And a hope for a more sustainable future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Green Chemistry 04/04/26, 18:32 Last updated: Published: 29/06/23, 11:33 And a hope for a more sustainable future Green Chemistry is a branch of chemistry that takes into consideration the design of synthetic reactions to minimise the generation of hazardous by-products, their impact on humans and the environment. Often reactions are designed to take place at low temperatures with short reaction times and increased yields. This is preferred as fewer materials are used and it is more energy efficient. When designing routes it is important to consider ‘How green is the process?’ in this way we are shifting focus to a more sustainable future where we are emitting fewer pollutants, using renewable feedstocks and energy sources with minimal waste. In 1998, Paul Anastas and John Warner devised the twelve principles of Green Chemistry. They serve as a framework for scientists to design innovative scientific solutions to existing and new synthetic routes. Scientists are looking into environmentally friendly reaction schemes which can simplify production as well as being able to use greener resources. It is impossible to fulfil all twelve principles at the same time but making attempts to apply as many principles as possible when designing a protocol is just as good. The twelve principles are: Prevention: waste should be prevented rather than treating waste after it has been created. Atom Economy: designing processes where you are maximising the incorporation of all materials so all reagents are in the final product. Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis : synthetic methods should be designed to be safe and the hazards of all the substances should be reviewed. Designing Safer Chemicals: designed to eliminate chemicals which are carcinogenic, neurotoxic, etc. essentially safe to the Earth. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries: using auxiliary substances and minimising usage of solvents to reduce waste created. Design for Energy Efficiency: designing synthetic methods where reactions can be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. Use of Renewable Feedstock: raw materials used for reactions should be renewable rather than depleting. Reduce Derivatives: reducing the steps required in a reaction by using catalysts/ enzymes and adding protecting or deprotecting groups or temporary modification of functionality. Extra steps require more reagents and generate a lot of waste. Catalysis: catalysts lower energy consumption and increase reaction rates. They allow for decreased use of harmful and toxic chemicals. Design for Degradation: chemical products should be designed so that they can break down and have no harmful effects on the environment. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention: analytical techniques required to allow monitoring of the formation of hazardous substances. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention: involves using safer chemical alternatives to prevent the occurrence of an accident e.g. fires; explosions. Some examples of areas where Green Chemistry is implemented: Computer Chips: the use of supercritical carbon dioxide as a step for the preparation of a chip. This has reduced the quantities of chemicals, water and energy required to produce chips. Medicine: developing more efficient ways of synthesising pharmaceuticals e.g. chemotherapy drug Taxol. Green Chemistry is widely being implemented in academic labs as a way to reduce the environmental impact and high costs. In 2026, green chemistry has evolved from a niche sustainability goal into a $1 trillion global industry. This branch in Chemistry is still fairly new and will likely be one of the most important fields in the future. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related article: The challenges in modern day chemistry Project Gallery

The same condition after all? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder 26/04/26, 15:06 Last updated: Published: 20/01/24, 11:38 The same condition after all? Practice and progress in rheumatology The relationship between hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (hEDS) and Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder (HSD) has been hotly debated in recent years, with research being published on a near-constant basis attempting to establish a valid symptomatological or causalogical difference between the two disorders. Now, a paper by Ritelli et al. (2022) threatens to end the savage cycle for all. Using RNA sequencing techniques and immunofluorescence, Ritelli et al. found identical gene expression and cellular characteristics in dermal biopsies from those with both conditions. Through immunofluorescence of biopsies from 20 women with hEDS, 16 women and 4 men with HSD and 40 controls, it was found that the shape and components of the extracellular matrix were greatly different in those with HSD/hEDS in comparison to those in the healthy control group. Abnormalities were discovered in the expression of cadherin-11, snail1, and αvβ3, α5β1 and α2β1 integrins. Integrins mediate the connections between the cell cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix to ensure they stay together, cell-to-cell adhesion is initiated by cadherin-11, and snail1 is localised close to the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2B (CDKN2B) gene. Snail1 can activate CDKN2B gene products when Snail1 is overexpressed to the point of reaching the general localisation of the CDKN2B domain. This demonstrates that there may be a similar causative link between the widespread inflammation and chronic pain in HSD/hEDS and rheumatoid arthritis. Li et al. (2021) proved that the polarisation of macrophages (white blood cells which destroy foreign products) was carefully controlled by the CDKN2B-AS1/ MIR497/TXNIP axis- the increased activation of which in rheumatoid arthritis catalyses the excessive polarisation of macrophages, which causes the macrophages to attack healthy cells. In rat studies published by Tan et al. (2022), it was found that rats with diabetes and induced sepsis experienced greater intestinal injury that control rats without any medical pathology who experienced induced sepsis. This was demonstrated to be due to interruptions in the miR-3061/Snail1 communication pathway. Research on this phenomenon in humans may elucidate the relevance of snail1 overproduction in hEDS/HSD sufferers to their complex gastrointestinal symptoms. If this pathway works similarly in human models of sepsis or localised GI infection, it may intimate that snail1 overproduction is responsible for the hyperpolarisation of macrophages in response to foreign product detection, which may cause immunological damage in the intestines. However, the relevance of this study to hEDS/HSD should be considered questionable until further human research into this avenue has been completed. The result of this research is that academia can potentially derive a genetic cause of the complex phenotypes demonstrated by sufferers of hEDS/HSD. This can be achieved by visualising the human genome, and testing genes like those above, or those implicated in modulating the activity of the genes above. Given this, the 2025 symposium discussed whether HSD and hEDS should be considered separate at all, with discussions around potentially reclassifying or merging them in the future, to improve access to care to patients. Written by Aimee Wilson Related articles: Ehlers-Danlos syndrome / Types of movement Project Gallery

Immunosenescence and related therapies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Ageing and its association with immune decline Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:28 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Immunosenescence and related therapies Introduction Ageing is a profoundly complex and integral part of human life. As pharmaceutical developments have occurred, introducing new medicines and therapies such as biologics and antibiotics within the last 100 years, research has begun to look at malignancy at a more macro scale. To be clear, while it has become easier to combat infectious diseases in recent times, the combating of diseases tied to our genetic composition is far more complicated, whether it be autoimmune diseases or onset conditions such as cases of dementia. Ageing is one such case of a process that is hard to combat because the mechanisms that cause it are diverse and currently not fully understood. Strides have been made under a concept known as senescence, which continues to enlighten researchers and the anti-ageing pharmaceutical industry. This article provides a short summary of what immunosenescence is and how we can utilise our understanding to develop therapies for human immunity. What is immunosenescence? Immunosenescence is the change from a healthy, active immune cell phenotype to one that is no longer conventionally active and begins to secrete inflammatory chemical messengers known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) ( Figure 1 ). A most important aspect of senescence is that a cell undergoes cell cycle arrest, meaning it cannot proliferate. You may now question why cells are programmed to senesce if the outcomes are detrimental to the host? It prevents the continued proliferation of old or damaged cells, including cells with uncontrolled proliferation (such as cancer cells). If we stop senescence altogether, we run the risk of accumulating damaged and/or mutated cells, increasing the chances of disease progression, such as through fibrosis and tumorigenesis, so specific targeting and dosage of drug interventions have to be considered. The immune system in particular, displays biological changes that are indicative of senescent progression. These include thymic involution (shrinking of the thymus associated with a decrease in T cell production), inflammaging (chronic inflammation associated with SASP), an increase in mitochondrial stress through metabolic changes, and an increase in differentiated memory T cells (EMRA T cells). Knowledge of these changes can give insight into potential mechanisms to target for therapeutics. Current and developing therapies for immunosenescence Given our expanding understanding of senescence, as of the time of writing, there are no clinically approved drugs for senescence