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'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Pangolins: from poached to protected Last updated: 27/03/25, 11:15 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China This is article no. 4 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: How Gorongosa National Park went from conflict to community . Previous article: Beavers are back in Britain Pangolins are a group of eight scaled mammal species from Asia and Africa. They are being poached mainly for their scales and meat, driving them to dangerously low numbers. Although commercial trade is banned for all species, pangolins are the most illegally trafficked animals in the world. One pangolin species has a fascinating story because of its appeal to traditional medicine and demand in a populated country. That species is the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla , and this article will describe its threats and conservation efforts. About pangolins in China Manis pentadactyla is the dominant pangolin species in China, living south of the Yangtze River ( Figure 1 ). The Sunda pangolin Manis javanica has a tiny habitat in southwest China ( Figure 1 ). Pangolins prefer natural forests, with an ambient temperature of 18-27°C and plenty of termites and ants to eat. Both Chinese species were classified as critically endangered in 2014, though accurately estimating pangolins' distribution and population size is complex. This is because they are nocturnal, solitary, and live underground. Pangolins also make no obvious sounds, or leave no apparent traces, for scientists to detect their presence. Despite these challenges, Chinese scientists are learning more about pangolin habitat to improve conservation strategies. Threats facing Chinese pangolins Chinese pangolins are critically endangered for various human-caused reasons ( Figure 2 ). The biggest reason is poaching because pangolin meat is a local delicacy, and its scales, bones, and blood are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Pangolin scales have recently been removed from the official list of ingredients for Chinese medicine, but that has not stopped hospitals from selling them. In a recent study, only a third of Chinese hospitals selling roasted pangolin scales had the required permit. Permits are also needed to sell or manufacture patented medicines containing pangolin scales, considered the gold standard for treating many conditions. Because these medicines and pangolin meat are so revered, one hunted pangolin sells for up to 90,000 yuan (≈£9800). This has incentivised the hunting and illegal trafficking of non-native pangolin species into China - where they could outcompete, or spread diseases to native species. Thus, illicit trade for traditional medicine threatens Chinese pangolins. Habitat destruction has made Chinese pangolins more vulnerable to poaching. Natural forests are being destroyed to grow crops, grow economic trees like rubber, or build human infrastructure. Farms or rubber plantations have fewer ants and termites than natural forests, so pangolins cannot survive there. As a result, in some parts of China, the pangolin geographical range halved in 30 years. With acres of this unsuitable habitat separating fragments of forest, pangolins may struggle to find mates, and inbreeding could be an issue. Thus, habitat loss is contributing to the decline of the Chinese pangolin. Conservation Conservation measures were taken in the last few decades in response to the pangolin population decline. In China, hunting pangolins was first restricted in 1987, and they were given legal protection in 1989. The Chinese government tightened this protection in 2020 after suggestions that pangolins were an intermediate species for SARS-CoV-2 to transmit from bats to humans. In addition to national restrictions, international authorities restricted pangolin trade, and the Chinese government ran public awareness campaigns about their endangered status ( Figure 3 ). Pangolins also have 100,000 squared kilometres of protected habitat in China, though this is only 9% of what models predict as a suitable pangolin habitat. Habitat protection and trade restrictions are essential to protect pangolins because captive breeding has either failed or acted as a front for illegal trafficking. Although Chinese pangolin conservation has come far in the last 40 years, more can be done. Conclusion Humans have driven Chinese pangolins to near extinction, mainly by hunting for traditional medicine ingredients and destroying native habitats. Conservation efforts have primarily involved legal and habitat protection, but pangolins are challenging to monitor and impossible to breed in captivity. Hopefully, public awareness and a clampdown on illegal trafficking will help to save this unique mammal species. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine iguanas / Galapagos tortoises REFERENCES Challender, D. et al. (2013) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Manis pentadactyla . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Available from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/en (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And Flora (2017) Appendices I, II and III valid from 4 October 2017 . Available from: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/app/2017/E-Appendices-2017-10-04.pdf . Mammoser, G. (20th February 2017) Chinese Police Go After ‘Pangolin Princess’ Who Proudly Eats Endangered Species. VICE . Available from: https://www.vice.com/en/article/chinese-police-go-after-pangolin-princess-who-proudly-eats-endangered-species/ (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Wang, Y., Turvey, S.T. & Leader-Williams, N. (2023) The scale of the problem: understanding the demand for medicinal pangolin products in China. Nature Conservation . 52: 47–61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.52.95916 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Xinhua News Agency (2015) Opinions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on Accelerating the Construction of Ecological Civilization . Beijing: The Central Government of the People’s Republic of China. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-05/05/content_2857363.htm (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Chen, Y., Tang, X., Xi, F., Cen, P., Pan, Z., Ye, W. & Wu, S. (2024) Predicting the distribution and characteristics of Chinese pangolin habitat in China: Implications for conservation. Global Ecology and Conservation . 51: e02907. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989424001112 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wang, W., Mahmood, A., Wu, S., Li, J. & Xu, N. (2021) Observations of Chinese pangolins ( Manis pentadactyla ) in mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 26: e01460. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100010X (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wu, S. & Cen, P. (2022) The past, present and future of the pangolin in Mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 33: e01995. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100545X (Accessed 19th October 2024). Project Gallery

