The future of targeted cancer therapeutics Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Bioorthogonal Chemistry 04/02/25, 15:42 Last updated: Published: 01/09/24, 11:47 The future of targeted cancer therapeutics ‘Bioorthogonal chemistry’ is a term coined in 2003 by American Chemist & 2022 Nobel Prize Laureate Carolyn Bertozzi. It encompasses a set of chemical reactions which can occur within biological environments, whilst exerting minimal effect on native biomolecules or interference with native biochemical processes of the host organism - these reactions exist ‘orthogonal’ (perpendicular) to biology. Key functional groups in Bioorthogonal Chemistry include the alkynes (carbon-carbon triple bonds) and the azides (⁻N=N⁺=N⁻) . The azides are particularly bioorthogonal due to their minute size (which is favourable for cell permeability and avoiding ‘perturbations’ - the alteration of a function of a biological system), metabolic stability, and how, as they don’t naturally exist in cells, they have no competing biological side reactions. Past & present uses of bioorthogonal chemistry include: ● Vehicle airbags: Modern vehicle airbags contain sodium azide (NaN₃), a shock sensitive, explosive compound. When a vehicle’s crash sensor is triggered, an electrical charge is administered which starts the chemical reaction, inflating the air bag with harmless nitrogen gas (2NaN₃ → 2Na + 3N₂). This reaction can occur in as quickly as 0.03 seconds! ● Early HIV treatment: Azidothymidine - AZT - (Fig. 1) was the first drug used to treat HIV infection. For viruses to replicate, they use an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert their single-stranded RNA genome to double-stranded DNA in a process termed reverse transcription. When this antiretroviral medicine is used, instead of the virus transcribing thymidine, it instead transcribes the AZT, which contains an azide Group, thus stalling DNA synthesis of HIV and producing less viruses. Another key feature to consider when discussing uses of Bioorthogonal Chemistry are Click Reactions. Click Reactions occur exclusively between the azides (⁻N=N⁺=N⁻) and alkynes (carbon-carbon triple bond), produce no by-products and therefore have a 100% atom economy. Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry has enabled complex chemical reactions to be carried out within living organisms: the reactions do not bring harm to, interfere with or disrupt the biological processes occurring within these systems as they cannot be recognised & used by these systems. ‘Click’ Chemistry is therefore vital in understanding how we may be able to develop Targeted Cancer Therapeutics using Bioorthogonal Chemistry. Modern day cancer treatments tend to be delivered intravenously using anthracyclines (notably doxorubicin), a class of antitumour antibiotics used for cancer chemotherapy: they stop the growth of cancerous cells by preventing their enzymatic machinery from engaging in DNA duplication & cell division, causing the cells to die. The long-standing side effect of using such effective drugs is the high likelihood of ‘off-target toxicity’, where non-cancerous cells can also be harmed by the intercalating effects of the anthracyclines. Frequent targets for this ‘off-target toxicity’ tend to be fast growing body cells, like hair & nails, hence why most cancer patients experience some form of hair loss over the course of their chemotherapy treatment. So, scientists began to consider: what if there was a way to develop targeted cancer treatments? Treatments that enabled the activation of these powerful cancer drugs - anthracyclines - at the tumour sites, mitigating the harm of ‘off-target toxicity’? This is where Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry comes in. ‘ C lick- A ctivated P rotodrugs A gainst C ancer’ (or ‘ CAPAC ’) is a platform developed by American Biotechnology Company Shasqi. Through ‘CAPAC’, Shasqi are pioneering the use of Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry to target cancer drugs directly to the tumour site, minimising side effects and potentially improving the therapeutic index. They’ve achieved this through exploiting one of the fastest click reactions: a Diels-Alder cycloaddition between a tetrazine (C2H2N4) and a trans-cyclooctene (TCO) - 2 bioorthogonal molecules. The treatment involves two key components: a tetrazine-modified sodium hyaluronate biopolymer & doxorubicin that is connected to a TCO (trans-cyclooctene) unit. Over the course of the treatment (Fig. 2) , the patient will undergo multiple stages: ● Local hydrogel injection: The tetrazine-modified sodium hyaluron ate biopolymer is injected into a patient’s tumour ● Protodrug dose: The patient then receives five daily infusions of doxorubicin-TCO ● Concentration: The drug circulates through the body until it meets the tetrazine-modified biopolymer at the tumour site ● Activation: At the point of meeting, the click reaction brings the tetrazine and TCO together, triggering a rearrangement that frees the doxorubicin right next to the tumour cells Compared to prior cancer treatments, this process would not only mitigate the harm of the drug’s ‘off-target toxicity’, limiting the side-effects of the chemotherapy drug, it would also increase the local concentration of doxorubicin far beyond what would normally be possible in a patient, having a greater effect in preventing the growth of cancer cells. In the treatment of this life-threatening disease, Shasqi’s research into the ‘CAPAC’ platform, though still ongoing, looks excitingly promising: as recently as March 2023, they’ve proven their platform’s efficacy in humans. During a Phase 1 dose-escalation clinical trial in adult patients with advanced solid tumours, Shasqi were able to demonstrate the activation of their tetrazine-modified sodium hyaluronate biopolymer & doxorubicin-TCO at tumour sites, evidencing it’s safety, systemic pharmacokinetics, and immunological activity. With the continuation of their innovative research, the future treatment of cancer can be significantly aided with the use of Bioorthogonal ‘Click’ Chemistry. Written by Emmanuella Fernandez REFERENCES Acs.org . (2021). Click chemistry sees first use in humans . [online] Available at: https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/Click-chemistry-sees-first-use/98/web/2020/10 . Cancer Research UK (2023). Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) | Cancer drugs | Cancer Research UK . [online] www.cancerresearchuk.org . Available at: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/drugs/doxorubicin . Wang, Y., Zhang, C., Wu, H. and Feng, P. (2020). Activation and Delivery of Tetrazine-Responsive Bioorthogonal Prodrugs. Molecules , 25(23), p.5640. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25235640 . Wikipedia Contributors (2019). Reverse transcriptase . [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase . Wikipedia. (2020). Zidovudine . [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zidovudine . Wikipedia. (2022). Bioorthogonal chemistry . [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry . Project Gallery

Exploring the microscopic world of molecules Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Quantum Chemistry Last updated: 05/02/26, 10:12 Published: 06/02/25, 08:00 Exploring the microscopic world of molecules Quantum chemistry provides a glimpse into the strange and fascinating world of molecules and atoms, where the principles of traditional chemistry and physics no longer apply. While classical chemistry can explain molecular interactions and bonding, it cannot fully account for particles' unusual, frequently contradictory behaviour at the atomic and subatomic levels. Quantum mechanics provides scientists with a powerful framework for understanding the complicated behaviour of electrons and nuclei in molecules. The basics of quantum chemistry The notion of wave-particle duality, which states that particles, such as electrons, act not just like objects with mass but also like waves, is central to quantum chemistry. Because the exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be known at the same time (according to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle), probability distributions are used to describe electrons rather than accurate orbits. These distributions are represented by mathematical functions known as wave functions, which describe the probability of finding an electron in a specific location surrounding the nucleus. This fundamentally affects our understanding of chemical bonding. Instead of conceiving a bond as a solid connection between two atoms, quantum chemistry defines it as the overlap of electron wave functions, which can result in a variety of molecular topologies depending on their energy levels. Quantum mechanics and bonding theories Quantum mechanics has fundamentally altered our knowledge of chemical bonding. The classic Lewis structure model, which explains bonding as the sharing or transfer of electrons, is effective for simple molecules but fails to convey the complexities of real-world interactions. In contrast, quantum chemistry introduces the concept of molecular orbitals. In molecular orbital theory, electrons are not limited to individual atoms but can spread across a molecule in molecular orbitals, which are combinations of atomic orbitals from the participating atoms. These molecular orbitals provide a more detailed explanation for bonding, especially in compounds that do not match simple bonding models, such as delocalised systems like benzene or metals. For example, quantum chemistry explains why oxygen is paramagnetic (it possesses unpaired electrons), a characteristic that classical bonding theories cannot explain. Quantum chemistry and quantum computing One of the most interesting frontiers in quantum chemistry is its application to the development of quantum computers. Traditional computers, despite their enormous processing power, struggle to model the complicated behaviour of molecules, particularly large ones. This is because simulating molecules at the quantum level necessitates tracking all conceivable interactions between electrons and nuclei, which can quickly become computationally challenging. Quantum computers use fundamentally different ideas. They employ qubits, which, unlike classical bits, can exist in a state of both 0 and 1. This enables quantum computers to execute several calculations concurrently and manage the complexity of molecular systems considerably more effectively. This could lead to advancements in quantum chemistry, such as drug discovery, where precisely modelling molecular interactions is critical. Instead of depending on trial and error, scientists may utilise quantum computers to model how possible pharmaceuticals interact with biological molecules at the atomic level, thereby speeding up the creation of novel therapies. Similarly, quantum chemistry could help in the development of novel materials with desirable qualities, such as stronger alloys and more efficient energy storage devices. Why quantum chemistry matters The consequences of quantum chemistry go well beyond the lab. Understanding molecular behaviour at its most fundamental level allows us to create new technologies and materials that have an impact on everyday life. Nanotechnology, for