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Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101: what are the different types of epilepsy seizures? Last updated: 29/04/25, 16:09 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness After previously covering a very generic overview into epilepsy – what it is, its different types, methods of diagnosis and treatment, it would be a good idea to really delve deeper into the different types of seizures. Are they just convulsions, shaking and losing consciousness? Or is there more to it? Read more to find out! But before we begin, it is important to cover some key terms and prefixes, to help us with understanding what the different types of seizures are: Myo-: muscle Clonic: repeated jerking Tonic: muscle stiffness Atonic: muscles become limp Motor: movement From our previous article , we know that the two main types of epilepsy are generalised and focal epilepsy. Each type of epilepsy has different types of seizures associated with it. Generalised epilepsy – it consists of 2 main types of seizures (motor and non-motor seizures): 1) Generalised Motor Seizures: Involves changes in muscle activity, where they either move abnormally, or don’t move at all. This includes: Myoclonic seizures: sudden body jerks (especially the hands or the legs) as if someone had been jolted with electricity. Tonic - Clonic (Grand mal) seizures: This seizure has 2 main phases – a tonic and clonic stage:- Initial tonic (stiffness) phase is followed by a clonic (repeated, uncontrolled jerking of the limbs) phase. During the 'tonic' phase, the person may become unconscious and fall to the floor. In the 'clonic' phase, the person might struggle to breathe or uncontrollably bite their tongue. This is probably the ‘typical’ seizure everyone thinks of when they hear about epilepsy! Atonic seizures: The muscles become limp, and the person might even collapse. 2) Generalised non-motor seizures: They are usually also referred to as 'absence seizures', and they don’t include any changes in muscle activity. Instead, the person might stare into space, and might have a pause in activity, or a repetition in movements, such as lip-smacking for around 15 seconds or less. The individual may not remember what happened during the seizure; however their normal state of alertness is regained immediately after. People might easily confuse this type of seizure with daydreaming! Focal epilepsy- This is split into 4 main types based on whether the person is aware of their seizure, and if there are any changes in muscle activity involved: 1) Focal awareness seizures: Patient is fully aware of what is happening during a seizure, even if they are unable to move or respond. Some people might experience an "aura" as a warning before this seizure. This could feel like a strange sensation, fear, euphoria, a sense of déjà vu, feeling that something bad is about to happen, visual changes or even tingling or stiffness in their body. 2) Focal impaired awareness seizures: The person isn’t aware of their seizure, nor can they remember having it, and can’t respond to anyone during the seizure. The seizure can include movements such as moving their hands and legs or making random noises. 3) Focal Motor Seizures: involves random muscle activity, such as twitching, stiffness, limpness, or other movements such as rubbing hands, lip-smacking and walking around. 4) Focal Non-motor Seizures: no muscle movements or stiffness (as this is a non-motor seizure), but there is a change in a patient’s feelings and thoughts, causing strange feelings, a racing heart, and waves of heat or cold. Now that we’ve covered the key seizures, what triggers epilepsy seizures, causing those lights in the city (which in this case, is our brain) to start flickering or shut completely? There are many different causes, and they vary from one person to another. They could include: Stress Lack of sleep Drinking alcohol Consuming illegal drugs Not taking your anti-seizure medication (ASMs) Some types of medication Menstrual Cycle and hormonal changes Flashing lights (for individuals with photosensitive epilepsy) Photosensitive epilepsy is epilepsy that is triggered by flashing of lights, causing seizures such as myoclonic seizures. It is interesting to see how many people hold the misconception that seizures are mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness, when in fact there’s a huge variety of seizure! It is important that we know what different seizures look like, so we could help these individuals appropriately. Don’t be afraid to read further about epilepsy and seizures, and how to help people out there! Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Epilepsy 101 (overview) / Traumatic brain injuries REFERENCES Dhanyamraju, S. (2019). What is a Seizure? - Lone Star Neurology . [online] Lone Star Neurology. Available at: https://lonestarneurology.net/seizures/seizures/ . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Ditki medical & biological sciences. (n.d.). Neurological System Glossary: Tonic-Clonic Seizure . [online] Available at: https://ditki.com/course/neurological-system/glossary/eeg-findings/tonic-clonic-seizure . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Epilepsy action (2022). Focal seizures | Epilepsy Action . [online] www.epilepsy.org.uk . Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/seizures/focal-seizures [Accessed 18 Dec. 2024]. John Hopkins Medicine (n.d.). Generalized Seizures . [online] Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/generalized-seizures#:~:text=Generalized%20seizures%20include%20absence%2C%20atonic [Accessed 17 Dec.2024]. NHS (2020). Symptoms - Epilepsy . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/symptoms/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2024]. Project Gallery

Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The secret to disarming plant pathogens revealed Last updated: 22/09/25, 10:14 Published: 27/03/25, 08:00 Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Unravelling the role of bacterial proteins in plant diseases! Disarming plant diseases one protein at a time! Scientists may have found a means to neutralise them, saving farmers $220 billion in yearly crop losses. The impact of plant diseases on global food production Bacteria have long been known to wreak havoc on crops, threatening our food supply and causing substantial economic losses. For over two decades, biologist Sheng-Yang He and his dedicated team have been delving into the mysterious world of bacterial proteins, seeking to unravel their role in plant diseases that plague countless crops worldwide. Finally, a breakthrough has been achieved after years of tireless research and collaboration. In a groundbreaking study published in the esteemed journal Nature, he and his colleagues have uncovered the mechanisms by which these proteins induce disease in plants and devised a method to neutralise their harmful effects. Understanding the mechanism of harmful proteins Their investigation focused on a group of injected