Immunosenescence and related therapies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Ageing and its association with immune decline Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:28 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Immunosenescence and related therapies Introduction Ageing is a profoundly complex and integral part of human life. As pharmaceutical developments have occurred, introducing new medicines and therapies such as biologics and antibiotics within the last 100 years, research has begun to look at malignancy at a more macro scale. To be clear, while it has become easier to combat infectious diseases in recent times, the combating of diseases tied to our genetic composition is far more complicated, whether it be autoimmune diseases or onset conditions such as cases of dementia. Ageing is one such case of a process that is hard to combat because the mechanisms that cause it are diverse and currently not fully understood. Strides have been made under a concept known as senescence, which continues to enlighten researchers and the anti-ageing pharmaceutical industry. This article provides a short summary of what immunosenescence is and how we can utilise our understanding to develop therapies for human immunity. What is immunosenescence? Immunosenescence is the change from a healthy, active immune cell phenotype to one that is no longer conventionally active and begins to secrete inflammatory chemical messengers known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) ( Figure 1 ). A most important aspect of senescence is that a cell undergoes cell cycle arrest, meaning it cannot proliferate. You may now question why cells are programmed to senesce if the outcomes are detrimental to the host? It prevents the continued proliferation of old or damaged cells, including cells with uncontrolled proliferation (such as cancer cells). If we stop senescence altogether, we run the risk of accumulating damaged and/or mutated cells, increasing the chances of disease progression, such as through fibrosis and tumorigenesis, so specific targeting and dosage of drug interventions have to be considered. The immune system in particular, displays biological changes that are indicative of senescent progression. These include thymic involution (shrinking of the thymus associated with a decrease in T cell production), inflammaging (chronic inflammation associated with SASP), an increase in mitochondrial stress through metabolic changes, and an increase in differentiated memory T cells (EMRA T cells). Knowledge of these changes can give insight into potential mechanisms to target for therapeutics. Current and developing therapies for immunosenescence Given our expanding understanding of senescence, as of the time of writing, there are no clinically approved drugs for senescence specifically. The development of therapies for diseases such as cancer, heart disease and diabetes (diabetic patients tend to exhibit increased levels of cellular senescence owing to “accelerated ageing”) have been implicated with suppressing senescence. These drugs would be mTOR inhibitors such as Rapamycin, statins, P13K inhibitors, as well as immune checkpoint inhibitors for T cells, such as anti CTLA-4 PD-L1 and PD-L2, and the anti-diabetic metformin, which have all shown in vitro to be effective against high levels of senescent cells. There was also the development of the recent first senolytic drugs dasatinib and quercetin in 2015 that kill senescent cells selectively against non-senescent cells and stand to provide a proof of concept for targeting disease through senescent mechanisms. Conclusion The field of senescence is certainly one to keep an eye on, with a bibliometric analysis in 2023 showing an increase every year in the number of published papers ( Figure 2 ). It may be sooner rather than later that we see this become a trending topic of discussion for treating an array of disease states. Continuous research into specific immune cell subtypes (B, T and NK cells) and their relation to a decline in immunity in response to age can tell us more about potential therapeutic pathways or lifestyle choices that can improve the health of the immunocompromised elderly. One such example of this is Treg-mediated increased glucose consumption in the tumour microenvironment leading to an increase in cell senescence in effector T cells, suggesting that high sugar diets can accelerate tumorigenesis. Our understanding of ageing through senescence will help reduce the mortality rates of elderly groups in decades to come through knowing that mechanisms such as the SASP and altered immune cell function, which can promote disease states. Written by Yaseen Ahmad Related articles: Genetics of ageing and longevity / Accelerated ageing REFERENCES Henson, S.M. and Aksentijevic, D. (2021) ‘Senescence and type 2 diabetic cardiomyopathy: How young can you die of old age?’, Frontiers in Pharmacology , 12. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.716517. Wang, R. et al. (2017) ‘Rapamycin inhibits the secretory phenotype of senescent cells by a NRF2-independent mechanism’, Aging Cell , 16(3), pp. 564–574. doi:10.1111/acel.12587. Henson, S.M. et al. (2012) ‘Reversal of functional defects in highly differentiated young and old CD8 T cells by PDL blockade’, Immunology , 135(4), pp. 355–363. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03550.x. Islam, M.T. et al. (2023) ‘Senolytic drugs, dasatinib and quercetin, attenuate adipose tissue inflammation, and ameliorate metabolic function in old age’, Aging Cell , 22(2). doi:10.1111/acel.13767. Li, C., Liu, Z. and Shi, R. (2023) ‘A comprehensive overview of cellular senescence from 1990 to 2021: A machine learning-based bibliometric analysis’, Frontiers in Medicine , 10. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1072359. Herranz, N. and Gil, J. (2018) ‘Mechanisms and functions of cellular senescence’, Journal of Clinical Investigation , 128(4), pp. 1238–1246. doi:10.1172/jci95148. Li, L. et al. (2019) ‘TLR8-mediated metabolic control of human Treg function: A mechanistic target for cancer immunotherapy’, Cell Metabolism , 29(1). doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2018.09.020. Project Gallery

