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This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Summary of a liquid viscosity experiment Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 26/01/23 For this experiment the liquid viscosity of castor oil was determined by dropping steel spherical balls into a tube of castor oil. By considering the forces acting on the ball whilst in the fluid, it was found that the viscosity was 1.37±0.01 Pa s with a percentage error of 71.25% to the literature value of castor oil’s viscosity. This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, because as the particles slide past each other there will be work done to slide over another particle which will produce heat. For this experiment, laminar flow was a valid model for the sphere falling down the castor oil tube, because the terminal velocity of the sphere is quite small and was reached quickly so there will not be any turbulence effects. Laminar flow is defined when liquids flow smoothly with layers that do not mix, however when the layers do mix then the flow is turbulent with different layers of the fluid swirling and mixing. As the sphere was travelling through the fluid there were three forces acting on it: drag force, weight and buoyancy. This investigation can be furthered as viscosity is vital in the field of medicine. There are certain drugs that are directly injected into patients so by knowing the optimal path for the drug to be administered, the drug can reach the patient’s vital areas as quickly as possible. Overall, this experiment was interesting as it led to numerous insights as to what may have affected the motion of a sphere falling down the tube of a viscous fluid, regardless of the simplicity of the experiment. Even though the uncertainties did not overlap with the literature value and the percentage differences were very high (in part due to calculations of the momentum), the experiment was not a failure due to the scientific insight it provided to make a carry out a more accurate experiment. Written by Siam Sama Related article: Pendulum and its relation to gravity experiment

Contributions include artificial radioactive atoms, atomic structure, ribosome research Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Female Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry 02/05/25, 11:30 Last updated: Published: 03/06/23, 17:37 Contributions include artificial radioactive atoms, atomic structure, ribosome research Women contributing their innovative ideas has strengthened the knowledge held in the scientific world. It is important to realise that women in STEM need to be celebrated all year round – they need to be given the recognition they deserve. A total of 60 women have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2022. Specifically looking at the Female Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry – all of whom have changed the way society views women but also puts a spotlight on the progress that can still be made if we have more women in the field of STEM. There have been eight women to receive this prestigious award: Carolyn R. Bertozzi, Emmanuelle Charpentier, Jennifer A. Doudna, Frances H. Arnold, Ada E., Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Yonath, Irène Joliot-Curie and Marie Curie. This article celebrates their ground-breaking discoveries and contributions to the world of science and is a way to serve as an inspiration to young girls and women in the hope to raise a generation where more women are studying STEM subjects and acquiring high-ranked roles to reduce the gender gap. Nobel Prizes won in- 2022: Carolyn R. Bertozzi was awarded for her development of biorthogonal reactions which has allowed scientists to explore and track biological processes without disrupting the chemistry of the original cells. 2020: Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna were awarded for their development of a method for high-precision genome editing: CRISPR/Cas9 genetic scissors. They used the immune system of a bacterium, which disables viruses by cutting their DNA up with a type of genetic scissors. The CRISPR/Cas9 genetic scissors has led to many exciting discoveries and new ways to fight against cancer and genetic diseases. 2018: Frances Arnold was awarded because of her work on directed evolution of enzymes. In 1993, Arnold conducted the first directed evolution of enzymes, which are proteins that catalyse chemical reactions. This has led to the manufacturing of environmentally friendly chemical substances such as pharmaceuticals, and the production of renewable fuels. 2009: Ada Yonath was awarded the Nobel Prize for her studies on the structure and functions of the ribosome. In the 1970s, Ada began a project that concluded in her successful mapping of the structure of ribosomes, which consisted of thousands of atoms, using x-ray crystallography. This has been important in the production of antibiotics. 1964: Dorothy Hodgkin was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for solving the atomic structure of molecules such as penicillin and insulin, using X-ray crystallography. 1935: Irène Joliot-Curie was awarded for her discovery that radioactive atoms could be created artificially. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