proteins called AvrE/DspE, responsible for causing diseases ranging from brown spots in beans to fire blight in fruit trees. Despite their significance, the exact workings of these proteins have long remained elusive. The researchers discovered that these proteins adopt a unique 3D structure resembling a tiny mushroom with a cylindrical stem through cutting-edge advancements in artificial intelligence and innovative experimental techniques. Intriguingly, this structure resembled a straw, leading the team to hypothesise that the proteins create channels in plant cells, enabling the bacteria to extract water from the host during infection. Further investigation into the 3D model of the fire blight protein revealed that its hollow inner core contains many proteins from the AvrE/DspE family. These proteins were found to suppress the plant's immune system and induce dark water-soaked spots on leaves, the telltale signs of infection. However, armed with this newfound knowledge, the researchers sought to develop a strategy to disarm these proteins and halt their destructive effects. They turned to poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM), tiny spherical nanoparticles with precise diameters that can be tailored in the lab. By experimenting with different sizes, they identified a nanoparticle that effectively blocked the water channels formed by the bacterial proteins. Application of nanoparticles in blocking water channels In a remarkable series of experiments, the researchers treated frog eggs engineered to produce the water channel protein with these channel-blocking nanoparticles. The results were astounding—the eggs no longer swelled with water and remained unaffected. Similarly, infected Arabidopsis plants treated with the nanoparticles significantly reduced pathogen concentrations, effectively preventing disease development. This breakthrough discovery offers a glimmer of hope in the battle against plant diseases, which cause immense losses in global food production. Plants are responsible for 80% of the world's food supply, and protecting them from pathogens and pests is crucial for ensuring food security. The team's groundbreaking research on plant pathogens and their harmful proteins opens up new possibilities for combating various plant diseases. The implications of their findings extend far beyond a single crop or disease, offering novel approaches to address a wide range of plant diseases. By understanding the mechanism by which bacterial proteins, such as AvrE and DspE, cause diseases in plants, researchers can now explore strategies to disarm these proteins and prevent their harmful effects. The team discovered that these proteins act as water channels, allowing bacteria to invade plant cells and create a saturated environment that promotes their growth. This insight led to the development of channel-blocking nanoparticles, effectively preventing bacteria from infecting plants and causing disease symptoms. Using precise nanoparticles, such as PAMAM dendrimers, to block plant pathogens' water channels represents a promising avenue for crop protection. Figure 1: this figure shows that PAMAM are very branched polymers that are very small, have a low polydispersity index, and have a lot of active amine functional groups. They have multiple modifiable surface functionalities, facilitating the conjugation of ligands for cancer targeting, imaging, and therapy. PAMAM dendrimers also have solubilisation, high drug encapsulation, and passive targeting ability, contributing to their therapeutic success. Cancer researchers are excited about their potential as drug carriers and non-viral gene vectors, with a focus on diagnostic imaging applications. These nanoparticles can be tailored to specific diameters, allowing for targeted disruption of the bacterial proteins' channels. The nanoparticles effectively render the bacteria harmless by interfering with the proteins' ability to create a moist environment within plant cells. This innovative approach has shown success in combating diseases caused by pathogens like Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia amylovora . Implications for global food production and food security The potential impact of this research on global food production is immense. Plant diseases result in significant crop losses, amounting to over 10% of global food production annually. This translates to a staggering $220 billion economic loss worldwide. Developing strategies to disarm harmful proteins and protect crops from diseases can mitigate these losses and enhance food security. Furthermore, the team's findings highlight the critical role of plant biology research in addressing global challenges. Plants provide 80% of our food, making their health and protection crucial for sustaining our growing population. By understanding how pathogens infect plants and developing innovative solutions, we can safeguard our food supply and reduce the economic impact of crop diseases. Experimental results and a promising outlook The researchers aim to further investigate the interaction between channel-blocking nanoparticles and bacterial proteins. By visualising the structures and mechanisms involved, they hope to refine their designs and develop even more effective strategies for crop protection. Additionally, artificial intelligence, such as the AlphaFold2 programme, has proven instrumental in predicting the 3D structures of complex proteins. Continued advancements in AI technology will undoubtedly contribute to further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases. By unravelling the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, we can protect global food production and enhance food security. The implications of this research extend beyond a single crop or disease, paving the way for novel approaches to combat a wide range of plant diseases and safeguard our agricultural systems. Conclusion The groundbreaking research conducted by biologist Sheng-Yang He and his team offer hope in the fight against plant diseases. By revealing the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, they have paved the way for novel approaches to combat various plant diseases. This enhances food security and protects global food production, reducing economic losses and ensuring a sustainable future. With continued advancements in artificial intelligence and the development of precise nanoparticles, the possibilities for further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases are endless. By safeguarding our agricultural systems, we can secure the health of our crops and, ultimately, the well-being of our growing population. The implications of this research extend far beyond agriculture, offering new avenues for addressing global challenges and paving the way for a brighter and more resilient future. Figure 2: this figure shows a working model for the molecular actions of AvrE-family effectors in plants. AvrE-family effectors are water- and solute-permeable channels that change the osmotic and water potential and make an apoplast that is rich in water and nutrients for bacteria to grow in plant tissues that are infected. They can also engage host proteins to modulate AvrE-family channel properties or optimise pathogenic outcomes. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Nanomedicine / Mechanisms of pathogen evasion / Nanocarriers REFERENCE Kinya Nomura, Felipe Andreazza, Jie Cheng, Ke Dong, Pei Zhou, Sheng Yang He. Bacterial pathogens deliver water- and solute-permeable channels to plant cells. Nature , 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06531-5 Project Gallery