specifically. The development of therapies for diseases such as cancer, heart disease and diabetes (diabetic patients tend to exhibit increased levels of cellular senescence owing to “accelerated ageing”) have been implicated with suppressing senescence. These drugs would be mTOR inhibitors such as Rapamycin, statins, P13K inhibitors, as well as immune checkpoint inhibitors for T cells, such as anti CTLA-4 PD-L1 and PD-L2, and the anti-diabetic metformin, which have all shown in vitro to be effective against high levels of senescent cells. There was also the development of the recent first senolytic drugs dasatinib and quercetin in 2015 that kill senescent cells selectively against non-senescent cells and stand to provide a proof of concept for targeting disease through senescent mechanisms. Conclusion The field of senescence is certainly one to keep an eye on, with a bibliometric analysis in 2023 showing an increase every year in the number of published papers ( Figure 2 ). It may be sooner rather than later that we see this become a trending topic of discussion for treating an array of disease states. Continuous research into specific immune cell subtypes (B, T and NK cells) and their relation to a decline in immunity in response to age can tell us more about potential therapeutic pathways or lifestyle choices that can improve the health of the immunocompromised elderly. One such example of this is Treg-mediated increased glucose consumption in the tumour microenvironment leading to an increase in cell senescence in effector T cells, suggesting that high sugar diets can accelerate tumorigenesis. Our understanding of ageing through senescence will help reduce the mortality rates of elderly groups in decades to come through knowing that mechanisms such as the SASP and altered immune cell function, which can promote disease states. Written by Yaseen Ahmad Related articles: Genetics of ageing and longevity / Accelerated ageing REFERENCES Henson, S.M. and Aksentijevic, D. (2021) ‘Senescence and type 2 diabetic cardiomyopathy: How young can you die of old age?’, Frontiers in Pharmacology , 12. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.716517. Wang, R. et al. (2017) ‘Rapamycin inhibits the secretory phenotype of senescent cells by a NRF2-independent mechanism’, Aging Cell , 16(3), pp. 564–574. doi:10.1111/acel.12587. Henson, S.M. et al. (2012) ‘Reversal of functional defects in highly differentiated young and old CD8 T cells by PDL blockade’, Immunology , 135(4), pp. 355–363. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03550.x. Islam, M.T. et al. (2023) ‘Senolytic drugs, dasatinib and quercetin, attenuate adipose tissue inflammation, and ameliorate metabolic function in old age’, Aging Cell , 22(2). doi:10.1111/acel.13767. Li, C., Liu, Z. and Shi, R. (2023) ‘A comprehensive overview of cellular senescence from 1990 to 2021: A machine learning-based bibliometric analysis’, Frontiers in Medicine , 10. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1072359. Herranz, N. and Gil, J. (2018) ‘Mechanisms and functions of cellular senescence’, Journal of Clinical Investigation , 128(4), pp. 1238–1246. doi:10.1172/jci95148. Li, L. et al. (2019) ‘TLR8-mediated metabolic control of human Treg function: A mechanistic target for cancer immunotherapy’, Cell Metabolism , 29(1). doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2018.09.020. Project Gallery

Second most common anaemia Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anaemia of chronic disease 09/05/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 24/08/23, 17:06 Second most common anaemia This article is no. 3 of the anaemia series. Next article: sideroblastic anaemia . Previous article: Iron-deficiency anaemia. Pathogenesis The second most prevalent anaemia is anaemia of chronic disease (ACD); it is more often seen alongside chronic infections or malignancies. Other causes include infections, autoimmune diseases, and transplant rejection. The pathogenesis of the condition is greatly lead by the effectiveness of the immune system. The immune response to tumour cells and pathogens is to remove and deny access to iron, which is needed to thrive. The processes are mainly thought to be mediated through cytokines such as TNF, IL-6s and IFN as well as the acute phase protein hepcidin. IL-6 is a very powerful cytokine in that it can inhibit erythropoiesis through the downregulation of gene expression; SLC4a1 reducing haemoglobin production, it increases ferratin production whilst inhibiting TNF-α; this upregulates DMT-1, which is a protein (transmembrane) involved in iron uptake in macrophages, and it upregulates the production of hepcidin. Hepicidin Hepcidin is a peptide hormone, 25 amino-acid-chain protein, derived mainly from hepatic cells. Its synthesis is induced as a response to iron overload or inflammation. Its presence crucial in the diagnosis of ACD. IL-6 induces hepcidin release from hepatocytes. Upregulation causes the transport protein (ferroportin) degradation, inhibiting iron absorption in duodenum, enterocytes and macrophage recycling via upregulation of dMT-1, and mobilisation of stored iron, resulting in low iron plasma. Clinical presentation