Global warming can lead to higher transmission rates of dengue fever Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The impacts of global warming on dengue fever Last updated: 08/10/25, 17:42 Published: 19/06/25, 08:00 Global warming can lead to higher transmission rates of dengue fever Introduction Dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by two mosquitoes: Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus . These mosquitoes are called ‘vectors’. Symptoms of dengue fever include a sudden high fever and severe headaches, making it hard to diagnose. Transmission suitability is endemic, meaning the virus spreads where the conditions are suitable for the vectors to survive and reproduce for 10-12 months. This disease is endemic in the tropics, including much of Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Africa, Northern South America, Brazil, South and Southeast Asia, and parts of Northern Australia. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has stated that it is “the most important mosquito-borne viral disease in the world”. Dengue fever does not currently have a vaccine. There are many areas of transmission, and dengue fever impacts communities worse if they have weaker health systems. Severe dengue can be fatal, especially in children, who have a weaker immune system. Due to climate change and increasing temperatures, more areas will be habitable for the vectors in the future. This could lead to higher transmission rates of dengue fever. Researchers used a modelling approach using different datasets to make projections of the impact of changing temperatures and predict the future spread of dengue fever. They specifically looked at locations and months suitable for dengue transmission if conditions were suitable for both vectors. Method The researchers used temperature data from the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperatures dataset for the present day (2001-2020). They also used projected temperature data for 2050 based on the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) projections for the socio-economic pathway (SSP) 1-2.6 scenario and SSP5-8.5 scenario, as used in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sixth Assessment Report. The SSP1-2.6 scenario is the best-case scenario and assumes international policy agreements and emissions reductions will be followed, limiting the average global temperature to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. The SSP5-8.5 scenario is the “business as usual” scenario and assumes that continued fossil fuel use and development will occur. Researchers used the most recent climate projections from the CMIP6, which gave an up-to-date, holistic view of the impact of potential differences between climate change trajectories on vulnerable populations. This information can be used to support climate change mitigation strategies and disease prevention and control. Thermal limits for the mosquito vectors used in this study were 19.9 - 29.4 °C for Aedes aegypti and 21.3 - 34 °C for Aedes albopictus , since the vectors can only survive and reproduce within these temperatures. Modelling the thermal limits of both vectors, instead of just one, made the analysis more comprehensive. The researchers also applied an aridity mask using the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which excluded areas too dry for mosquito survival and reproduction. They then applied the thermal limits and aridity mask to the climate data to predict areas with suitable conditions for the vectors and estimate the number of months suitable for transmission. Using aridity masks (previously only done with malaria) enhanced the model's accuracy because moisture is an important factor for mosquito breeding. Results Figure 1 shows that under the SSP1-2.6 (best-case) scenario, there will be new suitability for dengue transmission in temperate regions by 2050, lasting about 1 to 2 months. In addition, northwestern South America could see increases of up to 5 months of new suitability, and Eastern Africa up to 6 months of new suitability. In addition, eastern and southern Central America, central and northwestern South America, northern Australia, and parts of Southeast Asia are also becoming suitable for year-round transmission. Figure 2 shows that under the SSP5-8.5 (“business as usual”) scenario, areas will become suitable for year-round transmission in similar locations as under the SSP1-2.6 scenario by 2050. Dengue transmission suitability could increase by up to 6 months in Eastern Africa, and up to 10 months in parts of northwestern South America. Areas as far north as the Arctic Circle also have new suitability under this scenario. This demonstrates that climate change could result in the expansion of areas and the length of time during which dengue fever transmission is possible. Evaluation It’s essential to also acknowledge the study's limitations. For example, the model did not account for other variables impacting disease transmission, such as mosquito adaptation and extreme weather. The potential adaptation of mosquitoes and parasites to changing environmental conditions could alter transmission dynamics. In addition, extreme weather events, such as heavy rain, could eliminate breeding sites. Furthermore, the method of using modelling and projections is unreliable, because many things could change between now and 2050. For example, there could be temperature fluctuations, or temperatures could fall between SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5, rather than being fixed in either scenario. This could affect the reliability of predicting future dengue fever transmission suitability. The study also did not include aridity projections under climate change scenarios. As future projections of NDVI are not currently available, NDVI values for 2020 were held constant for the 2050 projections. There will likely be changes in aridity by 2050, which will affect mosquito reproduction and dengue transmission. Nevertheless, this study's results are still important because they suggest that with increasing climate change, dengue fever transmission could increase, which would be a public health issue. Further listening and reading If you would like to know more about dengue fever, consider listening to this short 5-minute podcast from the World Health Organisation. If you would like to know more about the impacts of climate change on health, consider listening to this podcast , also from the World Health Organisation. If you would like to know more about the impacts of climate change on neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), consider reading the full open-access paper mentioned in this article . Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Potential vaccine for malaria / Correlation between HDI and mortality rate / Healthcare challenges during civil war in Sudan / Rising temperatures impacts Project Gallery

Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick suitable animal models Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Do other animals get periods? Last updated: 29/03/26, 16:48 Published: 26/06/25, 08:00 Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick suitable animal models Periods, formally called menstruation, happen to female mammals every menstrual cycle when an egg cell is not fertilised. Levels of the progesterone hormone decrease, causing the lining of the uterus to self-destruct and shed. This lining is called the endometrium and is flushed out of the body with blood during menstruation. Some primates, bats, the spiny mouse, and elephant shrews get periods ( Figure 1 ). Since these groups are distantly related, menstruation likely evolved multiple times independently. Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick animal models which best reflect the human female reproductive system. Why do we get periods? Despite being painful and inconvenient, menstruation must have some benefit; otherwise, natural selection would not favour it on multiple separate occasions. Hypotheses put forward to explain menstruation include clearing the uterus of pathogens and saving energy compared to maintaining an endometrium all the time. A 2012 paper argues that neither of these hypotheses are true and that menstruation is an unfortunate byproduct of the way pregnancy occurs in certain animals. A more recent article expands on this idea; menstruation was not selected for in isolation, rather it evolved as one small part of a complex reproductive system. In non-menstruating animals, an embryo induces morphological and biological changes in the uterus, so those changes do not happen if they are not pregnant. The uterus of a menstruating animal undergoes regular changes even without an embryo, and one of those changes is shedding the endometrium. However, there is no consensus on the benefits of menstruation. Non-human primates Old World monkeys, apes, and humans menstruate conspicuously. This could be because their endometria have spiral arteries, which dilate and weaken in response to hormones. Eventually, the weakened arteries break and release blood, which carries dead and detached endometrial tissue out of the body. While chimpanzee menstruation is visible to the naked eye, menstrual blood in orangutans and gorillas is detected with a chemical urine strip. Gorillas bleed for 3 days, while orangutans bleed for 1-4 days. Humans have the most obvious, and possibly the most prolonged, menstruation out of the Old World primates. (Aren’t we unlucky?). On the other hand, the very few New World monkey species which menstruate need a microscope to detect it. Pedro Mayor and colleagues sampled the endometria of various New World monkeys and viewed those samples under a microscope. They found that monkeys from the Aotus nancymaae and Sapajus macrocephalus species had weakened endometria with dilated blood vessels and blood clots ( Figure 2 ). Combined with other context clues from those endometrium samples, they concluded that those monkeys must be menstruating. Bats Microscopy also identified menstruation in some bat species. In a 2011 study, uterus sections from Carollia perspicillata bats showed the endometrium getting thinner over a few days with associated bleeding. Some sections had endometrial debris in the lumen of the uterus – but unlike in Old World primates and humans, this debris was reabsorbed by the body rather than released. Menstruating Molossus ater bats had blood and endometrial cells in their cervix under a microscope, while one individual was visibly bleeding in its vagina. In contrast, a colony of female Rousettus leschenaulti bats all had visible vaginal bleeding on the same day. On that day, two-thirds of their endometria were shed, and they had low progesterone levels – meaning those bats were menstruating. Bat menstruation differs from primates in at least two ways. Firstly, menstruation happens simultaneously with ovary development in Carollia perspicillata and before ovary development in primates. Secondly, some bat species only menstruate after an interrupted mating attempt – which scientists call coitus , and the public would call “pulling out”. Perhaps menstruation gives these bats a second chance at successful mating in that breeding season. Conclusion We rarely see other animals on their period because if the species does menstruate, they do not bleed as much as humans do. Evidence of menstruation in New World monkeys and bats usually came from microscopy, where the endometrium was seen to detach, and blood was seen in the uterine lumen. These monkeys and bats could be used as rudimentary animal models to study what happens in humans during a period. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Monkey see, monkey clone REFERENCES Catalini L, Fedder J. Characteristics of the endometrium in menstruating species: lessons learned from the animal kingdom. Biology of Reproduction [Internet]. 2020 May 26 [cited 2025 Jan 8];102(6):1160–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioaa029 Mayor P, Pereira W, Nacher V, Navarro M, Monteiro FOB, El Bizri HR, et al. Menstrual cycle in four New World primates: Poeppig’s woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii), red uakari (Cacajao calvus), large-headed capuchin (Sapajus macrocephalus) and nocturnal monkey (Aotus nancymaae). Theriogenology [Internet]. 2019 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Jan 7];123:11–21. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093691X18302796 Rasweiler IV JJ, Badwaik NK, Mechineni KV. Ovulation, Fertilization, and Early Embryonic Development in the Menstruating Fruit Bat, Carollia perspicillata. The Anatomical Record [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2025 Jan 8];294(3):506–19. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ar.21304 Graham C. Reproductive Biology of the Great Apes: Comparative and Biomedical Perspectives. Elsevier; 2012. 456 p. Rasweiler IV JJ. Spontaneous decidual reactions and menstruation in the black mastiff bat, Molossus ater. American Journal of Anatomy [Internet]. 1991 [cited 2025 Jan 8];191(1):1–22. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/aja.1001910102 Martin RD. The evolution of human reproduction: A primatological perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2025 Jan 8];134(S45):59–84. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.20734 Emera D, Romero R, Wagner G. The evolution of menstruation: A new model for genetic assimilation. BioEssays [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Jan 8];34(1):26–35. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.201100099 Etxeberria, A. and Rodriguez-Muguruza, A. (2025) Reframing the significance of menstruation: evolutionary insights from an organismal-relational perspective. HPLS , 48(1), 2. Zhang X, Zhu C, Lin H, Yang Q, Ou Q, Li Y, et al. Wild Fulvous Fruit Bats (Rousettus leschenaulti) Exhibit Human-Like Menstrual Cycle1. Biology of Reproduction [Internet]. 2007 Aug 1 [cited 2025 Jan 8];77(2):358–64. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.106.058958 Project Gallery

