose a melancholic playlist over an upbeat one. It has been found that music aids in uplifting mood and reducing anxiety. Juslin and Sloboda (2010) demonstrated that people often choose to listen to music that links to how they are feeling in the moment or even how they desire to feel. With music being deemed a powerful emotional mechanism, music therapy has seen its benefits as a tool for regulating emotions. Thoma et al. (2013) support the idea of music being used for treating conditions like depression and PTSD, with their findings indicating that music listening impacts the psychobiological stress system. Listening to music prior to a stressful event predominantly affected the autonomic nervous system by recovering the nerves much faster, although the effects on the physiological stress and the endocrine (stress hormones) were not as noticeable. However, just as all forms of therapy are not generalisable to everyone, music therapy is not always an appropriate solution. The over-reliance on music to regulate feelings can lead to emotional avoidance and not addressing the initial cause of low mood. This leaves no room for solving the issues at hand. In the context of neurological rehabilitation, it was suggested that further controlled studies are needed to establish the efficacy of music in neurological recovery, and music-based interventions are emerging as promising rehabilitation strategies. Mental clarity or spiritual melodies? The benefits music can hold for our cognitive abilities are endless. Musical training in childhood, studied by Forgeard et al. (2008), is positively correlated with enhanced fine motor skills and non-verbal reasoning. Children were predicted to have much better cognitive flexibility and strengthened memory, outperforming the experimental control group. Another advantage music holds for cognitive abilities is making tasks easier to work with. Lesiuk (2005) conducted a study into the influence of music on mood and work performance. He introduced a ‘no music’ rule for workers in a software company, where they were prohibited from listening to music whilst working. The results demonstrated a predictable decrease in quality of work once music was abandoned, which workers were not habitually familiar with. Performance in quality of work remained poor in week 4, but managed to improve again when music was involved again during week 5. Although, it is important to note that music as a means of concentrating is not always beneficial. Lyrical songs can potentially act as a distractor when completing tasks that require verbal or visual memory, hindering our cognitive ability. Zulkurnaini et al. (2012) studied Lesiuk (2005) hypothesis, exposing participants to classical music and a verse from the Quran. By observing EEG signals, they found that listening to the Quran resulted in a more relaxed state compared to classical music. They also found that listening to the Quran increased the alpha band in the brain, which is associated with relaxation. Conclusion It is clear music is more than just a background track while completing daily errands. The influence it has on emotional well-being, memory and mood is vital to acknowledge. With evidence of positive correlations between cognitive productivity and listening to music, and neurological research of in-depth brain studies, the effects of music are much more prevalent to us. Future research should aim to look into the long-term effects on cognitive functioning, more specifically within clinical settings like neurorehabilitation. Written by Tania Khan Related article: Chemistry of emotions REFERENCES Schäfer, T., Sedlmeier, P., Städtler, C., & Huron, D. (2013). The psychological functions of music listening. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 , 511. Juslin, P. N., & Sloboda, J. A. (2010). Music and emotion. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 3-20). Oxford University Press. Thoma, M. V., La Marca, R., Brönnimann, R., Finkel, L., Ehlert, U., & Nater, U. M. (2013). The effect of music on the human stress response. PLOS ONE, 8 (8), e70156. Krause, A. E., North, A. C., & Heritage, B. (2023). The role of music listening in reducing stress and anxiety: A meta-analysis. PLOS ONE, 18 (1), e0281337 Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. Psychology of Music, 33 (2), 173-191. Lesiuk, T. (2012). The effect of music listening on work performance. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 55 (4), 282-290. Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. PLOS ONE, 8 (8), e70156. Miller, A. H., Haroon, E., Raison, C. L., & Felger, J. C. (2017). Cytokine targets in the brain: Impact on neurotransmitters and neurocircuits. The Lancet Neurology, 16 (11), 1013-1025. Project Gallery