Establishing causation through Randomised Controlled Trials and Instrumental Variables Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Proving causation: causality vs correlation Last updated: 03/06/25, 13:43 Published: 12/06/25, 07:00 Establishing causation through Randomised Controlled Trials and Instrumental Variables Does going to the hospital lead to an improvement in health? At first glance, one might assume that visiting a hospital should improve health outcomes. However, if we compare the average health status of those who go to the hospital with those who do not, we might find that hospital visitors tend to have worse health overall. This apparent contradiction arises due to confounding – people typically visit hospitals due to existing health issues. Simply comparing these two groups does not tell us whether hospitals improve health or if the underlying health conditions of patients drive the observed differences. A similar challenge arises when examining the relationship between police presence and crime rates. Suppose we compare two cities—one with a large police force and another with a smaller police force. If the city with more police also has higher crime rates, does this mean that police cause crime? Clearly not. Instead, it is more likely that higher crime rates lead to an increased police presence. This example illustrates why distinguishing causation from correlation is crucial in data analysis, and that stating that two variables are correlated does not imply causation. First, let’s clarify the distinction between causation and correlation. Correlation refers to a relationship between two variables, but it does not imply that one causes the other. Just because two events occur together does not mean that one directly influences the other. To establish causation, we need methods that separate the true effect of an intervention from other influencing factors. Statisticians, medical researchers and economists have ingeniously come up with several techniques that allow us to separate correlation and causation. In medicine, the gold standard for researchers is the use of Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs). Imagine a group of 100 people, each with a set of characteristics, such as gender, age, political views, health status, university degree, etc. RCTs randomly assign each individual to one of two groups. Consequently, each group of 50 individuals should, on average, have similar ages, gender distribution, and baseline health. Researchers then examine both groups simultaneously while changing only one factor. This could involve instructing one group to take a specific medicine or asking individuals to drink an additional cup of coffee each morning. This results in two statistically similar groups differing in only one key aspect. Therefore, if the characteristics of one group change while those of the other do not, we can reasonably conclude that the change caused the difference between the groups. This is great for examining the effectiveness of medicine, especially when you give one group a placebo, but how would we research the causation behind the police rate and crime example? Surely it would be unwise and perhaps unethical to randomise how many police officers are present in each city? And because not all cities are the same, the conditions for RCTs would not hold. Instead, we use more complex techniques like Instrumental Variables (IV) to overcome those limitations. A famous experiment using IV to explain police levels and crime was published by Steven Levitt (1997). Levitt used the timings of mayoral and gubernatorial elections (the election of a governor) as an instrument for changes in police hiring. Around election time, mayors and governors have incentives to look “tough on crime.” This can lead to politically motivated increases in police hiring before an election. Crucially, hiring is not caused by current crime rates but by the electoral calendar. So, by using the timing of elections to predict an increase in police, we can use those values to estimate the effect on crime. What he found was that more police officers reduce violent and property crime, with a 10% increase in police officers reducing violent crime by roughly 5%. Levitt’s paper is a clever application of IV to get around the endogeneity problem and takes correlation one step further into causation, through the use of exogenous election timing. However, these methods are not without limitations. IV analysis, for instance, hinges on finding a valid instrument—something that affects the independent variable (e.g., police numbers) but has no direct effect on the outcome (e.g., crime) other than through that variable. Finding such instruments can be extremely challenging, and weak or invalid instruments can lead to biased or misleading results. Despite these challenges, careful causal inference allows researchers to better understand the true drivers behind complicated relationships. In a world where influencers, media outlets, and even professionals often mistake correlation for causation, developing a critical understanding of these concepts is an essential skill required to navigate through the data, as well as help drive impactful change in society through exploring the true relationships behind different phenomena. Written by George Chant Related article: Correlation between HDI and mortality rate REFERENCE Steven D. Levitt (1997). “Using Electoral Cycles in Police Hiring to Estimate the Effect of Police on Crime”. American Economic Review 87.3, pp. 270–290 Project Gallery