Psilocybin's active metabolite, psilocin, acts as a serotonin receptor agonist Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The promising effects of magic mushrooms for depression Last updated: 05/04/26, 15:37 Published: 19/02/26, 08:00 Psilocybin's active metabolite, psilocin, acts as a serotonin receptor agonist This is Article 3 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Previous article: Inside out: the chemistry of depression . Next article coming soon. What is psilocybin? Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic tryptamine alkaloid found in over 200 species of mushrooms (Psilocybin mushrooms), commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms. Upon ingestion, the body converts psilocybin into its active metabolite, psilocin, which acts as a serotonin receptor agonist, primarily impacting 5-HT2A receptors. What is psilocybin useful for? In recent years, clinical research has shown that psilocybin-assisted therapy, can quickly and meaningfully reduce symptoms of depression, often within days rather than weeks, when given in a safe, controlled medical setting with psychological support. Importantly, these studies don’t just look at mood while someone is under the influence. They measure long-term changes weeks or months after treatment. Studies, such as Gukasyan et al. , 2022 and Goodwin et al. , 2022, have shown that 1-2 doses of psilocybin plus therapy have led to sustained reductions in depressive symptoms that last at least 8-12 weeks, and in some cases 12 months later. Research has also demonstrated potential benefits for individuals whose depression has not responded to conventional antidepressant treatments. A large phase II double-blinded trial, by Griffiths et al. , 2016, involving people with treatment-resistant depression found that those given a therapeutic dose (25 mg) of psilocybin had noticeably greater improvement in their depression scores compared with a very low dose (10 mg). Scientists, for example Daws et al. , 2022, believe psilocybin works differently from standard antidepressants. It appears to temporarily increase connections between different parts of the brain and may help break rigid patterns of negative thinking that are typical in depression. If psilocybin is effective, why is it not currently used in treatment for depression? Psilocybin remains classified as a Schedule I controlled substance under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, meaning it is considered to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. For psilocybin to become an approved clinical treatment for depression, it must be rescheduled through formal regulatory review, a process that involves extensive clinical testing and bureaucratic steps. In many countries, including the United States, rescheduling controlled substances can be slow and complex. For example, in 2022-2023, the U.S. government reviewed the scheduling of marijuana (cannabis) after presidential direction to federal agencies, but a final rescheduling decision was still pending as of late 2025. According to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, Schedule III drugs are defined as substances with moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence, whereas Schedule I substances are defined as having no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse. Because psilocybin is still Schedule I in most jurisdictions, it cannot yet be prescribed as a mainstream treatment for depression, despite promising clinical trial results. Written by Chloe Kam Related article: What does depression do to your brain? Project Gallery

Beyond sugarcane fields and dreamy beaches, Mauritius secures first place in mobile connectivity Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Mauritius's rise as African leader of mobile networks Last updated: 11/04/26, 16:04 Published: 05/06/25, 08:00 Beyond sugarcane fields and dreamy beaches, Mauritius secures first place in mobile connectivity Background: GSMA ranking In the bustling capital city of Port Louis, commuters check the latest news updates using mobile data on their phones. Across the busy, connecting streets, a handful of tourists video call their family back home, asking them what souvenirs they would like- also on mobile data. Apart from idyllic holiday scenes and solid sugar exports, the island nation of Mauritius has become number one in Africa for mobile connectivity- as scored by the Global System for Mobile Communications Association (GSMA). The small island is now at the forefront of telecommunication development, with the increasing rollout of 5G networks. How did this touristic country become a leader in mobile connectivity? On the 13th of August 2024, the GSMA announced its yearly index for mobile connectivity. The GSMA looks at 41 African countries and ranks them based on: internet accessibility, prices of mobile devices, relevant services and political environments. Scoring 62.7 points out of the possible 100, Mauritius took the first spot, in front of South Africa. This result also places the island country 76th in the world. Remarkably, this is the third consecutive year that Mauritius is leading in mobile connectivity in Africa. Moreover Mauritius, with a population of 1.26 million, boasts an average of 1.7 phones per person, compared to only 1.2 phones per person in the US (according to 2023 data). Connecting the island: 5G is nearly everywhere Three companies provide mobile phone networks on Mauritius island: Emtel, MTML (Chili) and state-owned My.t. At present, 5G is widely available in Mauritius, thanks to Emtel supplying it to approximately 80% of the island for both residential and commercial usage. Though Emtel is the biggest network in the country, My.t is the most popular provider currently, and it also offers 5G to its users. A closer look at 4G and 5G 3G (and 3G High-Speed Packet Access, HSPA), 4G (Long Term Evolution, LTE) and 5G are wireless mobile networks, where the ‘G’ in these networks means ‘generation’ and indicates the strength of the signal on the mobile device. Hence, each mobile network is an improvement since the last generation of network. These mobile networks aim for high quality, reliable communication, and are based on radio signals. Each generation has evolved to achieve this. Table 1 compares the differences between all of these networks. The original 1G network from 1979 used analogue radio signals, while subsequent network generations use digital radio signals. Table 1: A comparison of 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G mobile networks 2G 3G HSPA+ 4G LTE 5G Speed 64Kbps 8Mbps 50Mbps 10Gbps Bandwidth 30- 200 kHz 