example, relies largely on quantum principles to generate innovative materials with applications in medicine, electronics, and clean energy. Catalysis, the technique of speeding up reactions, also benefits from quantum chemistry insights, making industrial operations more efficient, such as cleaner fuel generation and more effective environmental remediation. Furthermore, quantum chemistry provides insights into biological processes. Enzymes, the proteins that catalyse processes in living organisms, work with a precision that frequently defies standard chemistry. Tunnelling, quantum phenomena in which particles slip past energy barriers, helps to explain these extraordinarily efficient biological processes. In brief, quantum chemistry provides the fundamental understanding required to push the limits of chemistry and physics by exposing how molecules interact and react in ways that traditional theories cannot fully explain. Quantum chemistry has the potential to radically alter our understanding of the microscopic world, whether through theoretical models, practical applications, or future technology advancements. Written by Laura K Related articles: Quantum computing / Topology / Computational organic chemistry Project Gallery

How diseases start and spread, the body’s defence system, vaccines, policies, and public opinion: unravel the maze of infection and immunity with these articles. Immunology Articles How diseases start and spread, the body’s defence system, vaccines, policies, and public opinion: unravel the maze of infection and immunity with these articles. You may also like: Biology , Medicine , Neuroscience , Chemistry COVID-19 misconceptions Common misconceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic Glossary of COVID-19 terms Key terms used during the COVID-19 pandemic A vaccine for malaria? A new hope for a vaccine for malaria The world vs. the next pandemic Can we see it coming? What steps do we need to take? Are pandemics becoming more severe? Arguments for and against Natural substances And how they can tackle infectious diseases A treatment for HIV? Can the CRISPR-Cas9 system be used as a potential treatment? The mast cell Key cells in the immune system Origins of COVID -19 How COVID-19 caused a pandemic Mechanisms of pathogen invasion How pathogens avoid detection by the immune system Astronauts in space How does little gravity affect the immune system? Ageing and immunity Ageing and its association with immune decline The impacts of global warming on dengue fever Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) Is the immune system 'selfish'? 'Selfish' genes from a Dawkins perspective, and the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

Wildlife corridors are connecting habitats previously divided by roads Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Wildlife corridors: why did the sloth cross the road? Last updated: 16/09/25, 17:49 Published: 06/11/25, 08:00 Wildlife corridors are connecting habitats previously divided by roads Have you ever run over an animal while driving, or had to suddenly hit the brakes so an animal could cross the road? Engineers and ecologists have come up with genius solutions, collectively called wildlife corridors, so that this happens less often. This article is about two such solutions - green bridges, which are big vegetated overpasses, and rope bridges between trees. More than just roadkill Roads threaten animals because of a concept called habitat fragmentation. This is when big animal populations are split into two smaller populations with less resources and less genetic diversity than the original populations. Animals may try to move between habitat fragments in search of new food or mates, but die trying to cross the road. Either they walk directly onto the road and collide with cars, or they cross by walking over power lines and get electrocuted. Wildlife corridors allow animals to safely walk over roads, un-doing the habitat fragmentation and reducing their chance of extinction. Wolves in Germany A 2021 study analysed the activity of animals crossing a green bridge in Germany. This bridge, one of seven in the state of Brandenburg, was built in 2012 over the important A12 highway ( Figure 1 ). Using camera footage over a year, researchers found that grey wolves were more likely to use the bridge at dusk, at night, and in the winter. The deer and wild boars eaten by wolves were also more likely to use the bridge at dusk and at night, so the presence of wolves on the bridge did not deter their prey. Since 76% of wolves in Germany die in road-related incidents, bridges like this one are crucial for effective wolf conservation. Rope bridges in Costa Rica While Germany’s wolves and deer walk straight onto roads, Costa Rica’s tree-dwelling animals cross the road using power lines. This means the tree dwellers, including monkeys and sloths, are at risk of electrocution - in fact, nearly 1000 animals died of electrocution in Costa Rica in 2018-19. To reduce this risk, Costa Ricans have built rope bridges across the country as a safer alternative for wildlife to cross roads. Most bridges consist of a single blue nylon rope ( Figure 2a ), while researchers at the University of Costa Rica built rope bridges specially designed for howler monkeys ( Figure 2b ). Howler monkeys were targeted because of their endangered status and ecological role as seed and pollen dispersers. While the specialised bridges doubled howler monkey populations between 2015 and 2021, both them and classic rope bridges were used by squirrels, opossums, and kinkajous. However, a 2021 study found that animals use telephone lines to cross