The maths behind trading Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A comprehensive guide to the Relative Strength Index (RSI) 08/07/25, 14:37 Last updated: Published: 27/12/23, 11:02 The maths behind trading In this piece, we will delve into the essential concepts surrounding the Relative Strength Index (RSI). The RSI serves as a gauge for assessing the strength of price momentum and offers insights into whether a particular stock is in an overbought or oversold condition. Throughout this exploration, we will demystify the underlying calculations of RSI, explore its significance in evaluating market momentum, and unveil its practical applications for traders. From discerning opportune moments to buy or sell based on RSI values to identifying potential shifts in market trends, we will unravel the mathematical intricacies that underpin this critical trading indicator. Please note that none of the below content should be used as financial advice, but for educational purposes only. This article does not recommend that investors base their decisions on technical analysis alone. As indicated in the name, RSI measures the strength of a stock's momentum and can be used to show when a stock can be considered over- or under-bought, allowing us to make a more informed decision as to whether we should enter a position or hold off until a bit longer. It’s all very well and good to know that ‘you should buy when RSI is under 30 and sell when RSI is over 70' , but in this article, I will attempt to explain why this is the case and what RSI is really measuring. The calculations The relative strength index is an index of the relative strength of momentum in a market. This means that its values range from 0 to 100 and are simply a normalised relative strength. But what is the relative strength of momentum? Initial Average Gain = Sum of gains over the past 14 days / 14 Initial Average Loss = Sum of losses over the past 14 days / 14 Relative strength is the ratio of higher closes to lower closes. Over a fixed period of usually 14 days (but sometimes 21), we measure how much the price of the stock has increased in each trading day and find the mean average between them. We then repeat and do the same to find the average loss. The subsequent average gains and losses can then be calculated: Average Gain = [(Previous Avg. Gain * 13) + Current Day's Gain] / 14 Average Loss = [(Previous Avg. Loss * 13) + Current Day's Loss] / 14 With this, we can now calculate relative strength! Therefore, if our stock gained more than it lost in the past 14 days, then our RS value would be >1. On the other hand, if we lost more than we gained, then our RS value would be <1. Relative strength tells us whether buyers or sellers are in control of the price. If buyers were in control, then the average gain would be greater than the average loss, so the relative strength would be greater than 1. In a bearish market, if this begins to happen, we can say that there is an increase in buyers’ momentum; the momentum is strengthening. We can normalise relative strength into an index using the following equation: Relative Strength= Average Gain / Average Loss Traders then use the RSI in combination with other techniques to assess whether to buy or sell. When a market is ranging, which means that price is bouncing between support and resistance (has the same highs and lows for a period), we can use the RSI to see when we may be entering a trend. When the RSI is reaching 70, it is an indication that the price is being overbought, and in a ranging market, there is likely to be a correction and the price will fall so that the RSI stays at around 50. The opposite is likely to happen when the RSI dips to 30. Price action is deemed to be extreme, and a correction is likely. It should, however, be noted that this type of behaviour is only likely in assets presenting mean-reversion characteristics. In a trending market, RSI can be used to indicate a possible change in momentum. If prices are falling and the RSI reaches a low and then, a few days later, it reaches a higher low (therefore, the low is not as low as the first), it indicates a possible change in momentum; we say there is a bullish divergence. Divergences are rare when a stock is in a long-term trend but is nonetheless a powerful indicator. In conclusion, the relative strength index aims to describe changes in momentum in price action through analysing and comparing previous day's highs and lows. From this, a value is generated, and at the extremes, a change in momentum may take place. RSI is not supposed to be predictive but is very helpful in confirming trends indicated by other techniques. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