A patient with ACD may have low haemoglobin (Hb), and the reticulocyte index (new RBC) count may be reduced. Also, this is a common feature of an iron deficient anaemia (IDA). A blood film may help diagnose the underlying condition, but the red cell morphology varies greatly, as less than half can be microcytic or hypochromic. Iron studies are what helps ACD stand out from the other anaemias: raised IL-6, hepcidin and ferratin are the key markers; the presence of iron results with raised ferratin and iron will be seen if a blood film is stained correctly. There may also be reduced serum iron, % saturation and TIBC. Should erythrocyte sedimentation rates be high, rouleaux may be seen, which are aggregations of RBC. Conclusion The most efficient way to diagnose an anaemia is through serum biomarkers in a FBC, and iron studies. Hepcidin and other chemical markers play a key role in the diagnosis of ACD. Iron studies help to paint a clearer picture when diagnosing anaemias, but should be supported with a medical history alongside a clinical examination, as comorbidities may influence chronic inflammatory markers. Written by Lauren Kelly Project Gallery

Testing cancerous tumours Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A new tool to diagnose: liquid biopsies 26/04/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 15/01/24, 23:48 Testing cancerous tumours Liquid biopsies are an example of integrating next-generation sequencing to diagnose and study tumours using only blood or other fluid samples rather than solid tissue. These biopsies are significant in modern medicine, particularly in treating cancer, as they enable the earlier detection of cancers in a less invasive manner. As of 2025-26, England's NHS is implementing liquid biopsy tests for thousands of lung and breast cancer patients, enabling faster access to targeted therapies. In this article, I aim to explore liquid biopsies, their role in disease detection and issues which arise from their usage. A liquid biopsy is a test which detects cancerous tumours from the pieces of tumour that break off and circulate in the bloodstream. A liquid biopsy involves a simple blood test and analysis in the lab with a machine that separates blood cells from the plasma, allowing a pathologist to examine the fluid and look for biomarkers. These include circulating tumour cells (CTC) or circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA). CTCs are cancer cells that disseminate from a tumour and travelling in the bloodstream, whereas ctDNA is a DNA fragment from the tumour circulating in the blood. See Figure 1 for a diagram summarising this process in more detail. Finding these biomarkers shows evidence of a malignant tumour, possibly revealing its stage of development and potential metastases. Oncologists use this information to form the basis of cancer prognosis. Furthermore, genetic data from these tests provides information on suitable and effective treatments specific to the patient. In particular, the suitability for targeted therapies, which target specific genes or proteins within the cancer. Furthermore, it can monitor how well a treatment is working by seeing if the tumour has stopped growing after treatment. Finally, it can be used to predict and help prevent recurrence of cancer or progression of cancer by detecting minimal residual disease (where a small number of cancer cells remain in the body after treatment). Liquid biopsies are perhaps better and more advantageous than normal biopsies, as the method is quicker without requiring surgical intervention. In addition, liquid biopsies provide a more comprehensive tissue profile by taking tumour heterogeneity into account. This includes revealing more information about genetic variations, monitoring clonal evolution, assessing treatment resistance, and aiding in the customisation of targeted therapies. This means a more comprehensive view is provided compared to tissue biopsies, which do not represent the entire genetic diversity of a tumour. Liquid biopsies excel in overcoming these limitations by providing a systematic and dynamic assessment of the entire tumour’s genetic diversity. Unlike tissue biopsies, which may miss subclones, liquid biopsies offer a more comprehensive understanding of the overall tumour, making them a valuable tool for precision oncology. The process is also minimally invasive and only causes minimal pain. While liquid biopsies offer a less invasive means of monitoring diseases, their sensitivity and specificity in detecting biomarkers, such as circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) or circulating tumour cells (CTCs), might vary, leading to potential false positives or negatives. Additionally, the quantity and quality of biomarkers present in bodily fluids can fluctuate, impacting the reliability of liquid biopsy results for consistent monitoring. Furthermore, the associated cost of analysing liquid biopsy samples and the technology required for accurate detection can pose financial constraints for widespread implementation in healthcare systems. See Figure 2 which summarises the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Currently, there are a few liquid biopsy