roads as frequently as they use rope bridges, and telephone lines are dangerously close to power lines. Some species still are not crossing using rope bridges, many years after their construction. Although the rope bridges are helping to reduce electrocution, they are not perfect. Heathland in the UK Closer to home, a brand-new green bridge called Cockrow Bridge will soon open in Surrey ( Figure 3 ). Surrey has lost 85% of its lowland heath in the last two centuries, but Ockham and Wisley Commons continue to support rare heathland species like the nightjar and sand lizard. These two commons, on either side of the A3/M25 junction, will be connected by the Cockrow Bridge into a 3 km-long stretch. Although existing heathland needs to be destroyed for construction, tree stumps and soil from the destroyed habitat will be repurposed on the bridge. Tree stumps will provide shelter to small animals, while the soil contains native roots and seeds to kickstart the bridge ecosystem. Since the public will be allowed on this bridge, it will improve our access to green spaces and bring revenue to local organisations. Therefore, Cockrow Bridge is expected to benefit wildlife and the public. Conclusion Wildlife corridors could be an important conservation tool by undoing habitat fragmentation, reducing roadkill, and preventing electrocution on power lines. Examples in Germany and Costa Rica look promising, and a unique heathland bridge is under construction here in the UK. Green bridges and rope bridges prove that modern infrastructure does not need to harm biodiversity, and humans can coexist with nature. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Gorongosa National Park / Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia REFERENCES The Sloth Conservation Foundation. Connected Gardens: facilitating the peaceful co-existence of sloths and people. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 13]. Available from: https://slothconservation.org/what-we-do/habitat-connectivity/ Tobias N. Swinging to safety: How canopy bridges may save Costa Rica’s howlers. Mongabay Environmental News [Internet]. 2023 Feb 15 [cited 2025 Apr 13]; Available from: https://news.mongabay.com/2023/02/swinging-to-safety-how-canopy-bridges-may-save-costa-ricas-howlers/ Gilbey V, Petty R. UK’s first heathland green bridge. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering. 2024 Nov 1;177(6):99–110. Laidlaw K, Broadbent E, Eby S. Effectiveness of aerial wildlife crossings: Do wildlife use rope bridges more than hazardous structures to cross roads? Rev Biol Trop. 2021 Oct 1;69(3):1138–48. Plaschke M, Bhardwaj M, König HJ, Wenz E, Dobiáš K, Ford AT. Green bridges in a re‐colonizing landscape: Wolves ( Canis lupus ) in Brandenburg, Germany. Conservat Sci and Prac. 2021 Mar;3(3):e364. Project Gallery

Not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Sleep less…remember less: the hidden link between sleep and memory loss Last updated: 10/07/25, 19:27 Published: 17/04/25, 08:00 Not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s People often don’t get enough sleep for a variety of reasons, ranging from intentional choices like work or study demands (because who needs sleep when you’ve got deadlines, right?), to the growing concern with screen time (a.k.a. the “I’ll just watch one more episode” syndrome), and of course, procrastination (where your brain convinces you that 3 a.m. is a great time to suddenly get productive). But it’s not all fun and games—serious issues like insomnia, sleep apnoea, family responsibilities, or even shift work can also interfere with rest. Sleep disorders are increasingly common, with around one in three people in the UK affected, and they’re particularly prevalent among the elderly. However, not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). How do sleep disorders impact Alzheimer’s disease? Insomnia is characterised by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, which can lead to prolonged fatigue and memory issues. As shown in Figure 1 , people with insomnia tend to have some similarity in markers as those with Alzheimer’s disease, such as an increased level of Aβ and tau proteins in the brain. This is primarily because a lack of sleep prevents the effective removal of harmful products from the brain – this accumulation increases a person’s risk of AD. A plethora of experimental studies on humans and animals have shown that lack of sleep can lead to increased circulating levels of TNF-α and the gene resulting in more TNF-α secretion. This pro-inflammatory cytokine exacerbates AD pathology because neuroinflammation can lead to dysfunction and cell death, which are key markers of AD. Other pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1, have been found to be relevant in the link between sleep deprivation and AD. Overexpression of IL-1 in the brain leads to abnormal changes in nerve cell structures especially relating to Aβ plaques. This highlights IL-1’s key role in plaque evolution and the synthesis of Amyloid Precursor Protein, which promotes amyloid production that eventually results in AD pathology. What type of sleep can impact one’s risk of Alzheimer’s disease? Studies using more objective measures, like actigraphy (which tracks sleep-wake activity), found that sleep quality (sleep efficiency) is more important than total sleep time. For example, women with less than 70% sleep efficiency were more likely to experience cognitive impairment. Increased wakefulness during the night also moderated the relationship between amyloid deposition (a hallmark of AD) and memory decline. Uncertainties… However, it remains unclear whether poor sleep directly