For centuries, we have been burning fossil fuels, polluting our oceans and participating in deforestation without a second thought. We have managed to understand the consequences this has had on our planet and have started to make movement in the right direction; but is it too late? Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Geoengineering: what is it and will it actually work? Last updated: 14/11/24 Published: 02/04/23 For centuries, we have been burning fossil fuels, polluting our oceans and participating in deforestation without a second thought. We have managed to understand the consequences this has had on our planet and have started to make movement in the right direction; but is it too late? In the past 50 years, we have warmed the planet at a rate of approximately 0.1°C per decade. It doesn’t sound like much but the effect this has is astronomical; increased drought, adverse weather conditions and a rising sea level to name a few of the consequences. People are aware of the damage we have caused, and there is thankfully a switching attitude towards our environment with the increased usage of renewable energies and technologies such as electric cars. The problem arises from the rate of this societal switch. It isn’t fast enough. We haven’t quite understood how to stop our reliance on farming animals, carbon dioxide emissions and polluting transport. What if we could disrupt the natural mechanisms of our planet, just as we did to cause this problem in the first place? Scientists have started to consider some dystopian sounding scenarios that are classed as ‘geoengineering’ techniques. There are two main branches of geoengineering: solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal. Solar radiation management is the more alien of the two categories, involving sending large mirrors into space that reflect sunlight or enhancing the natural ability of clouds to block radiation, called albedo enhancement. Greenhouse gas removal is more commonly heard of, and involves reducing the proportion of harmful gases, mainly carbon dioxide, in our atmosphere. This can be as simple as planting more trees to do this naturally, or having point source removal of carbon dioxide in factories, which means that the gases never enter the atmosphere. A difficult yet promising idea is the removal of carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere using a material that absorbs it directly, which could not only reduce the amount in the atmosphere, but could return us to anthropogenic atmosphere composition. The idea is interesting; to disrupt the naturally occurring processes with human intervention, which buys time for us to develop better renewable energy resources, biodegradable materials and a better attitude towards saving our planet. Theoretically, it seems reasonable however the concern is that with these techniques, we may continue to treat the environment with a lack of respect, since we would be creating a false sense of security. Furthermore, the technologies are large scale therefore we may not be able to model and test them sufficiently before implementation. They may not be successful or safe. The ideal scenario is to not need geoengineering, however we need to act fast to avoid its necessity. Written by Megan Martin Related article: How nuclear fusion holds the key to tackling climate change

Using the new technology AI to develop drugs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Artificial Intelligence in Drug Research and Discovery 09/07/25, 10:56 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 10:20 Using the new technology AI to develop drugs Drug research has been transformed by artificial intelligence (AI), which has become a game-changing technology in several industries. Only a small portion of potential drugs make it to the market after the lengthy and expensive traditional drug discovery process. A drug's discovery and development can take over ten years and cost an average of US$2.8 billion. Even then, nine out of 10 medicinal compounds fall short of passing regulatory approval and Phase II clinical trials. The use of AI in this process, however, has the potential to greatly improve effectiveness, accuracy, and success rates. Given that AI can help with rational drug design, support decision-making, identify the best course of treatment for a patient, including personalised medicines, manage the clinical data generated, and use it for future drug development, it is reasonable to assume that it will play a role in the development of pharmaceutical products from the laboratory bench to bedside table. There are several ways in which AI is currently being used to enhance the drug discovery process. One of the primary applications is virtual screening ( Figure 2 ), which involves using machine learning algorithms to analyse large libraries of chemical compounds and predict which ones are likely to be effective against a specific disease target. This can significantly reduce the time and cost required for drug discovery by narrowing down the number of compounds that need to be tested in the lab. Another way AI is being used in drug discovery is through generative models, which use deep learning algorithms to design molecules that are optimised for specific therapeutic targets. This approach can be used to design molecules that are effective against a specific target while also minimising toxicity or other undesirable properties. Data analysis is another area where AI can be applied in drug discovery. By analysing large datasets of