15- 20 MHz 100 MHz 30- 300 GHz Features Better quality video calls than before Can send and receive larger emails Higher speeds and capacities Much faster speeds and capacities; high resolution video streaming SMS and MMS Larger capacities Low cost per bit Low latency Interactive multimedia, voice, video Allows remote control of operations e.g. vehicles, robots, medical procedures It is evident from Table 1 that not only have speeds and capacities increased with each generation, but new features have also been implemented such as video calls, interactive multimedia, streaming, and remote control of operations. Introduced in 2019, 5G is thought to be the most ambitious mobile phone network- almost revolutionary in its benefits since 1G. Usually, mobile carriers operate on a 4G LTE and 5G coexistence. This means that 5G phones can switch to 4G if 5G isn’t available in the region. Top of the tower- how? Since the 5G rollout in 2021, Mauritius has been enjoying the larger capacities and speeds of the network. The same question arises: how did this touristic country become a leader in mobile connectivity? There are several factors: - Tourist hotspot - Government initiatives - Improving local infrastructure - General advancements in mobile network technologies - High penetration rates and mobile ownership - Increasing number of connections - Geography Each factor will be considered in turn. Factor 1- Tourist hotspot Every year, Mauritius attracts visitors far and wide to enjoy its mesmerising beaches, luscious escapes and tantalising wildlife. Therefore, over time, mobile network technology has had to improve to meet the communicative needs of tourists. Put differently, tourism significantly supports the telecom industry on the island. Factor 2- Government initiatives As well as providing free, public WiFi hotspots around the island, the government is committed to bridging the digital divide and increasing access to all of its population. Thus, it was announced that, eligible citizens between the ages of 18 and 25 will receive a free, monthly mobile data package (with 4G and 5G capabilities)- starting from the 1st of September 2024. It is an endeavour to include young people in the government’s digital plans, i.e. digital inclusion. Factor 3- Improvements in local infrastructure In recent years, My.t and EmTel have been upgrading their equipment to ensure better coverage and access to 5G in the country. Infrastructure must have improved so that the three mobile operators on the island were granted the license for 5G rollout in June 2021. The current goal is to fully expand 5G coverage in Mauritius. Factor 4- General advancements in mobile network technologies Since its inception in 2019, 5G has had a profound impact on consumers around the globe with its low latency, high resolution streaming, and insanely high speeds and capacities. This pioneering mobile network has rolled out to millions of people, including the citizens of Mauritius island. The government has utilised this new technology to empower its people and pave a way for the country to become a leader in mobile connectivity. Factor 5- High penetration rates and mobile ownership Early 2025 data shows that the East African nation has over 2.1 million active mobile connections, when its population is half of that, a mere 1.261 million. (More mobile connections is not an usual thing as people may have separate connections for personal and work use, for example. Embedded SIMs – eSIMs- have made this possible recently). With this statistic, Mauritius has a high degree of mobile ownership and network connection density. Factor 6- An increase in the number of connections Another recent event is that the number of mobile connections in the nation has been increasing gradually: between 2024 and 2025, the number has increased by 1.9%. Factor 7- Geography It is known that less land- especially less rural land- makes deployment of cell phone towers and installation of masts much easier. Therefore, spanning an area of 2,040 squared kilometres, the main island of Mauritius can enjoy adequate mobile coverage- being one of the smallest African countries. Small island, big signal. To summarise, the above factors contribute to the number one ranking in mobile connectivity for Mauritius. What does Mauritius’s rise mean for the future? If these advancements in infrastructure and technology continue on the island, then there is a brighter outlook for the future. 5G coverage in Mauritius is on its way to completion, ensuring all districts have access to the latest mobile network. Geography, government initiatives, improvements in infrastructure by mobile operators, high number of mobile connections and ownership, are some of the factors that enabled 5G rollout in Mauritius in the first instance. Mauritius is leading by example to the other countries in Africa and is additionally performing well on the global stage for mobile networks. This small island country, usually known for its exotic sights and sugarcane landscape, is quickly overtaking its African neighbours in the race to become the leader in mobile phone connectivity. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: The future of semiconductor manufacturing / Wireless electricity Project Gallery

Pushing the boundaries of analytical chemistry Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Advances in mass spectrometry technology 05/06/26, 21:29 Last updated: Published: 09/06/24, 11:48 Pushing the boundaries of analytical chemistry In the rapidly evolving field of analytical chemistry, recent technological innovations in mass spectrometry have revolutionised the analysis and characterisation of molecules. These advancements, including high-resolution mass analysers, ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), and ambient ionisation techniques, are pushing the boundaries of what can be achieved in chemical analysis. Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique that provides qualitative and quantitative information on an analyte. It is useful for measuring the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of one or more molecules present in a sample. The process consists of: Inlet - Allows the analyte to be connected to the mass spectrometre (MS). Could be direct inlet or gas chromotography (GC) / liquid chromatography (LC) to allow some separation before MS Ion source - Ensures that the analyte is ionised (i.e. carries a net charge) there are various types of ion sources depending on the analyte Analysers - Brings about a change in the velocity/trajectory of an ion from which the ions m/z can be determined i.e. characterises rate/velocity of ion. Multiple analysers are in tandem and different analysers can be combined to allow greater scope for analysis. A detection system is also required to amplify and measure ion signals. Analysers and detectors need to be held under low pressure - near vacuum. Detector - collects charge signals from ion beams. The computer then detects a spectrum. The electronic signals from the ions are then digitised to produce a mass spectrum of the analyte. High-resolution mass analysers One of the most significant breakthroughs in mass spectrometry is the development of high-resolution mass analysers. These instruments can differentiate between ions with extremely close mass-to-charge ratios, providing unprecedented levels of accuracy and specificity in compound identification. High-resolution mass spectrometry enables scientists to resolve complex mixtures and detect trace components with exceptional sensitivity, making it invaluable in fields such as metabolomics, environmental analysis, and drug discovery. Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS) Ion mobility spectrometry is another cutting-edge technology that enhances the capabilities of mass spectrometry. IMS separates ions based on their size, shape, and charge in the gas phase, providing an additional dimension of separation before mass analysis. This technique improves the resolution of complex samples, particularly for isomeric compounds that are challenging to distinguish using conventional methods. IMS coupled with mass spectrometry is widely applied in metabolomics, proteomics, and lipidomics research, enabling deeper insights into molecular structures and interactions. Ambient ionisation techniques Traditional mass spectrometry methods often require extensive sample preparation and ionisation processes in controlled laboratory environments. Ambient ionisation techniques have transformed this paradigm by enabling direct analysis of samples in their native states, including solids, liquids, and gases, without prior extraction or purification steps. Techniques such as desorption electrospray ionisation (DESI) and direct analysis in real-time (DART) have expanded the scope of mass spectrometry applications to fields like clinical diagnostics, food safety, and forensic analysis. Ambient ionisation allows for rapid, on-site measurements with minimal sample handling, revolutionising point-of-care testing and field analysis. In conclusion, the continuous evolution of mass spectrometry technology is reshaping the landscape of analytical chemistry. These innovations not only empower researchers to explore new realms of chemical analysis but also facilitate applications in areas such as precision medicine, environmental monitoring, and materials science. As these technologies continue to advance, the future holds even greater promise for pushing the boundaries of analytical chemistry and unlocking the mysteries of the molecular world. Written by Anam Ahmed Related articles: Advancements in semi-conductor manufacturing / Inorganic NMR Project Gallery

Launched in 2021, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is an astronomical observatory, designed to explore and observe the universe beyond the capabilities of its predecessor, the Hubble telescope. The JWST has primary mirror of 6.5m in diameter, the largest of any space-based telescope, and its advanced infrared technology, it can observe objects that were previously too faint, old, and distant for the Hubble telescope. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link James Webb Space Telescope: A Breakthrough in Space Exploration Last updated: 01/03/26 Published: 25/03/23 Launched in 2021, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is an astronomical observatory, designed to explore and observe the universe beyond the capabilities of its predecessor, the Hubble telescope. The JWST has a primary mirror of 6.5m in diameter, the largest of any space-based telescope; and with its advanced infrared technology, it can observe objects that were previously too faint, old, and distant for the Hubble telescope. The JWST’s aim is to revolutionise the exploration of the cosmos by studying the earliest galaxies and stars, and to detect light from the first objects that were formed in the universe. In its short deployment time, the JWST has already provided us with fascinating new insights and images of the deep space, pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the cosmos. History of James Webb Space Telescope • 1996: Next Generation Space Telescope project first proposed (8m) • 2001: NEXUS Space Telescope, a precursor to the Next Generation Space Telescope, cancelled • 2002: Proposed project renamed James Webb Space Telescope, (mirror size reduced to 6 m) • 2003: Northrop Grumman awarded contract to build telescope • 2007: Memorandum of Understanding signed between NASA and ESA[72] • 2010: Mission Critical Design Review (MCDR) passed • 2011: Proposed cancellation • 2016: Final assembly completed • 2021: Launch Achievements of James Webb Space Telescope In its short deployment, the JWST has been able to provide some exceptional data, ranging from beautiful pictures of galaxies and nebulas, the first of its kind image of an exo planet and details of exo planets atmosphere. Since its launch, scientists have been discovering galaxies far away and older than ever before, the launch of this observatory has truly made a breakthrough in space exploration. Some of its achievements are explained more in detail below: • To begin with, the JWST has been able to capture some of the most breath-taking and beautiful images of nebulae and galaxies, in both visible light and infrared spectrum. The new pictures have changed the way we had observed these subjects, giving us a deeper insight into the formation stars in these nebulae due to its higher resolutions. Some of the most iconic pictures from the JWST so far have been the pictures of the pillars of creation and the southern ring nebula. • Studying exoplanets have always been a challenge for scientists, as due to their size exoplanets are only visible through analysis of dips in luminance of its host star. But for the first time, the JWST using its infrared spectrometer and primary lens, was able to capture an image of an exoplanet directly. • During its observations, the JWST has been able to study and explore many star systems and in some cases, the exoplanets as well- going as far as studying their atmospheres in some detail, giving the research teams an insight into what these worlds may look like. • The JWST, while observing the deep space, has been able to capture the oldest galaxies known to mankind, dated as old as 13.4 billion years, 350 million years after the Big Bang. Future of Space Exploration and JWST The launch of the JWST marks a significant milestone in the field of space exploration. Not only has it opened up a new era of scientific discovery, but it has also introduced a new era for large space structures. The JWST, being the first self-assembling telescope launched in space, has proven that the only viable option for launching such a massive instrument is to make it segmented and assemble it in orbit. As we move forward, the ability to launch large structures in space that can be reassembled will undoubtedly lead to even more significant discoveries. With 6000 hours allocated for different observation missions, the JWST will enable researchers to work towards solving more of the unanswered questions regarding the cosmos. From deep space observation to exoplanet analysis, the possibilities are endless. Written by Zari Syed Related article: Lonar Lake