causes AD or if the disease itself leads to sleep disturbances. Some studies suggest a bidirectional relationship. Aging itself leads to poorer sleep quality, including reduced sleep efficiency, less slow-wave sleep (SWS), and more frequent awakenings. Sleep disorders like obstructive sleep apnoea, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome also become more common with age. What are the next steps? The good news is that many sleep disorders, including insomnia, are manageable, and improving sleep quality could be a simple yet powerful way to reduce Alzheimer’s risk. Additionally, early diagnosis and treatment of conditions like sleep apnoea and insomnia may help slow or even prevent neurodegenerative changes. s researchers continue to explore the intricate relationship between sleep and Alzheimer’s, one thing is clear: getting a good night’s sleep isn’t just about feeling refreshed. It is a crucial investment in long-term brain health. Written by Blessing Amo-Konadu Related articles: Overview of Alzheimer's / Hallmarks of Alzheimer's / CRISPR-Cas9 in AD treatment / Memory erasure / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES Lucey, B. (2020). It’s complicated: The relationship between sleep and Alzheimer’s disease in humans. Neurobiology of Disease , [online] 144, p.105031. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105031 . NHS (2023). Insomnia . [online] www.nhsinform.scot . Available at: https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/insomnia/ . Pelc, C. (2023). Not getting enough deep sleep may increase the risk of developing dementia . [online] Medicalnewstoday.com . Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/not-getting-enough-deep-sleep-may-increase-dementia-risk#Clarifying-the-link-between-sleep-aging-and-dementia-risk [Accessed 22 Dec. 2024]. Sadeghmousavi, S., Eskian, M., Rahmani, F. and Rezaei, N. (2020). The effect of insomnia on development of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation , 17(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01960-9 . Project Gallery

Unlocking the potential to tackle plastic pollution in oceans Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Genetically-engineered bacteria break down plastic in saltwater 09/07/25, 15:14 Last updated: Published: 29/09/23, 21:19 Unlocking the potential to tackle plastic pollution in oceans Groundbreaking discovery in the fight against plastic pollution North Carolina State University researchers have made a groundbreaking discovery in the fight against plastic pollution in marine environments. They have successfully genetically engineered a marine microorganism capable of breaking down polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a commonly used plastic found in water bottles and clothing, contributing to the growing problem of ocean microplastic pollution. Introducing foreign enzymes to V. natriegens The modified organism, created by incorporating genes from the bacterium Ideonella sakaiensis into the genome of Vibrio natriegens , can effectively degrade PET in saltwater conditions. This achievement marks the first time foreign enzymes have been successfully expressed on the surface of V. natriegens cells, making it a significant scientific breakthrough. PET microplastics pose a significant challenge in marine ecosystems, and current methods of removing them, such as extracting and disposing of them in landfills, are not sustainable. The researchers behind this study aim to find a more environmentally friendly solution by breaking down PET into reusable products, like thermoformed packaging (takeaway cartons) or textiles (clothing, duvets, pillows, carpeting). The team worked with two bacteria species, V. natriegens and I. sakaiensis . V. natriegens , known for its rapid reproduction in saltwater, served as the host organism, while I. sakaiensis provided the enzymes necessary for PET degradation. The researchers first rinsed the plastics collected from the ocean to remove high-concentration salts before initiating the plastic degradation process. Challenges ahead While this breakthrough is a significant step forward, three key challenges are still ahead. The researchers aim to incorporate the DNA responsible for enzyme production directly into the genome of V. natriegens to enhance stability. Because DNA is the genetic material responsible for the production of enzymes, and enzymes are proteins that are responsible for carrying out various chemical reactions in the body, by incorporating the DNA responsible for enzyme production into the genome of V. natriegens , the researchers can enhance the stability of the enzyme production. Thus, this DNA is essential for producing the enzymes necessary for PET degradation, as it contains the genetic information vital for encoding the proteins needed for PET breakdown. Additionally, the research team plans to modify V. natriegens further to feed on the byproducts generated during PET degradation. Lastly, they seek to engineer V. natriegens to produce a desirable end product from PET, such as a molecule that can be utilised in the chemical industry. Collaboration with industry groups Collaboration with industry groups is also crucial in determining the market demand for the molecules that V. natriegens can produce. The researchers are open to working with industry partners to explore the vast production scale and identify the most desirable molecules for commercial use. By introducing the genes responsible for PET degradation into V. natriegens using a plasmid, the researchers successfully induced the production of enzymes on the surface of the bacterial cells. The modified V. natriegens