biological and chemical information, AI can help researchers identify patterns and relationships that may be relevant to drug discovery. For example, AI can be used to analyse genomic data to identify potential drug targets or to analyse drug-drug interactions to identify potential safety issues. However, one of the main challenges is the need for high-quality data, as AI models rely on large amounts of data to make accurate predictions. Additionally, there is a risk that AI models may miss important insights or make incorrect predictions if the data used to train them is biased or incomplete. Nevertheless, the continued development of AI and its amazing tools seeks to lessen the difficulties experienced by pharmaceutical firms, impacting both the medication development process and the full lifecycle of the product, which may account for the rise in the number of start-ups in this industry. The importance of automation will increase as a result of using the most up-to-date AI-based technologies, which will not only shorten the time needed for products to reach the market but also enhance product quality, increase overall production process safety, and make better use of available resources while also being cost-effective. In conclusion, the use of AI in drug discovery has the potential to revolutionize the field and significantly improve the success rate of potential drug candidates. Despite the challenges and limitations, the continued research and development of AI in drug discovery will undoubtedly lead to faster, cheaper, and more accurate drug development. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: A breakthrough procedure in efficient drug discovery / AI in medicinal chemistry / AI advancing genetic disease diagnosis Project Gallery

In some cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Vertigo Last updated: 27/06/25, 14:06 Published: 03/07/25, 07:00 In some cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis Vertigo is a symptom characterised by the sensation of spinning or movement, affecting either the individual or their surroundings. Unlike dizziness, which involves a floating sensation, or imbalance, which reflects unsteadiness, vertigo conveys a distinct sense of motion. While it is not a condition in itself, vertigo often indicates an underlying issue and can range from mild to debilitating, significantly impairing balance and daily activities. Physiology of vertigo Physiologically, vertigo is primarily linked to the inner ear and the vestibular system, which is responsible for maintaining balance and spatial orientation. The vestibular apparatus consists of semicircular canals and otolith organs, which detect angular and linear movements, respectively. Dysfunction in these structures, or their neural pathways to the brainstem and cerebellum, can disrupt normal sensory input, causing vertigo. Symptoms ( Figure 1 ) may include a spinning sensation, nausea, vomiting, nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), sweating, and difficulty with balance. Triggers vary widely and may include head movements, changes in position, or even psychological stress. The underlying causes can be peripheral, such as inner ear disorders, or central, involving the brain or central nervous system. Causes and prevalence Vertigo is particularly common among middle-aged and older adults, where it presents a considerable risk of falls and associated injuries. This demographic is especially vulnerable due to age-related changes in the vestibular system, such as a decline in vestibular hair cells and neurons, as well as alterations in central pathways. Vestibular disorders are among the most frequent causes of vertigo episodes in the elderly, often contributing to a cycle of psychological distress and physical limitation. Anxiety and depressive syndromes further exacerbate this cycle by increasing fear of attacks and falls, ultimately limiting daily activities and lowering perceived quality of life. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of vertigo and is featured in multiple studies within the literature ( Figure 2 ). BPPV is typically triggered by changes in head position, leading to brief episodes of intense vertigo. Despite its prevalence, management can be challenging due to the nonspecific nature of symptoms and the diverse underlying causes. Polypharmacy, or the use of multiple medications, has also emerged as a significant factor in vertigo among older adults. Prescriptions involving several drugs, particularly antihypertensives and sedative hypnotics, have been linked to an increased likelihood of vertigo. Careful assessment of medication interactions and side effects during medical consultations is therefore essential. Metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and hypoglycaemia, also contribute to vertigo in some individuals. However, in a portion of cases, the exact cause of vertigo remains unidentified, highlighting the complexity of diagnosis. Conclusion As one of the most common and disabling symptoms in the elderly, vertigo requires comprehensive and individualised care. Understanding its underlying physiological mechanisms, as well as recognising the multifactorial influences such as medication use, psychological health, and metabolic disorders, is essential for effective management. By adopting an integrated approach that prioritises accurate diagnosis and targeted interventions, clinicians can improve both symptom control and overall quality of life for individuals affected by vertigo. Further research is needed to enhance treatment strategies and address the remaining gaps in knowledge. Written by Maria Z Kahloon Project Gallery