tests approved by the FDA to detect cancer within a patient. One example is the “Guardant 360 CDx”, approved for use in people with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Another example is the “Foundation One liquid CDx”, which is approved for use in people with a range of cancers such as NSCLC, prostate, ovarian and breast cancer. However, more research is needed to clinically evaluate the efficacy of liquid biopsies when compared to tissue biopsies. Nevertheless, liquid biopsies show a positive prospect for cancer diagnosis. Furthermore, liquid biopsies have also been used outside of cancer, such as in cardiovascular conditions such as myocardial infarction. In myocardial infarction, specific miRNA signatures released during myocardial necrosis provide accurate early detection of myocardial infarction. Further highlighting the multilevel potential of liquid biopsies. One of the main ethical concerns surrounding liquid biopsies involves the revealing of sensitive genetic information about a patient, encompassing medical history, and genetic identity, and potentially impacting familial relationships and legal affairs. This raises critical issues regarding privacy, consent, and the secure storage of such sensitive data. Additionally, challenges surrounding standardisation, cost-effectiveness, and the establishment of robust regulatory frameworks for the handling and storage of this genetic information further underscore the ethical complexities and necessity for stringent protocols in the implementation and management of liquid biopsy technologies. To conclude, it is clear that liquid biopsies have a lot of potential in diagnosing patients and, therefore, treating patients by aiding clinical decisions made by healthcare professionals. It has proven to be useful not just in diagnosing cancer but also in cardiovascular conditions such as myocardial infarction. The process has the potential to improve future patient outcomes. However, for this to happen, issues such as costs and ethics must be addressed so that liquid biopsies can be utilised more effectively in clinical practice. Written by Harene Elayathamby References: professional, C.C. medical Liquid biopsy: What it is & procedure details , Cleveland Clinic . Available at: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/23992-liquid-biopsy (Accessed: 19 December 2023). A tale of two biopsies: Liquid biopsy vs tissue biopsy (no date) Biochain Institute Inc. Available at: https://www.biochain.com/blog/a-tale-of-two-biopsies-liquid-biopsy-vs-tissue-biopsy/ (Accessed: 19 December 2023). Adhit, K.K. et al. (2023) ‘Liquid biopsy: An evolving paradigm for non-invasive disease diagnosis and monitoring in medicine’, Cureus [Preprint]. doi:10.7759/cureus.50176. Mannelli, C. (2019) ‘Tissue vs liquid biopsies for cancer detection: Ethical issues’, Journal of Bioethical Inquiry , 16(4), pp. 551–557. doi:10.1007/s11673-019-09944-y. Figures: Journey of a liquid biopsy (no date) Diagnostics . Available at: https://diagnostics.roche.com/global/en/article-listing/infographic-journey-of-a-liquid-biopsy.html (Accessed: 19 December 2023). A tale of two biopsies: Liquid biopsy vs tissue biopsy (no date) Biochain Institute Inc. Available at: https://www.biochain.com/blog/a-tale-of-two-biopsies-liquid-biopsy-vs-tissue-biopsy/ (Accessed: 19 December 2023) Project Gallery

The slippery property of a superfluid is caused by its ability to flow very easily Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The incredibly slippery nature of superfluids 03/04/25, 11:33 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 09:53 The slippery property of a superfluid is caused by its ability to flow very easily Slipperiness is a property that we often associate with everyday objects like ice, soap, and banana peels. However, there is a substance that is even more slippery than these: superfluids. A normal liquid becomes a superfluid when it is cooled down below a certain temperature. This temperature is unique to all fluids, for example for helium it is 2.17 K. Below this temperature, the superfluid will behave in completely unique ways. For example, if a container of water at room temperature was spun, you’d expect the water to also spin around, creating a whirlpool. Whereas a superfluid in a spinning container doesn’t spin at all, until it reaches a certain speed! The slippery property of a superfluid is caused by its ability to flow very easily. Usually it’s safe to leave a glass of water on a countertop (unless of course you’ve got a particularly excitable dog), but if you were to leave a glass of superfluid on a table, the liquid would creep out and escape. The tiny changes in temperature or pressure in the container cause it to flow, seemingly defying gravity. Unfortunately, superfluids cannot just be bought in the local supermarket! To produce a superfluid, devices known as cryostats can be used to cool a substance down to low temperatures. Using the ideal gas model, pressure, and volume can be related, so by reducing the pressure, the temperature of the device can also be decreased. The pressure is reduced using a vacuum pump, which works by removing particles from the cryostat. The