demonstrated its ability to break down PET microplastics in saltwater, providing a practical and economically feasible solution for addressing plastic pollution in marine environments. This research represents a significant advancement in the field, as it is the first time that V. natriegens has been genetically engineered to express foreign enzymes on its cell surface. This breakthrough opens up possibilities for further modifications, such as incorporating the DNA from I. sakaiensis directly into the genome of V. natriegens to make the production of plastic-degrading enzymes a more stable feature of the organism. The researchers aim to modify V. natriegens to feed on the byproducts produced during the breakdown of PET and create a desirable end product for the chemical industry. The researchers are open to collaborating with industry groups to identify the most desirable molecules to be engineered into V. natriegens for production. This groundbreaking research, published in the AIChE Journal with the support of the National Science Foundation under grant 2029327, paves the way for developing more efficient and sustainable methods for addressing plastic pollution in saltwater environments. Conclusion The research has made a breakthrough in the fight against plastic pollution in marine environments. By incorporating genes from the bacterium I. sakaiensis into the genome of V. natriegens , they created a genetically modified marine microorganism capable of breaking down PET. This achievement provides a practical and economically feasible solution to address plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems. The researchers are now looking into further modifications to the organism to enable it to feed on byproducts and to produce a desirable end product that can be used in the chemical industry. This research highlights the potential of genetic engineering to create sustainable solutions to the growing problem of plastic pollution. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related article: Plastics and their environmental impact Project Gallery

Looking at silicon dioxide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The effects of nanoparticles on health Last updated: 17/07/25, 11:50 Published: 01/05/25, 08:00 Looking at silicon dioxide There are around 100 trillion harmless and beneficial microbes in the gut, representing as many as 5,000 different species! They are called the gut microbiota and are essential for regulating brain function through the microbiota-gut-brain axis, controlling intestinal inflammation and more. Nanoparticles may alter the gut microbiota, posing a risk to health and well-being. Read on to find out more about how. What are nanoparticles? Nanoparticles are small particles that are usually less than 100 nm in diameter. One example of a common nanoparticle is silicon dioxide, which can be found as the food additive E551. Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2NPs) are commonly used as anti-caking agents in free-flowing powdery food products, such as spices and coffee. These nanoparticles can be toxic, damaging cells, tissues, and organs including the liver, kidneys, and lungs. The damage is primarily due to the way SiO2NPs react in the body as a result of their size: even though SiO2NPs are bigger than 100 nm in the form of E551, when the SiO2NPs are in the gastrointestinal tract, they can clump together and degrade into a smaller size of 10-50 nm. The experiment Researchers completed several experiments to examine the effects of exposure to SiO2NPs on health. This article will specifically talk about one experiment where they looked at the impacts of SiO2NPs on the gut microbiota. For this experiment, the researchers hypothesised that oral exposure to SiO2NPs will cause changes in the gut microbiota, affecting diversity and function in mice. 20 healthy male 4-week-old mice were used, weighing 8 to 12 grams. Researchers administered either SiO2NPs solution or vehicle solution for 28 days. The vehicle solution can be considered the control and was created out of a sterile saline solution. All bacteria contain the 16S rRNA gene which is highly conserved, meaning that the sequence remains mostly unchanged across different species. After 28 days, the researchers took faecal samples from the mice and conducted 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the bacterial DNA in the faeces to analyse the gut microbiota. Figure 1 shows the process of 16S rRNA gene sequencing, a method used to identify and compare bacterial diversity without needing to grow bacterial cultures. Because it is culture-free, 16S sequencing can survey complex microbiomes or difficult environments to study. This technique is commonly used to identify bacteria down to the genus or species level, depending on the needs of the experiments. Researchers looked at the alpha diversity of the gut microbiota, with Sob, Ace, Chao, Simpson, and Shannon indices being used. Sob, Ace and Chao give information about the number of species, while Simpson and Shannon give information about the community diversity, including the species evenness. The results The results of this experiment, as seen in Figure 2 , show that there was a significant increase in Sob, Ace, and Chao indices, but there was no substantial change in Simpson or Shannon indices. This suggests that SiO2NPs can change the diversity of gut microbiota, which could impact their biological functions. For example, if there are changes to the gut microbiota, it could result in increased inflammation in the intestine. This could potentially lead to the immune system’s defences in the gut being weaker, allowing harmful pathogens to pass through the epithelial barrier more easily. Conclusion One of the main weaknesses of this experiment is that it was conducted on mice. Because of this, the study's findings cannot be directly translated to humans. In addition, the study was conducted over only 28 days, meaning we don’t know the long-term effects and consequences of the impacts of SiO2NPs on the gut microbiota. Nevertheless, this is still a critical study as it shows that SiO2NPs do impact the gut microbiota. It also shows that maintaining healthy gut microbiota is important. This can be done by being mindful of what we eat. So next time, instead of having instant noodles full of additives, think about making a home-made soup with your favourite vegetables! Eating unprocessed whole foods is not just good for us, but also for our gut microbiota! Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Nanomedicine / Nanoparticles as diabetes treatment / Nanogels / Nanocarriers / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Microbiota Project Gallery

Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How fake science websites hijack our trust in experts to misinform and confuse Last updated: 13/06/26 Published: 29/12/22 In science, all research is peer-reviewed by experts. Now, fake science websites are mimicking these disciplines. These websites capitalise on our trust in experts. In some cases, these websites are paid to publish fake science. This is becoming more common. In a recent global survey, almost 50% of respondents said they see false or misleading information online daily. By understanding the methods these sites use, we can prevent their influence. In the age of AI, low-quality and 'spammy' content are being generated automatically. This is a much faster process than writing content manually, and it is not easy to spot textual AI content. The content is low-quality due to heavy misinformation (incorrect factual data), and hallucinations (un-grounded, unverified facts or claims). It is important to differentiate between factual and misleading information, as science often involves a lot of high-risk data e.g. in medicine, health. Hyperlinking is a technique used to convince website users. They reassure the user that the content is credible, but most people don’t have experience in analytical techniques and so these links aren’t questioned. Repetition is used to increase the visibility of fake science content but also saturate search engines. This content can be repeated and spread across different sites. Users of “lateral reading” get multiple websites that corroborate the fake science from the initial source. Many of these sites only choose articles that agree with their perspective and depend on the audience not taking time to follow up. Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. On fake science websites first, check the hyperlinked articles. These websites will use sites with repeated content from disreputable sites. Next, look at the number of reposts a website has. Legitimate science posts are on credible websites. Some websites investigate websites that feature fake science. Cross-checking and re-verifying the information produced on these websites will also aid in spotting 'fake' content. Ultimately, these websites thrive on users not having the time or skills to look deeper into the evidence, so doing so will help expose the fake websites. Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Digital disinformation / COVID-19 misconceptions

Raymond et. al (1992), Shapiro (1994), and other studies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An exploration of the attentional blink in rapid serial visual presentation studies Last updated: 24/06/25, 15:01 Published: 03/07/25, 08:00 Raymond et. al (1992), Shapiro (1994), and other studies Attention is a cognitive mechanism that helps us select and process vital information while ignoring irrelevant information, enabling us to consolidate our memories. Attentional blink typically refers to the finding of a severe impairment for detection or identification of the second target (T2) of the two masked visual targets that occurs when the targets are presented within less than 500 milliseconds of each other. In this context, T1 refers to the first target, which captures attention and temporarily limits the ability to detect or identify T2 if they are presented too closely in time. Raymond et al. (1992) suggested that the attentional blink phenomenon is observed in rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) conditions in which stimuli such as letters, digits or pictures are presented in a rapid sequence mostly at a single location. Typically, the target from the RSVP stimulus stream is differentiated (e.g. presented in a different colour), and the participant’s task is to identify the target. The RSVP procedure is a widely employed paradigm used to examine the temporal characteristics of perceptual and attentional processes. Shapiro (1994) proposed the interference theory as an explanation for attentional blink. According to the interference theory, there is a temporal buffer if many distractors are present. Due to the limitations of visual short-term memory, multiple items compete to be retrieved from this hypothetical temporal buffer, which can affect recall accuracy. As a result, attentional blink occurs due to competition over which target, T1 or T2, receives attentional processing. Supporting evidence comes from Isaak (1999), who presented combinations of letter and false-font stimuli per trial, and claimed that attentional blink magnitude increases if the competitors arise from the same conceptual