When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why bacteria are essential for human survival Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 13/04/23 When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. One reason for this is due to the critical role bacteria play in inducing the immune system against pathogenic threats. Upon viral infection, the interferon (IFN) defence system is initiated where the synthesis of antiviral cytokines is upregulated. Evidence suggests bacteria in the gut are capable of modulating the IFN system. They work by inducing macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells to express type 1 IFN, which in turn primes natural killer cells and prepares cytotoxic CD8+ T cells for action. Erttmann et al (2022) demonstrate that a depletion of the gut microbiota diminishes the cell signalling pathways modulated by these commensal bacteria. This causes a reduction in type 1 IFN production, and thus an impairment in the activation of NK and CD8+ T cells. As a result, the body becomes more susceptible to attack by viral infections and less able to defend itself. This highlights just how vital the role bacteria in our microbiome play in providing us with innate immunity against viral pathogens and protecting our health. This also brings attention to our use of antibiotics, and the potential negative effects they may have on the commensal bacteria residing in our body. Erttmann et al (2022) further showed that mice treated with a variety of antibiotics exhibited a major reduction in gut microbiota diversity, thus severely comprising their ability to fight off viral infections. Research like this is important in informing doctors to be sensible in their administration of antibiotics, as well as informing patients to not self-medicate and unnecessarily ingest antibiotics. Ultimately, the commensal bacteria living in our bodies play essential roles in protecting human health, and it is, therefore, vital we take the necessary steps to also protect these remarkable microorganisms in return. Written by Bisma Butt Related article: The rising threat of antibiotic resistance REFERENCES Erttmann, S.F., Swacha, P., Aung, K.M., Brindefalk, B., Jiang, H., Härtlova, A., Uhlin, B.E., Wai, S.N. and Gekara, N.O., 2022. The gut microbiota prime systemic antiviral immunity via the cGAS-STING-IFN-I axis. Immunity, 55(5), pp.847-861. Ganal, S.C., Sanos, S.L., Kallfass, C., Oberle, K., Johner, C., Kirschning, C., Lienenklaus, S., Weiss, S., Staeheli, P., Aichele, P. and Diefenbach, A., 2012. Priming of natural killer cells by nonmucosal mononuclear phagocytes requires instructive signals from commensal microbiota. Immunity, 37(1), pp.171-186.

Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia Last updated: 29/05/25, 10:38 Published: 29/05/25, 07:00 Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series on animal conservation. Previous article: Emperor penguins, kings of ice . First article: 55 years of vicuna conservation . Australia is home to many unique mammals because they have evolved in geographic isolation for millennia. Over 200 years ago, European colonists brought their own mammals to Australia, devastating this unique wildlife in ways that can still be seen today. One example is the rock-wallabies ( Petrogale spp. ), a group of 25 animal species and subspecies related to kangaroos. Australian scientists are monitoring rock-wallaby populations to ensure they remain safe from natural and human-caused threats. This article will describe those threats and how rock wallabies are being conserved. Rock-wallaby habitat As their name suggests, rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, including outcrops, cliffs and caves. Since they are primarily nocturnal, these habitats provide shelter in the daytime. Rock-wallabies have modified foot pads to grip tricky surfaces and access places their predators cannot. Recent research found that for two rock-wallaby species, their abundance is associated with more complex and rocky habitats. Because their habitat type is so niche and they rarely migrate, one small disturbance could wipe out an entire rock-wallaby population. This is reflected by their protections under Australian law: five types of rock-wallaby are classified as ‘vulnerable’, six as ‘endangered’, and one as ‘critically endangered’. Thus, the complex habitat of rock-wallabies is both a blessing and a curse. Threats to rock-wallabies Rock-wallabies are vulnerable or endangered mainly because of invasive predators such as foxes, cats, and goats. After being introduced from Europe during colonisation, these predators have eaten many wallabies and scared the rest into foraging elsewhere. If