Why the fuss over a couple of km/s/Mpc? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hubble Tension 09/07/25, 15:20 Last updated: Published: 25/11/23, 11:10 Why the fuss over a couple of km/s/Mpc? You have probably heard that the universe is expanding, and perhaps even that this expansion is accelerating. A consequent observation of this is that distant objects such as galaxies appear to recede from Earth faster if they are further away. Here is a helpful analogy: imagine a loaf of raisin bread that is rising as it is baked. A pair of raisins on opposite sides of the loaf will move away from one another at a greater rate than a pair of raisins near the center. The more dough (universe) there is between a pair of raisins (galaxies), the faster they recede from one another. See Figure 1 . This phenomenon is encapsulated in Hubble’s Law, which relates specifically to the recessional velocity due to the expansion of space. Hubble’s Law is given by the equation v = H0 D . Where: v is the recessional velocity D is the distance to the receding object H0 is the Hubble constant It is worth noting that distant objects will often have velocities of their own due to gravitational forces - so-called ‘peculiar velocities’. In order to clarify the meaning of the title of this article, we must explore the unit in which the Hubble constant H0 is most often quoted: km/s/Mpc. This describes the speed (in kilometers per second) at which a distant object, such as a galaxy, is receding for every megaparsec of distance that galaxy is from Earth. Edwin Hubble is the name most often associated with this cosmological paradigm shift; however, physicists Alexander Friedmann and Georges Lemaître worked independently on the notion of an expanding universe, deriving similar results before Hubble verified them experimentally in 1929 at the Mount Wilson Observatory, California. What is the Hubble Tension? Hopefully the above discussion of units and raisin bread convinced you that the Hubble constant H0 is linked to the expansion rate of the universe. The larger H0 is, the faster galaxies are receding at a given distance, thus indicating a more quickly expanding universe. Therefore, cosmologists wish to accurately measure H0 in order to draw conclusions about the age and size of the universe. The Hubble Tension arises from the contradicting measurements of H0 obtained from different experiments. See Figure 2 of Edwin Hubble. CMB measurement One of these experiments uses the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), which can be thought of as an afterglow of light from near the time of the Big Bang. The wavelength of this light has expanded with the universe ever since the period of recombination - which I mentioned in my previous article on the DESI instrument. Our current best model of the universe, called ΛCDM, can describe how the universe evolved from a hot, dense state to the universe we see today, subject to a specifically balanced energy budget between ordinary matter, dark matter, and dark energy. From fitting this ΛCDM model to CMB data from missions such as ESA’s Planck Mission, one can derive a value for the expansion rate of the universe, i.e., a value for H0 . The Planck Mission measured temperature variations (anisotropies) across the CMB with unprecedented angular resolution and sensitivity. The most recent estimate for the Hubble constant using this method gave H0 = 67.4 ± 0.5 km/s/Mpc . Local Distance Ladder measurement Another technique to determine the value of H0 uses the distance-redshift relation. This is a wholly observational approach. It relies on the fact that the faster an object recedes from Earth, the more the light from that object is shifted towards longer wavelengths (redshifted). Hubble’s Law relates this recessional velocity to a distance; therefore, one can expect a similar relation between distance and redshift. A ‘ladder’ is invoked since astronomers wish to use objects that are visible from a vast range of distances; the rungs of the ladder represent greater and greater distances to the astronomical light source. Each rung of the ladder contains a different kind of ‘standard candle’, which are sources with reliable, well-constrained luminosities that translate to an accurate distance from Earth. I encourage you to look into these different types; some examples are Cepheid variables, Type Ia Supernovae, and RR Lyrae variables. When this method was employed using the Hubble Space Telescope and SH0ES (Supernova H0 for the Equation of State), a value of H0 = 73.04 ± 1.04 km/s/Mpc was obtained. The disagreement Clearly, these two values for the Hubble constant do not agree, nor do their uncertainty ranges overlap. Figure 3 shows some of the 21st-century measurements of H0 ; an excellent illustration of how the uncertainty has decreased for both methods, therefore making their disagreement more statistically significant. Many sources of scientific engagement with the public cite this disagreement as the ‘Crisis in Cosmology!’. In the author’s opinion, this is unnecessarily hyperbolic and plays on the human instinct to pick a side between two opposing viewpoints. In fact, new methods to measure H0 have been implemented using the tip of the Red-Giant branch (TRGB) as a standard candle, which demonstrate closer agreement with the value derived from the CMB. Some cosmologists believe that eventually this Hubble Tension will dissipate as our calibration of astronomical distances improves with the next generation of telescopes. Constraining the value of the Hubble constant is by no means low-hanging fruit for cosmologists, nor is the field in crisis. To see the progress we have made, one has to look back in time to 1929 when Edwin Hubble’s first estimate using a trend line and 46 galaxies gave H0 = 500 km/s/Mpc ! We must remain hopeful that the future holds a consistent approximation for the expansion rate and, with it, the age of our universe. Written by Joseph Brennan Project Gallery