How your gut is your second brain (an opinion piece) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Microbes in charge Last updated: 16/06/25, 16:09 Published: 26/06/25, 07:00 How your gut is your second brain (an opinion piece) Imagine this: you have just won ten million dollars in the lottery, or you have just eaten the most delicious, warm, chocolate brownie. In these situations, our brains produce chemicals called neurotransmitters, which give us these great feelings of pleasure and happiness. Now, imagine this: you're about to sit an exam. In this situation, our brains, instead, produce different chemicals, making us feel stressed and anxious. Our emotions control the highs and lows of life. I have always heard that the brain inside all of us controls everything that we feel, think and do. However, I've always found it strange that every feeling, thought, and behaviour is controlled by a three-pound, soggy lump of cells inside our heads, until I learned about gut microbiota. We each have a second brain, which controls as much of our physical and mental functions as the brain in our heads, and plays a role in preventing diseases. This second brain is our gut microbiota. However, we have completely underestimated their role as the second brain. I learned this first through the intriguing story of the rat. If the rat becomes colonised with the microbe Toxoplasma gondii, a fascinating thing happens: they lose their fear of cats. The cat's smell was chosen as a measure. The infected rat preferred the areas that had the smell of cats. So, the microbes take control of the brain and change the way you think. In another study, a research group at University College Cork in Ireland fed Lactobacillus rhamnosus , a good bacteria—or 'probiotic' you can usually find in yoghurt—to one of two groups of mice. The probiotic mice were much more likely to succeed in the face of adversity tests than those not treated with the probiotic. They repeated a similar study in humans, with the probiotic-fed humans displaying improved resilience to negative emotions compared to those without the probiotic. As I mentioned earlier, neurotransmitters are these chemicals that can change how we think, behave, and feel. As it turns out, neurotransmitters are also produced in our gut, 50% of the dopamine and 90% of serotonin (nature's antidepressant): two neurotransmitters that drastically affect your mood, happiness and pleasure. According to some studies, dopamine also plays a role in memory and learning, so gut microbiota controls how you think and behave and is also involved in cognitive functions like memory and learning. Let’s now turn to mental health! One study by Venket Rao studied 39 individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome (a syndrome characterised by severe anxiety, depression, and long-term exhaustion), split the individuals into two groups. The first group received a bacterial strain for two months while the other group received only a placebo. The group that received the bacterial strain showed a significant decrease in anxiety with respect to the other group. Noticeably, there is a vital link between the gut microbiota and the immune system. 70-80% of immune cells are present in the gut. Additionally, studies have shown that Germ-free mice have fewer immune system structures in their intestines than wild-type mice. These immune structures in the gut are referred to as the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) and Peyer's patches. Another study explored the gut microbiota of 42 patients affected by Rheumatoid Arthritis and 10 healthy controls. They observed that rheumatoid arthritis patients have a higher population of Lactobacillaceae family and the Lactobacillus genus, and fewer Faecalibacterium , a butyrate producer. Butyrate is the fuel source for our intestinal cells to produce mucin, which then repairs the intestinal lining and mucosal membrane and reduces inflammation. Our gut and brain are physically and biochemically connected in several ways. First, our intestines are physically linked to our brain through the vagus nerve, which sends signals in both directions. Interestingly, even if this is cut off (severed), our intestines can continue to function fully without a connection to the brain, suggesting they have a mind of their own. Secondly, our brains are made up of a hundred billion neurons, which continuously send messages to tell our bodies how to work and behave. Well, interestingly, our guts have a hundred million neurons. Our gut microbiota, the unsung hero behind our feelings, thoughts, immune system and behaviour - proving that sometimes, it's not just all in our heads, but in our "guts" too! Written by Prabha Rana Related articles: The gut microbiome / The dopamine connection REFERENCES Webster J. P. (2007). The effect of Toxoplasma gondii on animal behavior: playing cat and mouse. Schizophrenia bulletin , 33 (3), 752–756. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbl073 Bravo, J. A., Forsythe, P., Chew, M. V., Escaravage, E., Savignac, H. M., Dinan, T. G., Bienenstock, J., & Cryan, J. F. (2011). Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 108 (38), 16050–16055. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1102999108 Strandwitz P. (2018). Neurotransmitter modulation by the gut microbiota. Brain research , 1693 (Pt B), 128–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2018.03.015 Rao, A. V., Bested, A. C., Beaulne, T. M., Katzman, M. A., Iorio, C., Berardi, J. M., & Logan, A. C. (2009). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of a probiotic in emotional symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome. Gut pathogens , 1 (1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-4749-1-6 Wiertsema, S. P., van Bergenhenegouwen, J., Garssen, J., & Knippels, L. M. J. (2021). The Interplay between the Gut Microbiome and the Immune System in the Context of Infectious Diseases throughout Life and the Role of Nutrition in Optimizing Treatment Strategies. Nutrients , 13 (3), 886. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030886 Round, J. L., & Mazmanian, S. K. (2009). The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease. Nature reviews. Immunology , 9 (5), 313–323. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2515 Picchianti Diamanti, A., Panebianco, C., Salerno, G., Di Rosa, R., Salemi, S., Sorgi, M. L., Meneguzzi, G., Mariani, M. B., Rai, A., Iacono, D., Sesti, G., Pazienza, V., & Laganà, B. (2020). Impact of Mediterranean Diet on Disease Activity and Gut Microbiota Composition of Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients. Microorganisms , 8 (12), 1989. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8121989 Han, Y., Wang, B., Gao, H., He, C., Hua, R., Liang, C., … Xu, J. (2022). Vagus Nerve and Underlying Impact on the Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis in Behavior and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Journal of Inflammation Research , 15 , 6213–6230. https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S384949 Project Gallery