applications of superfluids are limited as, due to the typically very low temperatures needed for a normal fluid to transition to a superfluid, there is difficulty in producing superfluids. Currently, scientists are working on finding fluids that enter a stable superfluid state at room temperatures. However, superfluids are used within many fields of physics to explain certain phenomena. One theory is that the core of collapsed large stars (neutron stars) is a superfluid, despite the very hot temperatures. The idea is that below a certain temperature, it uses less energy for the core to behave like a superfluid which cools the star down at an increased rate. The superfluid theory of neutron stars is just a hypothesis, however hints at the role superfluids play in all areas of physics. Written by Madeleine Hales REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING: https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200601/history.cfm#:~:text=In%201927%20Willem%20Keesom%20and,helium%20I%20and%20helium%20II . https://physicsworld.com/a/neutron-star-has-superfluid-core/ Project Gallery

Have you perform the wrong exercises – You must keep revising your exercises and keep upgrading your knowledge about the proper use of equipment, and everything else related to fitness so that you don’t make any mistake in giving your clients the wrong exercises Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Examples of negligence in personal training on the impact of physiology Last updated: 25/02/26 Published: 26/01/23 Negligence in personal training is a failure to look after clients to avoid them getting injured while training. There are many ways this can happen, below are some examples of negligence in personal training. Making use of equipment that is defective – Using a defective equipment can easily lead to injury or at least poor exercising form. Trainers should be able to differentiate between effective and defective equipment if they want to avoid negligence in training their clients. In that scenario, the best thing a personal trainer can do is to repair the equipment or replace it with new ones instead of putting a ‘defect’ or ‘out of order’ sign on it. An example is the case Stewart v. Fitness First (2024). Telling you to lift too much weight – You can’t just tell your clients to lift too much weight without even knowing their capacity, their way of eating and experience from past training. This is irrational and unprofessional, thus neglecting your clients directly which can lead to causing them injuries like muscle tears, muscle strains and even worse, a wrong death. Have you perform the wrong exercises – You must keep revising your exercises and keep upgrading your knowledge about the proper use of equipment, and everything else related to fitness so that you don’t make any mistake in giving your clients the wrong exercises to do that can lead to stopping them from achieving their desired physiques, and fitness goals. Muscle imbalances will occur as well if not done properly. Make you exercise for too long – Exercising for too long can cause excess fatigue and can lead to muscle strains and sprains. Coaches must not let their clients push themselves too far. It may sound cool but it is not really healthy. Everything we do must be done in an appropriate manner to avoid consequences that will harm us. Written by Kushwant Nathoo Related articles: A perspective on well-being / Gentrification in the context of health

An explanation of how cumulus clouds form and grow in the atmosphere Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The physics behind cumulus clouds 14/07/25, 15:58 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 13:51 An explanation of how cumulus clouds form and grow in the atmosphere When you think of a cloud, it is most likely a cumulus cloud that pops into your head, with its distinct fluffy, cauliflower-like shape. The word ‘cumulus’ means ‘heaped’ in Latin, and aptly describes the clumpy shape of these detached clouds. They are one of the lowest clouds in the sky at altitudes of approximately 600 to 1000 metres, while the highest clouds form nearly 14 km up in the atmosphere. Depending on the position of the clouds in relation to the sun, they can appear in a brilliant white colour, or in a more foreboding grey colour. Cumulus clouds are classified into four different species: cumulus humilis clouds which are wider than they are tall, cumulus mediocris which have similar widths and heights, cumulus congestus which are taller than they are wide, and finally, cumulus fractus which have blurred edges as this is the cloud in its decaying form. Cumulus clouds are often associated with fair weather, with cumulus congestus being the only species that produces rain. So, how do cumulus clouds form, and why are they associated with fair weather? To understand the formation of these clouds, think of a sunny day. The sun shines on the land and causes surface heating. The warm surface heats the air above it which causes this air to rise in thermals, or convection currents. The air in the thermal expands and becomes less dense as it rises through surrounding cool air. The water vapour that is carried upwards in the