A rare disease that causes inflammation in the blood vessels Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Understanding and detecting Kawasaki disease on time Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:31 Published: 06/02/25, 08:00 A rare disease that causes inflammation in the blood vessels What is Kawasaki disease? Kawasaki disease is a rare type of vasculitis that damages blood vessels through inflammation and is prevalent in children under the age of five. Kawasaki disease is predominantly found in children of Asian races–mainly in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Asian races in the US–and is the leading cause of acquired heart disease in children in most developed countries. What causes Kawasaki disease? There is no known cause of Kawasaki disease, however, studies suggest a link between genetics and the disease, noting a high incidence between siblings and in children with a parental history of Kawasaki disease. Another study provided further evidence of genetic susceptibility, stating that variation in the expression of CASP3 and ITPKC—genes heavily involved in T cell function—leads to an overexpression of T cells.This can be attributed to the inflammatory symptoms of the disease. There are speculations that it may be caused by an airborne agent originating in Central Asia which moves across different geographical regions. This study suggests that through winds, the airborne agent is able to cause Kawasaki disease via infection of the respiratory tract–further investigation is needed regarding this hypothesis. Diagnosing Kawasaki disease Symptoms of Kawasaki disease, which are often accompanied by a fever, are classified into three phases: acute, subacute, and convalescent. The acute phase usually lasts between two to three weeks and symptoms include: Carditis Mucosal inflammation (cracked and dry lips, strawberry tongue, swollen lymph nodes) Polymorphous rash Coronary artery aneurysms The subacute phase also lasts up to three weeks and includes symptoms such as: - Perineal and periungual desquamation - Arthralgia - Myocardial disease The convalescent phase is when most clinical signs dissolve and usually lasts up to three months. It is important to note that while most symptoms clear up during this phase, cardiac issues may still persist in some patients. Misdiagnosing Kawasaki disease is very common as its symptoms are similar to that of many diseases like scarlet fever or toxic shock syndrome. With that being said, confirming its diagnosis is often a case of ruling out these diseases. In addition to identifying symptoms linked to other diseases, conducting laboratory tests such as CRP, CBC, and ESR can help confirm a diagnosis of Kawasaki disease. Additionally, echocardiograms and electrocardiograms can help assess coronary abnormalities as well as overall heart function. Treating Kawasaki disease Following diagnoses, patients are first administered an IVIG and a high dose of aspirin to reduce inflammation as well as eliminate pain, swelling and fever. Patients are then administered lower doses of aspirin which helps prevent blood clotting. Roughly 25% of untreated patients are at a higher risk of developing coronary artery aneurysms and lasting cardiovascular issues in general. This risk drops down to 5% when treated appropriately. IVIG is proven to be effective in treating approximately 85-90% of cases when administered within the first ten days of the illness which is why it is imperative that patients are treated early. X-rays are regularly conducted on patients as they can help visualise blood vessels and potential heart abnormalities that may suggest further complications. It can also observe the effectiveness of treatment over time. Post-recovery, an echocardiogram is recommended periodically to detect any coronary abnormalities that may have developed much later on. Summary Kawasaki disease is a rare disease that causes inflammation in the blood vessels. It normally develops in children under the age of five and is yet to have a known cause. It is often hard to diagnose as its symptoms are similar to that of other diseases, which is why it is important to identify its symptoms (polymorphous rash, mucosal inflammation, desquamation, etc) as well as conduct tests such as CBC, CRP, ESR, an electrocardiogram, etc to help rule out other diseases. It is essential that children with Kawasaki disease are diagnosed and treated early as this can help treat coronary artery aneurysm and prevent lasting coronary and cardiovascular abnormalities. Written by Sherine Latheef Related articles: Sideroblastic anaemia / Blood / Inflammation therapy REFERENCES Onouchi, Y., Ozaki, K., Buns, J.C., Shimizu, C., Hamada, H., Honda, T., Terai, M., Honda, A., Takeuchi, T., Shibuta, S., Suenaga, T., Suzuki, H., Higashi, K., Yasukawa, K., Suzuki, Y., Sasago, K., Kemmotsu, Y., Takatsuki, S., Saji, T. and Yoshikawa, T. (2010). Common variants in CASP3 confer susceptibility to Kawasaki disease. Human Molecular Genetics , 19(14), pp.2898–2906. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddq176 . Agarwal, S. and Agrawal, D.K. (2017). Kawasaki Disease: Etiopathogenesis and Novel Treatment Strategies. Expert review of clinical immunology , [online] 13(3), pp.247–258. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1744666X.2017.1232165 . Wolff, A.E., Hansen, K.E. and Zakowski, L. (2007). Acute Kawasaki Disease: Not Just for Kids. Journal of General Internal Medicine , [online] 22(5), pp.681–684. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-006-0100-5 . Oh, J.-H., Cho, S. and Choi, J.A. (2023). Clinical Signs of Kawasaki Disease from the Perspective of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Recruiting Erythrocytes: A Literature Review. Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine , 24(4), pp.109–109. doi: https://doi.org/10.31083/j.rcm2404109 . Team, H.J. (2018). Kawasaki Disease - Causes, Signs, Symptoms,Treatment . [online] Health Jade. Available at: https://healthjade.com/kawasaki-disease/ . Project Gallery

Dysregulation of this pathway occurs in many different types of cancers Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The MAPK/ERK signalling pathway in cancer Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:29 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Dysregulation of this pathway occurs in many different types of cancers Introduction The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway is an important pathway in apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis and metastasis. It is a protein kinase pathway (causes phosphorylation) with between 3-5 sets of kinases and is known to be activated via Ras, KC-mediated (Kupffer cells/liver macrophages), Ca2+, or G protein-coupled receptors. The MAPK/ERK pathway, also known as the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway, is conserved in mammals, and dysregulation of this pathway occurs in many different types of cancers. MAPK/ERK function Ras (GTPase) activates Raf (serine/threonine kinase), which activates MEK1/2 (tyrosine & serine/threonine kinases) and ERK1/2 (serine/threonine kinases), which controls certain transcription factors. ERK1/2 also phosphorylates various substrates in the cytoplasm (not shown). This results in gene expression, which can cause apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, differentiation, proliferation, etc. (Fig. 