The lunar terrain Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A love letter from outer space: Lonar Lake, India Last updated: 09/10/25, 10:05 Published: 10/04/25, 07:00 The lunar terrain Around 50,000 years ago, outer space gifted the earth with a crater that formed the foundations of the world’s third largest natural saltwater lake, situated within a flat volcanic area known as the Deccan Plateau. This resulted from a 2 million tonne meteorite tunnelling through the earth’s atmosphere at the velocity of 90,000km/hour and colliding into the Deccan Plateau. As time slipped away, pressure and heat melted the basalt rock tucked underneath the impact, and the accumulation of rainwater filled the crater with water. These foundations curated what is famously known today as the ‘Lonar Lake’. What is unique about the Lonar Lake is that it is the only meteorite-crater formed in basaltic terrain - synonymous to a lunar terrain. Additionally, the remnants bear similarities to the terrestrial composition of Mercury, which contains craters, basaltic rock and smooth plains resulting from volcanic activity. Many speculations have arisen to prove the theory of the crater forming from the impact of a meteorite. One such collaborative study conducted by The Smithsonian Institute of Washington D.C. USA, the Geological Survey of India and the US Geological Survey involved drilling holes at the bottom of the crater and scrutinising the compositions of rock samples sourced from the mining. When tested in the laboratory, it was found that the rock samples contained leftovers of the basaltic rock that were modified from the crater collision under high heat and pressure. In addition, shattered cone-shaped fractures, due to high velocity shock waves being transmitted into the rocks, were identified. These two observations align with the meteorite impact phenomenon. Additionally, along with its fascinating astronomical properties, scientists have been intrigued by the chemical composition of the lake within the crater. Its dark green colour results from the presence of the blue-green algae Spirulina. The water also has a pH of 10, making the water alkaline in nature, supporting the development of marine systems. One explanation for the alkalinity of the water is that it is a result of immediate sulphide formation, where the groundwater of meteorite origin contains CO2 undergoes a precipitation reaction with alkaline ions, leaving a carbonate precipitate with an alkaline nature. What is also striking about the composition of the water as well is its saline nature, which coexists with the alkaline environment - a rare phenomenon to occur in ecological sciences. The conception of the lake, from the matrimony of Earth with the debris within outer space, has left its imprints within the physical world. It's a love letter, written in basaltic stone and saline water, fostering innovation in ecology. The inscription of the meteorite’s journey within the crater has branched two opposing worlds, one originating millions of miles away from humans with one that resides in the natural grounds of our souls. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related articles: Are aliens on Earth? / JWST / The celestial blueprint of time: Stonehenge REFERENCES Taiwade, V. S. (1995). A study of Lonar lake—a meteorite-impact crater in basalt rock. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India, 23, 105–111. Tambekar, D. H., Pawar, A. L., & Dudhane, M. N. (2010). Lonar Lake water: Past and present. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 9(2), 217–221. Project Gallery

The size-advantage hypothesis, protogyny and protandry Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why some fish change sex during their lifetimes Last updated: 11/09/25, 14:28 Published: 09/10/25, 07:00 The size-advantage hypothesis, protogyny and protandry Transphobes claim that in nature, there are only two sexes which are fixed from birth. There are many reasons why they are wrong, such as how some fish and invertebrates change sex over their lifetimes. There are 305 species of sex-changing fish, but this article will only describe four: two where individuals transition from female to male, and two which do the opposite. Though ‘transgender’ is not the technical word to describe these fish, they prove that not only is changing sex a normal phenomenon, but natural selection has chosen it many times. Why would natural selection favour sex changes? Sex change usually evolves when it is beneficial for an animal to be one sex when smaller and younger, and the opposite sex when larger and older ( Figure 1 ). This is called the size-advantage hypothesis. In harems, where one male mates with many females, bigger males get the best harems, so they are the most successful. Female-to-male transitions, called protogyny, are expected in this situation – the biggest female changes sex to replace the dominant male in a harem. Bigger females have higher reproductive success in monogamous species, favouring male-to-female transitions called protandry. However, different sexes may have different growth and mortality rates. Sex change evolves in fish if the reproductive benefit of changing sex outweighs any survival costs. Protogynous sex change in wrasses Some fish in the wrasse family start off female and later change to male, which is called protogyny. A 1972 study on Labroides dimidatus wrasses found that when the dominant male in their harem died, the biggest female changed sex to replace it. This transitioning fish could perform the male aggressive display within 2 hours of the previous male dying. It took a few days for the reproductive organs of the new dominant fish to change from female to male completely. If a neighbouring dominant male took over the harem before the dominant female could fully transition, she would de-transition back into a female. According to a 1996 study, Thalassoma bifasciatum wrasses do something similar. Within 2 days of artificially removing the male from the harem, the dominant female was coloured like a male and doing courtship behaviours like a male would. After 4-5 days, these behaviours were at the same frequency as control males. The ovaries of the dominant females in this study were surgically removed, so those behavioural sex changes happened without hormonal influence from the ovaries. Therefore, wrasses can both biologically and socially transition from female to male. Protandrous