convection current condenses when it gets cool enough and forms a cumulus cloud. Due to the varying properties of different surface types, some types are better at causing thermals than others. For example, the sun’s radiation will warm the surface of land more efficiently than the sea, leading to the formation of cumulus clouds over land rather than the sea. This is because water has a higher heat capacity than land, meaning it will take more heat to warm the water than the land. As cumulus clouds form on the top of independent thermals, they appear as individual floating puffs. But, what happens when cumulus clouds are knocked off the perch of their thermal by a breeze? How do they keep growing from an innocent, lazy cumulus humilis to a dark cumulus congestus, threatening rain showers? Latent heat gives us the answer. This is the energy that is absorbed, or released, by a body when it changes state. A cumulus cloud forms at the top of a thermal as the water molecules condense (changing state from a gas to a liquid) to form water droplets. When this happens, the warmth given off by the latent heat of condensation heats up the surrounding air causing it to expand and rise further, repeating the cycle and forming the characteristic cauliflower mounds of the cloud. The development of a cumulus humilis to cumulus congestus depends on the available moisture in the atmosphere, the strength of the sun’s radiation to form significant thermals, and whether there is a layer of warmer air higher up in the atmosphere that can halt the rising thermals. If the conditions are right, a cumulus congestus can keep growing and form a cumulonimbus cloud, which is an entirely different beast, more than deserving of its own article. So, the next time you see a cumulus cloud wandering through the sky, you will know how it came to be there. Written by Ailis Hankinson Related article: The physics of LIGO Project Gallery

The true cost Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Turkey Teeth 04/04/26, 16:32 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:57 The true cost Coined as 'Turkey teeth,' the rising trend of dental tourism has gained increasing popularity among the British population, largely influenced by social media. Many people are now traveling abroad for veneers, crowns, and implants, in the hope of achieving the perfect smile at a fraction of the cost in the UK. However, patients may be paying with their future oral health in the long run, as evidence emerges of botched procedures, with crucial steps missed and patients having long-lasting pain following their treatment. Many young people opt to visit cosmetic dentistry clinics in European countries to obtain veneers due to their cheaper costs compared to the UK dental fees, given that cosmetic dentistry is not covered under the subsidised NHS prices. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that many consumers are in fact receiving full dental crowns without their knowledge, as opposed to veneers, thus sacrificing more of their natural tooth structure in the trade for a seemingly perfect smile. A critical difference between crowns and veneers is the amount of natural tooth structure removed to fit the prosthesis. Veneers are a much more minimally invasive fix, whereby 0.5mm of enamel is shaved away to allow a porcelain cover to fit to the surface of the tooth. Veneers are primarily used to conceal enamel discoloration, variations in shades, and natural tooth shapes. The minimally invasive procedure preserves tooth tissue and can even be potentially reversible in cases where there has been no preparation to the tooth. Crowns in the UK are vastly indicated for badly broken-down teeth and teeth deemed unrestorable. The preparation for a crown is far more invasive, with a significant amount of tooth structure irreversibly removed. This process sees teeth shaved down, with almost 2mm of the structure being irreversibly removed. Filing down teeth when they are otherwise perfectly clinically healthy can have dire consequences, and many patients returning to England have found themselves needing corrective work to rectify the procedures they underwent abroad. A study conducted by the Irish Dental Association revealed that 75% of those who travelled abroad for dental procedures required corrective work back home. The harsh reality of this treatment is that it can result in severe infections, long-lasting tooth pain, inflamed gums, exposed nerves, and heightened sensitivity. The destructive process of crown preparations in clinically healthy teeth increases the likelihood of exposing the tooth's pulp as more tooth tissue is removed, making the tooth more susceptible to infection. If the tooth's pulp becomes exposed, a costly and uncomfortable root canal procedure may be necessary. In the long term, these patients are more likely to lose the affected teeth altogether, as irreversible damage has occurred to the teeth. Another disadvantage of quick-fix dentistry abroad is the lack of follow-up appointments. In the UK, services such as occlusion checks are offered to ensure the bite is correct and that the veneers provide the desired result while lasting for an extended period. In