category, for example, digits. Alternatively, Chun and Potter (1995) introduced their two-stage model to account for attentional blink. The aim of their research was to investigate whether attentional blink occurs in a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) task. Their hypothesis stated that participants’ ability to detect T2 would be reduced if it appeared approximately 300 milliseconds after T1. They also sought to examine whether attentional blink reflects a limited-capacity processing mechanism. The model suggests that stage 1 is where stimuli are processed and features and meanings are registered, but not at a sufficient level for report. In stage 2, the stimulus is consolidated for a response. The researchers reported that attentional blink occurs at stage 2, where identification and consolidation of T1 are slowed when there is a following item, delaying the processing of T2 after the onset of T1. Discussion Many RSVP studies hypothesise that presenting T2 300-700 milliseconds after T1, with multiple distractor items, increases the likelihood of attentional blink and impairs the ability to detect T2. This outcome aligns with Shapiro et al.’s (1999) interference theory, as participants faced significant difficulty retrieving stimuli from the temporal buffer during the dual task. However, participants demonstrated a higher success rate in identifying the target during the single task, even with rapid stimulus presentation. Additional support for the interference theory is provided by Raffone et al. (2014), who argued that T2 must be masked by a distractor, and if T1 appears within 500 milliseconds of T2, T2 often goes undetected, leading to attentional blink. The unified model further suggests that in RSVP tasks, attention allocation to T1 reduces the attention available for T2, leaving T2 susceptible to decay or substitution. This implies that attentional blink may result from T1 monopolising attentional resources and thus limiting the capacity to process T2, which explains the poorer performance observed in the dual task. Conclusions Despite their insights, both theories of attentional blink have notable shortcomings. There is contradicting evidence for the interference theory from Olivers and Meeter (2008), who believe that once attentional blink is induced by a first target, it can be alleviated if T2 is preceded by a non-target that shares a target-defining feature, such as having the same colour. Whereas, Reeves and Sperling (1986) postulate that an attentional gate is opened after T1 is detected and continues to remain open until target identification is complete. This can amplify the processing of the stimuli, enabling the identification of T1 and aiding T2 in receiving attentional processes and being identified accurately. A main limitation of the two-stage model for attentional blink studies is its difficulty in explaining the full spectrum of attentional blink effects, particularly the T1-sparing’ phenomenon and the impact of task demands on T2 processing. For instance, the two-stage model often assumes that T2 processing is solely impaired due to the attentional load of T1, but research suggests that the difficulty of the T2 task itself can influence the attentional blink. For example, if T2 requires a more complex or demanding response, the attentional blink effect may be more pronounced, even if T1 processing is relatively simple. Future research should investigate if attentional blink exists within other modalities, such as cross-modal perception (visual T1, auditory T2). This will enable us to get a deeper insight into how the attention mechanisms operate. Future research should also explore alternative explanations for the attentional blink. Some studies suggest it may not be solely attributable to resource limitations or processing bottlenecks but could instead reflect a more dynamic process involving attentional re-engagement or the interaction between perceptual and attentional systems. Written by Pranavi Rastogi REFERENCES Chun, M. M., & Potter, M. C. (1995). A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21 (1), 109-127. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.109 Isaak, M. I., Shapiro, K. L., & Martin, J. (1999). The attentional blink reflects retrieval competition among multiple rapid serial visual presentation items: Tests of an interference model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25 (6), 1774-1792. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.25.6.1774 Olivers, C. N., & Meeter, M. (2008). A boost and bounce theory of temporal attention. Psychological Review, 115 (4), 836-863. doi:10.1037/a0013395 Raffone, A., Srinivasan, N., & Van Leeuwen, C. (2014). The interplay of attention and consciousness in visual search, attentional blink and working memory consolidation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369 (1641), 20130215. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0215 Reeves, A., & Sperling, G. (1986). Attention gating in short-term visual memory. Psychological Review, 93 (2), 180-206. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.180 Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L., & Arnell, K. M. (1992). Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18 (3), 849-860. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.18.3.849 Shapiro, K. L., Raymond, J. E., & Arnell, K. M. (1994). Attention to visual pattern information produces the attentional blink in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,20 (2), 357-371. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.20.2.357 Project Gallery

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