sex change in anemonefish In contrast, anemonefish transition from male to female. As the size-advantage hypothesis predicts, societies of the Amphiprion bicinctus fish consist of a monogamous breeding pair and many juveniles. If the breeding female dies, the breeding male changes sex to replace her, and a juvenile develops into the new breeding male. Male reproductive tissue shrinks during the protandrous transition, and the ovary proliferates, although the egg cells do not mature ( Figure 2 ). Gene expression in the ovaries of transitioned fish had an intermediate profile between the reproductive organs of control male and female fish. In 2022, researchers investigated the timing of sex change in a different anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris . In this species, two male fish fight when paired and whoever wins changes to a female. Winners had higher testosterone levels than losers, and intermediate levels of sex hormones between control males and females. Sex-changing winners were behaviourally and hormonally more similar to males, even after their reproductive organs had completely switched to females. This means the almost instant changes in wrasses take much longer in anemonefish. Conclusion Sex-changing fish make the most of an opportunity to advance in society – changing their behaviours, organs, and hormone levels to become the dominant breeding fish. Anemonefish and wrasses change sex in opposite directions and at different rates following a disturbance in the social order. With sex changes in fish being social and biological processes, perhaps we should view human sex changes similarly. If anyone thinks transgender people go against biology, not only are they wrong, but changing sex is beneficial and selected for in nature. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Munday, P., Buston, P. and Warner, R. (2006) Diversity and flexibility of sex-change strategies in animals. Trends in Ecology & Evolution . 21(2), 89–95. Casas, L. and Saborido-Rey, F. (2021) Environmental Cues and Mechanisms Underpinning Sex Change in Fish. Sex Dev . 15(1–3), 108–121. Casas, L., Saborido-Rey, F., Ryu, T., Michell, C., et al. (2016) Sex Change in Clownfish: Molecular Insights from Transcriptome Analysis. Sci Rep . 6(1), 35461. Godwin, J., Crews, D. and Warner, R. R. (1996) Behavioural sex change in the absence of gonads in a coral reef fish. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B . 263(1377), 1683–1688. Parker, C. G., Lee, J. S., Histed, A. R., Craig, S. E., et al. (2022) Stable and persistent male-like behavior during male-to-female sex change in the common clownfish Amphiprion ocellaris. Hormones and Behavior . 145, 105239. Pla, S., Maynou, F. and Piferrer, F. (2021) Hermaphroditism in fish: incidence, distribution and associations with abiotic environmental factors. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries . 31(4), 935–955. Robertson, D. R. (1972) Social Control of Sex Reversal in a Coral-Reef Fish. Science . 177(4053), 1007–1009. Project Gallery

Simplifying light: photons, wave-particle duality and the Observer Effect Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Light: one of the biggest mysteries in physics Last updated: 20/10/25, 14:28 Published: 23/10/25, 07:00 Simplifying light: photons, wave-particle duality and the Observer Effect Light is one of those few topics where physicists have to say, ‘We don’t yet know why it is the way it is, we just know that it is that way.’ Let’s start simple. Question 1: What is light? When we think of light, we automatically think of visible light- what we can see with our eyes. But that is only 0.0035% of the total light, or electromagnetic, spectrum. The rest of the spectrum includes non-visible light, such as infrared radiation (what we feel as heat), x-rays (what the medical field’s X-ray machine uses to capture images of bones) or ultraviolet radiation (what causes sunburn). Every kind of light is made up of photons. They are tiny little pockets of energy that travel across space at 3 x 10 8 meters/second at different wavelengths and frequencies. Imagine someone tosses you a tennis ball, but instead of it travelling straight towards you, it oscillates up and down in a wave pattern as it travels. If you take a measurement from peak to peak, this distance is called a wavelength. The tennis ball can move up and down in the wave pattern at different speeds. This speed is called the frequency. Photons can travel at different wavelengths and different frequencies depending on where it originated. The unique wavelength and frequency pair of each photon determines what kind of light it is- where it falls on the electromagnetic spectrum. For example, photons with much shorter wavelengths and therefore much higher frequencies fall towards the right-hand side of the spectrum and are likely gamma-rays or x-rays. On the other hand, photons with much longer wavelengths and much lower frequencies are on the left-hand side, meaning the photons are probably radio waves or microwaves. So far, so good. All of this makes sense, and physicists are fairly confident in this information. So, what’s the problem? Question 2: Why is light so problematic? The trouble with light is its behaviour. Remember those little pockets of energy that move up and down in a wave pattern? Well, that’s not exactly what happens. Light has a property that physicists call ‘wave-particle duality’, which is a fancy term for meaning that sometimes light behaves like a particle (photons) and other times it behaves like a wave. When it behaves as a wave, we get the electromagnetic spectrum. As mentioned above, the wave can have different peak-to-peak lengths and travelling speeds that we read as different types of light across the spectrum. But when the photon behaves as a particle, we get this tiny pocket of energy rocketing across the cosmos. It is the fastest thing in the known universe. To understand the difference a little bit better, imagine you put the tennis ball in one of those pitching machines used for baseball players to practice their swing. It shoots the ball straight out of the front in a direct line and incredibly fast. This is light acting like a photon particle. Now, imagine you and a friend have a rope and each of you are holding on to either end. Your friend starts swinging their end up and down creating waves that travel down the rope towards you. The faster your friend swings their end, the faster the waves travel and the smaller the peak-to-peak distances (wavelengths) of the waves get, and vice versa if your friend slowly swings their end. This is light acting like a wave. The tricky bit is that physicists don’t know why the same pocket of energy can act like a photon particle in one instance, yet like a wave in another! The famous Double-Slit Experiment performed by Thomas Young in 1801 demonstrated this behaviour. Since then, the physics sub-field of quantum mechanics has developed and physicists now think that this behaviour is because of what they call the ‘Observer Effect’, which means that particles behave differently depending on whether or not they are observed. How does the particle know when it is being observed? Well, that is still a mystery to all. Written by Amber Elinsky Related articles: Laser Interferometric Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) / Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) REFERENCES Wavelength/Frequency Image ref: BYJU’s educational tech company Electromagnetic Image ref: Space.com Baclawski, Kenneth. (2018). The Observer Effect. 83-89. 10.1109/COGSIMA.2018.8423983. Project Gallery