contrast, dental procedures abroad are often expedited, sometimes limited to a single appointment as tourists return home swiftly to resume their daily lives. This can raise the risk of rushed procedures and a lack of follow-up to ensure the prosthetics' longevity. This has seen patients crowns falling off, and leaving their teeth exposed. In a typical UK dental clinic, the process involves an initial assessment, a dental health check, trial designs, and finally, the fitting of new veneers. Teeth are meticulously assessed for potential issues, including periodontal disease, and bite evaluations are performed to ensure that the prosthetics do not interfere with the occlusion. This comprehensive approach differs significantly from the one-appointment dentistry often observed abroad. Love Island's Jack Finham underwent the procedure and documented his experience across social media to thousands of followers. He later went on to reveal that in hindsight, he would not have chosen the procedure has he known its intricacies. Influencers are slowly turning to reveal the true costs of fast dentistry abroad, and it can only be hoped that consumers become better informed on the processes performed abroad, and are more well informed before making an irreversible decision for their teeth. In conclusion, it is imperative for consumers to be well-informed when considering dental procedures, especially when faced with the allure of cheaper veneers, or rather crowns abroad. While the cost savings may initially seem enticing, the potential risks associated with overseas treatments, including inadequate follow-ups, irreversible damage to natural tooth structure, and a lack of comprehensive assessments, should not be overlooked. Opting for dentistry in the UK provides a safer and more comprehensive approach, with qualified professionals who prioritise patients' oral health and long-term well-being. While affordability is a significant consideration, the adage "you get what you pay for" holds true in the realm of dental care. Informed decision-making and prioritising one's health should always take precedence when seeking dental treatments, ensuring not only a beautiful smile but also lasting oral health. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery

Nuclear medicine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Physics in healthcare 10/07/25, 11:28 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:47 Nuclear medicine When thinking about a career or what to study in university, many students interested in science think that they have to decide between a more academic route or something more vocational, such as medicine. Whilst both paths are highly rewarding, it is possible to mix the two. An example of this is nuclear medicine, allowing physics students to become healthcare professionals. Nuclear medicine is an area of healthcare that involves introducing a radioactive isotope into the system of a patient in order to image their body. A radioactive isotope is an unstable nucleus that decays and emits radiation. This radiation can then be detected, usually by a tool known as a gamma camera. It sounds dangerous, however it is a fantastic tool that allows us to identify abnormalities, view organs in motion and even prevent further spreading of tumours. So, how does the patient receive the isotope? It depends on the scan they are having! The most common route is injection but it is also possible for the patient to inhale or swallow the isotope. Some hospitals give radioactive scrambled eggs or porridge to the patient in gastric emptying imaging. The radioisotope needs to obey some conditions: ● It must have a reasonable half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for the isotope to decay to half of the original activity. If the half-life is too short, the scan will be useless as nothing will be seen. If it is too long, the patient will be radioactive and spread radiation into their immediate surroundings for a long period of time. ● The isotope must be non-toxic. It cannot harm the patient! ● It must be able to biologically attach to the area of the body that is being investigated. If we want to look at bones, there is no point in giving the patient an isotope that goes straight to the stomach. ● It must have radiation of suitable energy. The radiation must be picked up by the cameras and they will be designed to be most efficient over a specific energy range. For gamma cameras, this is around 100-200 keV. Physicists are absolutely essential in nuclear medicine. They have to understand the properties of radiation, run daily quality checks to ensure the scanners are working, they must calibrate devices so that the correct activity of radiation is being given to patients and so much more. It is essential that the safety of patients and healthcare professionals is the first priority when it comes to radiation. With the right people on the job, safety and understanding is the priority of daily tasks. Nuclear medicine is indeed effective and is implemented into standard medicine thanks to the work of physicists. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Nuclear fusion / The silent protectors / Radiotherapy Project Gallery