predators live between two rock-wallaby populations, there will be less migration and interbreeding, reducing overall genetic health ( Figure 1 ). In addition, rock-wallabies will not forage if predators are in an area, so they have limited food sources under high pressure ( Figure 1 ). Combined with these indirect reasons, direct predation by invasive mammals is the biggest threat to rock-wallaby survival. Invasive predators are not the only threats to rock-wallaby populations. Wildfires kill the plants that wallabies rely on for food and shelter, such as rock figs. For example, one wildfire in the 2019/2020 season destroyed about 38% of brush-tailed rock-wallaby habitat. The already dwindling rock-wallaby populations may disappear if the climate crisis makes wildfires less predictable and more severe. Native herbivores like the euro and invasive herbivores like goats may also compete with rock-wallabies for food. There is evidence that euros out-compete rock-wallabies when food supplies are limited, but no evidence for goats yet. Thus, fires and competition combine with invasive predators to endanger rock-wallabies. Translocation and monitoring Monitoring existing rock-wallaby populations and creating new ones by translocation are reducing the threats of predation, fire, and competition. Brush-tailed rock-wallabies were translocated to Grampians National Park in 2008, but most animals died by 2013. Scientists thought manually handling wallabies might make them stressed and more vulnerable to predators. From 2014 onwards, non-invasive monitoring procedures like cameras and faecal DNA monitoring reduced predation and increased the survival rate of young rock-wallabies. Meanwhile, black-flanked rock-wallabies were being translocated from four different source populations to Kalbarri National Park, hoping they would interbreed and create a new genetically diverse population. The project was successful, as microsatellite genotyping found that the translocated population had more heterozygotes and more alleles per locus than the source populations ( Figure 2 ). This population is predicted to grow until at least 2028 because it is diverse enough to avoid the inbreeding mentioned earlier. The Grampians and Kalbarri translocations show the importance of careful monitoring and genetic considerations for conserving rock-wallabies. Conclusion After invasive mammalian predators have decimated rock-wallaby populations throughout Australia for over 200 years, wildfires and herbivore competition make survival even more difficult. Conservation efforts are made harder by the specific and limited habitats that rock-wallabies need. However, translocation efforts which consider genetic diversity and the stress of manual handling keep rock-wallaby populations afloat. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Campbell, I. & Woods, S. (2013) Wildlife of Australia . Princeton, UNITED STATES: Princeton University Press. Kleemann, S., Sandow, D., Stevens, M., Schultz, D.J., Taggart, D.A. & Croxford, A. (2022) Non-invasive monitoring and reintroduction biology of the brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) in the Grampians National Park, Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology . 69 (2): 41–54. Available from: https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/ZO21009 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Lavery, T.H., Eldridge, M., Legge, S., Pearson, D., Southwell, D., Woinarski, J.C.Z., Woolley, L.-A. & Lindenmayer, D. (2021) Threats to Australia’s rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.) with key directions for effective monitoring. Biodiversity and Conservation . 30 (14): 4137–4161. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02315-3 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Morris, S.D., Johnson, C.N. & Brook, B.W. (2020) Roughing it: terrain is crucial in identifying novel translocation sites for the vulnerable brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale pencillata). Royal Society Open Science . 7 (12): 201603. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.201603 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Nilsson, K., Pearson, D., Paxman, M., Desmond, A., Kennington, J., Byrne, M. & Ottewell, K. (2023) Translocations restore a population of a threatened rock-wallaby and bolster its genetic diversity. Conservation Genetics . 24 (5): 547–561. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-023-01520-7 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Silcock, J.L., Gynther, I.C., Horsup, A., Molyneux, J., Wattz, T.L., Fairfax, R.J., Healy, A.J., Murphy, D. & McRae, P.D. (2024) Half a century of survey data reveal population recovery but persistent threats for the Vulnerable yellow-footed rock-wallaby in Queensland, Australia. Oryx . 1–13. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/half-a-century-of-survey-data-reveal-population-recovery-but-persistent-threats-for-the-vulnerable-yellowfooted-rockwallaby-in-queensland-australia/D976E61ABE458B9FADA059372117382E (Accessed 10th December 2024). Project Gallery

Causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hypertension: a silent threat to global health Last updated: 13/03/25, 11:38 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Introduction Did you know that hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a leading cause of premature death, affecting 1.28 billion adults aged 30-79 worldwide? According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), two-thirds of these individuals live in low and middle-income countries. Despite its widespread prevalence, many people remain undiagnosed as most cases are asymptomatic, and individuals are unaware they have the condition. Hypertension can lead to serious clinical manifestations such as heart disease. It can also cause eye retinopathy, causing vision problems and kidney damage, including proteinuria. It also contributes to vascular contributions like atherosclerosis, leading to stenosis and aneurysms. It also significantly raises the risk of stroke and heart failure (Figure 1 ). Addressing hypertension through early diagnosis, improved access to treatment and lifestyle changes is essential to reducing its global burden. This article aims to explore the causes, diagnosis and treatments. What drives hypertension? Hypertension is characterised by persistently elevated BP in the systemic arteries. Blood pressure is typically presented as a ratio: systolic BP, which measures the pressure on arterial walls during heart contraction, and diastolic BP, which reflects the pressure when the heart is at rest. Hypertension is diagnosed when the systolic blood pressure is 130 mmHg or higher and/or diastolic blood pressure exceeds 80 mmHg based on multiple readings taken over time ( Figure 2 ). In contrast, secondary hypertension occurs only in 5% of cases and is caused by an underlying condition, such as kidney disease, hormonal imbalances, or vascular problems. This form of hypertension is often reversible if the underlying cause is treated. Common causes of secondary hypertension include chronic kidney disease, polycystic kidney disease, hormone excess (such as aldosterone and cortisol), vascular issues like renovascular stenosis and certain medications. Drugs that can cause secondary hypertension include chronic use of non-steroidal inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antidepressants and oral contraceptives. Hypertension, regardless of its cause, can be exacerbated by certain health behaviours, including excessive dietary salt, a sedentary lifestyle, heavy alcohol consumption, and diets low in essential nutrients, such as potassium. These factors contribute to the development and worsening of high blood pressure. However, blood pressure can be improved by reversing these behaviours, as well as following a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, which helps to mitigate the negative impact on blood pressure. Spotting hypertension: how it is diagnosed Hypertension is usually detected when blood pressure (BP) is measured during regular checkups. Since it often doesn’t show symptoms, all adults must check their BP regularly. The most common way to diagnose hypertension is by measuring BP several times in a doctor’s office. To get an accurate reading, BP must be measured carefully. Since BP can vary throughout the day, multiple measurements are needed. Doctors have recently started using home BP monitoring (HBPM) and ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) to check BP outside of the office. ABPM records BP every 20-30 minutes over 24 hours, while HBPM lets patients measure BP at home. These methods help identify conditions like 'white coat hypertension' (high BP in the doctor’s office but normal at home) or 'masked hypertension' (normal BP at the doctor’s office but high at home). When diagnosing hypertension, doctors also look for other health issues related to high BP, such as heart disease or kidney problems. If high BP is sudden or difficult to control, doctors may suspect secondary hypertension, which is caused by another condition, like kidney disease or hormonal imbalances. A thorough medical history is essential. This includes asking about past BP readings, medications, and lifestyle factors such as smoking and diet. Doctors also check for other risk factors like diabetes or high cholesterol, increasing heart disease risk. A physical exam helps confirm the diagnosis of hypertension and checks for any damage to organs like the heart and kidneys. BP should be measured on both arms and if there's a significant difference in readings, further tests may be needed. If necessary, doctors may also check for conditions like atrial fibrillation or perform ultrasounds to look for heart or kidney problems. Blood tests can also help identify risk factors, confirm or rule out secondary hypertension, and assess overall heart health. Managing hypertension, from lifestyle changes to medications Studies show that weight loss can reduce systolic blood pressure by 5 to 20 mmHg, making it an effective strategy for managing hypertension. However, the exact "ideal" body weight or Body Mass Index (BMI) for controlling blood pressure is not clearly defined, but small weight reductions can make a difference. Reducing salt intake, staying active, and managing sleep