Explaining The Pain Gate Theory Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Gatekeepers of pain: how your body decides what hurts Last updated: 18/09/25, 08:40 Published: 18/09/25, 07:00 Explaining The Pain Gate Theory Pain is an unpleasant bodily sensation that’s usually linked to actual or potential tissue damage. It often acts as the body’s warning system, protecting us from further harm. Now picture this: you hit your leg, and it hurts—but then you instinctively start rubbing it, and the pain begins to ease. Why does that happen? That’s where the Pain Gate Theory (also known as The Gate Theory of Pain, or The Gate Control Theory of Pain) comes in. It’s one of the most fascinating ideas in pain science because it explains how pain isn’t just about injury— it’s also about how our nervous system processes it. Pain can vary greatly between individuals and even in the same person under different circumstances. This variation is due to the fact that pain is not just a physical experience, but also influenced by emotions, attention, and context. The Pain Gate Theory was first coined in 1965 by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall to explain this phenomenon. It states that a stimulus must travel through the substantia gelatinosa in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, the transmission cells and the fibres in the dorsal column in order to have an effect. The substantia gelatinosa acts as a ‘gate’, mediating which signals are able to pass through the nervous system to the brain. As to whether the gate closes is influenced by an array of factors. How does it work? The below figure depicts the relationships in The Pain Gate Theory. The gate mechanism is influenced by the activity of the larger diameter fibres (A-beta) which usually inhibit transmission and the small diameter fibres (A-delta and C) which increase transmission. Take our analogy from earlier about rubbing your leg: when you do this, the large fibres carrying non painful stimuli like touch and pressure are activated. This causes the gate to be ‘closed’ which blocks the pain signals being transmitted by the small fibres. This concept is so interesting as it opens doors to viewing pain holistically; pain is influenced by touch, thoughts and emotions, which explains why you may not notice pain as much when your super excited about something or why placebos have been proven to work in some cases. In a clinical sphere, this theory has opened the door to many pain management techniques, for example Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS), which selectively stimulates A-beta fibres leading to a consequential inhibition in A-delta and C fibres, preventing pain-related signals reaching the brain. It also has been utilised in physiotherapy, labour and chronic pain treatments. One main limitation of this model is its inability to explain certain types of pain like phantom limb since it relies on the assumption that pain requires an input from a limb to the spinal cord . This has led to the development of more advanced models like the neuromatrix model which acknowledges the fact that the brain can create pain on its own. In conclusion, the bottom line is that The Pain Gate Theory was groundbreaking in our understanding of how pain works. Understanding pain as a brain-and-body experience opens the door to innovative treatments that may one day make pain more manageable, or even preventable. Written by Blessing Amo-Konadu Related articles: Ibuprofen / Anthrax toxin to treat pain REFERENCES Cho, In-Chang, and Seung Ki Min. “Proposed New Pathophysiology of Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome.” Urogenital Tract Infection , vol. 10, no. 2, 2015, p. 92, https://doi.org/10.14777/uti.2015.10.2.92 . Accessed 29 June 2020. Merrick, Mark. “Gate Control Theory - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” Sciencedirect.com , 2012, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/gate-control-theory . Tashani, O, and M Johnson. “Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS). A Possible Aid for Pain Relief in Developing Countries?” Libyan Journal of Medicine , vol. 4, no. 2, 10 Dec. 2008, pp. 77–83, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3066716/pdf/LJM-4-062.pdf , https://doi.org/10.4176/090119 . The British Pain Society. “What Is Pain?” Britishpainsociety.org , July 2020, www.britishpainsociety.org/about/what-is-pain/ . Trachsel, Lindsay A., et al. “Pain Theory.” PubMed , StatPearls Publishing, 17 Apr. 2023, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545194/ Project Gallery

An analysis of risk and protective factors Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers Last updated: 24/06/25, 16:39 Published: 10/07/25, 07:00 An analysis of risk and protective factors Impact and prevalence According to the DSM-5, postpartum depression (PPD), also known as postnatal depression, is characterised by psychological and physical symptoms – including anhedonia, depressed mood and abnormal differences in sleep patterns – with a postpartum onset within one month after childbirth. Long-term effects of PPD, which are the same for adult and adolescent mothers, include weaker attachment between the mother and the child and developmental delays in children. Whilst treatment methods for postnatal depression have been more thoroughly investigated in adult mothers than in teenage mothers, prevalence rates of postpartum depression are found to be higher in adolescent mothers, with teenage mothers being twice as likely to be depressed as adult mothers. Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers is a prominent concern, as studies have found that up to 57% of teenage mothers report moderate to severe symptoms of PPD. Risk and protective factors A definite risk factor for postpartum depression in teenage mothers is a lack of social support. Research shows that adolescent mothers face more challenges but have fewer resources and less social support than adult mothers. This is prominent in Barnet et al.’s (1996) research, which found that adolescent mothers who received emotional support from either their mother or the baby’s father were less likely to exhibit depressive symptoms postpartum. Others support this research and suggest that social support has a direct effect on PPD in teenage mothers. Additionally, a lack of wider social support results in stigma, with a common assumption being that young mothers are incompetent parents and that children should not raise other children. Thus, another aspect of the lack of social support that might lead to PPD is stigma. However, an abundance of social support can also be detrimental, as it might make the young mothers feel incapable or inadequate, also leading to postnatal depression. Therefore, it is vital to determine the appropriate amount of support required for adolescent mothers. Another important risk factor affecting adolescent mothers that leads to postpartum depression is stress, which can be, but does not have to be, caused by a lack of social support. Research shows that higher stress levels are positively associated with depressive symptoms, and teenage mothers who reported higher stress levels displayed higher levels of PPD than adolescent mothers with lower stress levels. Therefore, in order to reduce the rate of postpartum depression in adolescent mothers, interventions should focus on decreasing the mothers’ stress levels. A crucial protective factor for PPD in adolescent mothers is self-esteem. Logsdon et al. (2005) found that lower self-esteem was predictive of postnatal depression in teenage mothers, and Caldwell & Antonucci (1997) found that self-esteem has a strong negative correlation with PPD symptoms in adolescent mothers. Therefore, higher self-esteem can shield young mothers from postpartum depression. Conclusions Overall, adolescent mothers are a particularly vulnerable population due to the additional challenges they face and the common lack of preparation for motherhood amongst teenage mothers. Social support, both a lack thereof or an excess amount, is commonly identified in the literature as a key risk factor for PPD in young mothers, as well as stigma and stress. High self-esteem and confidence in one’s own parenting skills are prominent and promising protective factors. The few interventions that are present demonstrate a promising start towards developing ways to tackle PPD in adolescent mothers. However, there has not been an extensive meta-analysis evaluating existing interventions, a clear limitation and a gap in the literature that should be addressed in future research. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related articles: Depression / Depression in children / Childhood stunting / Gynaecology REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Barnet, B., Joffe, A., Duggan, A. K., Wilson, M. D., & Repke, J. T. (1996). Depressive symptoms, stress, and social support in pregnant and postpartum adolescents. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine , 150 (1), 64-69. Caldwell, C. H., Antonucci, T. C., Jackson, J. S., Wolford, M. L., & Osofsky, J. D. (1997). Perceptions of parental support and depressive symptomatology among black and white adolescent mothers. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders , 5 (3), 173-183. Deal, L. W., & Holt, V. L. (1998). Young maternal age and depressive symptoms: Results from the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 88 , 266–270 Dinwiddie, K. J., Schillerstrom, T. L., & Schillerstrom, J. E. (2017). Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology , 39 (3), 168–175. Field T. (1992). Infants of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 4 , 49-66. Logsdon, M. C., Birkimer, J. C., Simpson, T., & Looney, S. (2005). Postpartum depression and social support in adolescents. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing , 34 (1), 46-54. Radke-Yarrow, M., Cummings, E. M., Kuczynski, L., & Chapman, M. (1985). Patterns of attachment in two- and three-year-olds in normal families and families with parental depression. Child Development, 56 , 886-893. Schmidt, R. M., Wiemann, C. M., Rickert, V. I., & Smith, E. O. B. (2006). Moderate to severe depressive symptoms among adolescent mothers followed four years postpartum. Journal of Adolescent Health , 38 , 712–718. Project Gallery

The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Creatio ex Nihilo: a Christian creation doctrine including physics Last updated: 09/11/25, 20:52 Published: 20/11/25, 08:00 The intersection of physics and religion: the redshift and expanding galaxies At first glance, physics seems like a fairly straightforward field. Maths is the language that explains how everything in the universe behaves in a particular way. But the more you delve into the field, the more you realise that it actually intersects with all other fields - biology, neuroscience, philosophy, religion, etc. The example covered in this article is the creation of the universe. One of the subfields of physics is cosmology - the study of the universe, or cosmos, including its origin, development and fate. The most famous piece of modern work to come out of this field is the Big Bang theory. This is the suggestion that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe started out as a very hot, very dense point smaller than the size of an atom before it suddenly and rapidly expanded - bang! Out of this came everything. Every atom for all known and unknown things in the universe, all of the laws of time and space, literally everything came into existence in a big explosion of energy. How do we know this? Well, there is evidence of the Big Bang theory all over the universe, as far as physicists can tell. Particles flying about the universe can provide information about where they came from. For example, if we study the light from other galaxies we can see that the light is ‘red-shifted’ - meaning that as the galaxies move away from us, it shows up differently on the light spectrum then it would if it was very close. Think of it like when you drop a stone in the middle of a pond. The ripples start out very close together, but as they move away from the center they stretch out. Light does the same thing and physicists can use this to determine how celestial objects are moving, which is how we know the universe continues to expand. Such evidence not only tells us a lot about the universe as it is now, but it also allows us to theorise about the universe’s beginning. Unfortunately, this then begs the question…what caused the Big Bang? Better yet, what was there before the Big Bang? Nothing? Perhaps, but then how did everything in the universe come into being from nothing? It is questions like these that create an opportunity for other fields to join the conversation. One suggested answer to this particular question comes from the long-held Christian doctrine ‘creatio ex nihilo’, which is Latin for creation from, or out of, nothing. This concept is found in Genesis 1:1, ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.’ The suggestion is that first, there was nothing (which physics cannot prove or disprove). Then, God the Creator began the act of creation, which physics describes as the Big Bang. Physics cannot prove or disprove God as Creator either. Therefore, the argument is that the creatio ex nihilo doctrine is technically a valid possibility. Regardless of whether these theories are true or not, the topic of creation is an example of how physics works with other fields like religion or philosophy. Physics cannot necessarily answer all of the big questions, but it can certainly help provide information about the universe we live in. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: The Anthropic Principle- Science or God? Project Gallery

Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Same-sex attraction in non-human animals Last updated: 17/06/25, 11:20 Published: 11/09/25, 07:00 Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Biased science communication can have detrimental consequences. For example, facts about animal reproduction have been twisted to justify discrimination against the LGBTQIA+ community. Some people call homosexuality a “Darwinian paradox”, because it does not fit their preconceived belief that an animal’s job is to stay alive and make babies. This belief ignores how some animals, like humans, have complex social structures and do things just for fun. Same-sex sexual behaviours (SSSB) have been observed in 1500 animal species, none of whom do it to make babies. This article describes some of these behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates. Same-sex sexual behaviour (SSSB) in birds The first recorded example of SSSB in non-human animals comes from Aristotle about 2300 years ago. He wrote about male pigeons, partridges, and quails mating with other male conspecifics. Since then, same-sex relationships have been recorded in other bird species. Greylag geese form “gander pairs” of two males, whose behaviours resemble pairs of opposite-sex mates. In Oahu, Hawaii, female-female Laysan albatross pairs looked after 31% of nests between 2004 and 2007. These pairs, one of which is pictured in Figure 1 , were equally good at raising chicks as male-female pairs. SSSB was also observed in unbonded king penguins, meaning penguins which had not committed to a mate for that breeding season. Using DNA to assess individual sex, 26.4% of courtship displays between unbonded king penguin couples were same-sex. There was also one male-male and one female-female pair of bonded king penguins, but both couples broke up and re-bonded with opposite-sex mates in the same season. The most famous same-sex bird couple is Roy and Silo from Central Park Zoo. They were a pair of chinstrap penguins who raised a chick named Tango when given a fertile egg. This family was the subject of a children’s book ( Figure 2 ) and an American culture war. Thus, many bird species pair with individuals of the same sex in captivity and more importantly, in the wild. SSSB in mammals Humans are not the only mammals to mate with individuals of the same sex. Male bats from the Myotis genus have been observed getting intimate with each other, and Mytois lucifugus releases sperm during this activity. In another bat species called the Bonin flying fox, males groomed each other in a way scientists perceived as sexual. Japanese macaques have monogamous female-female pairs called consortships, in which females carry out the same mating behaviours seen with male-female pairs. SSSB in insects In addition to birds and mammals, some insects conduct sexual activities to others of the same sex. In a 2012 study, 16% of male field crickets did courtship displays to and/or tried to mate with another male. The authors conducted experiments to rule out some leading Darwinian causes of SSSB, such as establishing dominance relationships (similar to an ‘alpha male’) or defusing hostile encounters. SSSB is well studied in flour beetles, where the males mount other males and release capsules of sperm like they would to females. In these beetles, the sexes are sexually dimorphic - distinguishable by appearance, smell, and/or sound - so a male beetle is intentionally choosing to mate with another male. When 59 male damselflies were offered a male and female in the same cage, 10 approached and began mating with the male. More damselflies chose the male over the female after spending a few days in a male-only population, perhaps because they were used to only having males to choose from. Therefore, analogies to both homoromantic and homosexual partnerships in humans exist in insects. Conclusion Since mammals, birds, insects, and molluscs all have evidence of SSSB in the wild, it is normal and certainly not unnatural for humans to do the same. These behaviours range from preferentially approaching the same sex to intentional, intimate actions. All the papers I used in this article are over a decade old, with the earliest evidence of non-human same-sex behaviour being 2300 years old. This means using biology to justify homophobia is very outdated, and factually incorrect. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Young LC, Zaun BJ, VanderWerf EA. Successful same-sex pairing in Laysan albatross. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2008 Aug 23 [cited 2025 Feb 1];4(4):323–5. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0191 Richardson J, Parnell P, Cole H. And Tango makes three. First Little Simon board book edition. New York: Little Simon; 2015. 1 p. Sugita N. Homosexual Fellatio: Erect Penis Licking between Male Bonin Flying Foxes Pteropus pselaphon . Pellis S, editor. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2016 Nov 8 [cited 2025 Feb 1];11(11):e0166024. Available from: https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166024 Bailey NW, French N. Same-sex sexual behaviour and mistaken identity in male field crickets, Teleogryllus oceanicus . Animal Behaviour [Internet]. 2012 Oct [cited 2025 Feb 1];84(4):1031–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0003347212003508 Huber R, Martys M. Male-male pairs in Greylag Geese ( Anser anser ). J Ornithol [Internet]. 1993 Apr [cited 2025 Feb 1];134(2):155–64. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01640084 Levan KE, Fedina TY, Lewis SM. Testing multiple hypotheses for the maintenance of male homosexual copulatory behaviour in flour beetles. J of Evolutionary Biology [Internet]. 2009 Jan [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1):60–70. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jeb/article/22/1/60-70/7324140 Pincemy G, Dobson FS, Jouventin P. Homosexual Mating Displays in Penguins. Ethology [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];116(12):1210–6. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01835.x Riccucci M. Same-sex sexual behaviour in bats. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy [Internet]. 2010 Sep 24 [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.4404/hystrix-22.1-4478 Van Gossum H, De Bruyn L, Stoks R. Reversible switches between male–male and male–female mating behaviour by male damselflies. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2005 Sep 22 [cited 2025 Feb 1];1(3):268–70. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0315 Vasey PL, Jiskoot H. The Biogeography and Evolution of Female Homosexual Behavior in Japanese Macaques. Arch Sex Behav [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];39(6):1439–41. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-009-9518-2 Project Gallery