1). It is estimated that there are more than 150 target substrates of ERK1/2, either directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Ras and RAF have several different subtypes which have different functions. Ras has four different subtypes, which are the GTPases: HRAS, KRAS4A/4B, and NRAS, with KRAS being the common form found in human cancers. RAF has subtypes, which are the kinases: ARAF, BRAF, and CRAF (in humans). Ras is activated when GRB2 (growth-factor-receptor bound protein 2) binds to SOS (son of sevenless). This occurs via the complex moving to the cell membrane upon activation of a transmembrane receptor, such as EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor). SOS transports the signal from the receptor to RAS and aids in the conversion of RAS-GDP to RAS-GTP. This switches ‘on’ RAF, which leads to the phosphorylation of MEK and ERK (Fig. 1). ERK is then able to move into the nucleus and alter gene expression, of genes such as CREB, MYC, FOS, MSK, ELK, JUN, etc., which are involved in processes such as metabolism, proliferation, angiogenesis (formation of blood vessels), haematopoiesis (formation of blood cells), wound healing, differentiation, inflammation, and cancer. However, ERK is also able to activate other substrates in the cytoplasm, such as BIM, RSK, MNK, and MCL, which are involved in processes such as apoptosis and blood pressure regulation. A regular level of ERK expression is needed for activation of genes involved in the cell cycle and to inhibit negative cell cycle control. ERK phosphorylates Cyclin D and Cdk4/6, which are bound together and aid the cell in the movement from G1 (gap) to the S phase (DNA synthesis/repair) of the cell cycle. MAPK/ERK pathway in cancer The MAPK/ERK pathway has been linked with many cancers, such as colon, thyroid, melanoma, pancreatic, lung, and glioblastoma. Mutations in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Ras, and Raf are well-known to cause cancer, with an estimated 33% of cancers containing Ras mutations, and an estimated 8% being caused by Raf mutations. It is also estimated that 85% of cancers have elevated activity of MEK. The MAPK/ERK pathway has also been shown to interact with the PI3K/Akt pathway, which controls the cell cycle and causes increased cell proliferation, which is obviously an important factor in tumourigenesis (tumour initiation). Regulation of the MAPK/ERK pathway There is a negative feedback mechanism of ERK1/2 on RAS/RAF/MEK, by ERK1/2 phosphorylating SOS, which causes the RAF-RAS link to be disrupted. ERK also inhibits MEK via the phosphorylation of BRAF and CRAF. There are inhibitors for Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK, but not all of these inhibitors work well/are without issues. ERK is problematic, in that their ATP-binding sites are very like cell cycle proteins, so are more difficult to inhibit. Also, it is difficult to target Ras due to its high GTP binding affinity, profuse cellular GTP, and lack of appropriate binding pockets. Therefore, the main focus currently appears to be on Raf/MEK inhibition. Raf inhibitors include drugs such as sorafenib, vemurafenib, encorafenib, and dabrafenib (these drugs are used on specific BRAF mutations). On the other hand, MEK inhibitors include drugs such as trametinib, cobimetinib, binimetinib, and selumetinib (these drugs can be used on specific mutations in Ras and Ras/Raf). Negative feedback mechanisms tightly control the MEK/ERK pathway and therefore great care is taken with inhibitor drug doses. To illustrate, if the doses are too low, the negative feedback loops are activated, which can lead to drug resistance/ poor therapeutic outcome. Conclusion The MAPK/ERK pathway is essential for several cellular processes, such as apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, differentiation, and proliferation. Therefore, it has a critical role in tumourigenesis. Raf and MEK in particular are susceptible to inhibition, which has led to the production of several different drugs for use in various types of cancer. There are currently other clinical trials in progress, and these will hopefully lead to further therapies for other cancers involved in this pathway. Written by Eleanor R Markham Related articles: HIPPO signalling pathway / Thyroid cancer REFERENCES Lake, D., Corrêa, S.A.L. & Müller, J. Negative feedback regulation of the ERK1/2 MAPK pathway. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 73 , 4397–4413 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-016-2297-8 Song Y, Bi Z, Liu Y, Qin F, Wei Y, Wei X. Targeting RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathway in human cancer: Current status in clinical trials. Genes Dis. 2022 May 20;10(1):76-88. doi: 10.1016/j.gendis.2022.05.006. PMID: 37013062; PMCID: PMC10066287 Ullah R, Yin Q, Snell AH, Wan L. RAF-MEK-ERK pathway in cancer evolution and treatment. Semin Cancer Biol. 2022 Oct;85:123-154. doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.05.010. Epub 2021 May 13. PMID: 33992782. Project Gallery

Explore artificial intelligence, a technology that has taken the world by storm. Learn how it is used in fields like agriculture, drug discovery, and outer space. Elsewhere, get to grips with semi-conductor manufacturing, quantum computing, and biotechnology. Technology Articles Explore artificial intelligence, a technology that has taken the world by storm. Learn how it is used in fields like agriculture, drug discovery, and outer space. Elsewhere, get to grips with semi-conductor manufacturing, quantum computing, and biotechnology. You may also like: Maths , Physics , Engineering Fake science websites Ways fake science websites misinform and misguide readers The evolution of artificial intelligence And its greater role in natural language processor technologies Medical biotechnology Technology in the medical sciences Quantum computing What are its applications? Improving agriculture Revolutionising sustainable agriculture through AI AI in drug discovery Using this technology in drug research Digital disinformation With the use of IT cells Digital innovation in rural farming What are the benefits? AI in space What is artificial intelligence used for in outer space? Radiation therapy to treat cancer Revolutionising patient setup in cancer treatment AI: the good, the bad, and the future A Scientia News Biology group collaboration Photonic integration In semiconductor manufacturing Nanomedicine Tiny solutions for big health problems NHS clinical computer scientist Exploring the day-to-day routine in this new field in healthcare Semi-conductor laser technology The recent advancements Code to cure How bioinformatics and technology helped to develop a vaccine for COVID-19 Virtual reality in healthcare Its potential Mauritius's rise as African leader of mobile networks An in-depth look at the rollout of 5G on the island, and the factors enabling this