apnoea also help. While smoking does not directly raise blood pressure, quitting reduces long-term heart risks. Overall, lifestyle changes alone can cut cardiovascular events by up to 15%. Most national and international guidelines recommend the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), calcium channel blockers (CCBs), and thiazide or thiazide-like diuretics as first-line pharmacological treatments for hypertension. Conclusion Hypertension is a prevalent and often silent condition with serious health consequences, including heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure. Its widespread impact on global health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, underscores the importance of early diagnosis and proactive management. While lifestyle modifications are crucial in managing blood pressure, medications remain essential for many individuals. By raising awareness, promoting regular blood pressure checks, and ensuring access to both preventative and therapeutic measures, we can reduce the burden of hypertension and improve long-term health outcomes globally. Written by Michelle Amoah Related article: Cardiac regeneration REFERENCES Iqbal, A. M., and Jamal, S. F. (2023). Essential hypertension. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from [ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539859/ ] Schmieder, R. E. (2010). End Organ Damage In Hypertension. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2010.0866 Touyz, R. M., Camargo, L. L., Rios, F. J., Alves-Lopes, R., Neves, K. B., Eluwole, O., Maseko, M. J., Lucas-Herald, A., Blaikie, Z., Montezano, A. C., and Feldman, R. D. (2022). Arterial Hypertension. In Comprehensive Pharmacology (pp. 469–487). Elsevier. World Health Organization. (2023). Hypertension. Retrieved [24th January 2025], from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hypertension Project Gallery

How chemistry ensures nuclear safety standards Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Silent Protectors 04/07/25, 12:58 Last updated: Published: 30/01/24, 20:12 How chemistry ensures nuclear safety standards Nuclear safety is vital in ensuring the correct procedures and policies are in place whilst handling radioactive waste/ materials. This article will go into the crucial role that chemistry plays in upholding and enhancing nuclear safety standards, highlighting its multifaceted contributions to the protection of both people and the environment. Chemical Analysis in Radioactive Material Detection The use of many analytical tools in chemistry allows us to detect radioactive material and quantify these materials. The most popular techniques used are chromatography, spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy in chemically identifying these materials. We can use these techniques to early identify any hazardous implications of the materials and in warning symbols. Radiation Dosimetry and Health Protection Dosimetry is the scientific radiation dose determined by calculations and multiple measurements. The different techniques used to make these values are different types of chemical dosimeters are used such as solid, aqueous, and gases but the most important among all are aqueous dosimeters. Beyond this, it contributes to the creation of protective materials and gear, safeguarding the health of workers in nuclear environments. These advancements exemplify safety on a personal level. Chemical Processes in Nuclear Fuel Cycles Chemistry ensures the sustainable use of nuclear energy, maximises fuel efficiency, and reduces nuclear waste. The future of nuclear power could be cleaner and more efficient with the help of innovations in this field. The main stages are uranium mining and processing, enrichment of uranium, nuclear reactor fuel fabrication and innovations in fuel cycle chemistry. Understanding and optimising these chemical processes within the nuclear fuel cycle is paramount for ensuring the sustainability, safety, and efficiency of nuclear energy production. Chemistry continues to be a driving force in advancing these processes, contributing to the responsible harnessing of the atom for the benefit of society. Regulatory Compliance and Standards International and national standards for nuclear safety are underpinned by chemical principles. Chemistry not only ensures compliance with these standards but also drives initiatives to exceed regulatory requirements, setting new benchmarks for safety in the nuclear industry. The government website has a document full of policies in place to ensure all standards are met universally. In conclusion, the silent protectors remain vigilant, their contributions often unseen but undeniably crucial. Chemistry's enduring commitment to nuclear safety ensures that as we unlock the vast potential of nuclear energy, we do so with a profound sense of responsibility, guided by the silent but unwavering hand of chemical expertise. In this symbiotic relationship, chemistry and nuclear energy coalesce to forge a path towards a safer, cleaner, and more sustainable future. Written by Anam Ahmed Related articles: Nuclear fusion / Nuclear medicine / Advances in mass spectrometry Project Gallery