The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir Last updated: 18/09/25, 08:41 Published: 17/07/25, 07:00 The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people This is article no. 5 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Syria and Lebanon ’s diverging yet connected struggles . Next article: Health inequalities in Bangladesh . Introduction Welcome to the fifth article of the Global Health Injustices Series. The previous article was a collaborative endeavour focused on the populations in Syria and Lebanon. Now, I will focus on the people living in Kashmir, who are currently experiencing a lot of health and wellbeing challenges, primarily attributed to conflict. For example, on top of the enduring conflict in Kashmir, the COVID-19 pandemic had worsened the mental health of the Kashmiri population, where 1.8 million adults were living with any type of mental distress. Despite these concerns, the Kashmiri people have not had their voices heard as clearly in mainstream discourse compared to other vulnerable populations discussed in previous articles. Kashmir: a rich history to current conflict Kashmir (also known as Jammu & Kashmir) is a region within the Northern Indian subcontinent, bordered mainly by Pakistan and China. Kashmir is a disputed territory between the militaries of India and Pakistan since the Indian subcontinent was divided up by the British Empire in 1947. Even before that, conflicts were driven by issues with local governments and tensions between cultural and ethnic groups within the region. These issues, among others, have contributed to the instability and health challenges encountered by the Kashmiri people. In recent years, tensions and violence have accelerated, particularly in 2024, due to the Indian government wanting to maintain control of the Kashmiri region. This has led to vast protests and friction between civilians and armed forces. In turn, this has weakened ties within the region, particularly between India and neighbouring nations. Another overlooked impact (which I will be discussing further) of this current conflict is on Kashmiri women, who encounter certain challenges, which include loss of family members, displacement and Gender-Based Violence. Considering this background of Kashmir is crucial because it will help with understanding the current geopolitical climate and how it detrimentally affects the health of the Kashmiri people. Geopolitics and health in Kashmir Similar to the populations discussed in previous articles, the Kashmiri people are encountering a lot of mental distress attributed to the ongoing conflict. One study from 2009 found that the prevalence of depression was 55.72%. Meanwhile, another study from 2017 uncovered that approximately 45% of adults experienced mental distress, with specific rates of 41% for depression, 26% for anxiety, and 19% for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This difference presumably came from wider geopolitical factors, as measuring mental health is challenging during conflict. As such, the healthcare system in Kashmir needs urgent improvement to better support mental health. Even though it does better in some areas compared to the national average, the demand for services, especially in conflict-affected areas, is overwhelming. There are not enough mental health professionals, and many healthcare providers lack the training to handle trauma-related issues properly. Investing in training, community mental health initiatives, and integrating mental health services with regular healthcare could help improve the overall mental health of the Kashmiri people. Focusing on mental health just as much as physical health to build resilience in Kashmir is essential. As for the health infrastructure in Kashmir, noted in one review, they have 4433 government health institutions and a doctor-patient ratio of 1:1880, which is lower than the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of 1:1000, yet higher than the national level of 1:2000. Moreover, the state of Kashmir was shown to have better health indices compared to the national average, including life expectancy, infant mortality rate, and crude birth and death rates. Despite these improvements, challenges persist, such as the inadequate health infrastructure and a shortage of financial resources and technical staff, despite relatively stable trends ( Table 1 ). In one study, the authors noted that among the Schedule tribes in Kashmir, they encounter significant health challenges attributed to illiteracy, poverty, and inadequate healthcare facilities and infrastructure, leading to increased non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There is a high prevalence of poor nutrition and undernutrition, which contributes to the susceptibility of these populations to NCDs (7). Moreover, a lack of access to clean water and sanitation worsens health issues, which increases their risk of infectious diseases. Social taboos and beliefs hinder healthcare service utilisation among the population, which impacts health outcomes and even awareness of NCDs ( Figure 1 ). Focusing on violence exposure in Kashmir, another study among households found that respondents documented high levels of violence, which include: exposure to crossfire (85.7%), round-up raids (82.7%), witnessing torture (66.9%), experiences of rape (13.3%) and forced labor (33.7%). What this study also found was that males noted more violent confrontations and had higher odds of experiencing different forms of maltreatment compared to females. Given that this study was conducted in 2008, these figures are likely to be either higher or lower now, depending on the magnitude of violence and warfare. Nonetheless, the high frequency of violence has led to substantial health issues, specifically mental health problems among the affected Kashmiri population. A severely overlooked impact of conflict in Kashmir is on the women, who encounter specific tragedies, including loss of family members and displacement. Moreover, the use of rape as a weapon in conflict stresses the convergence of gender and political power, particularly in Kashmir. Unfortunately, there have been some researchers who usually depict Kashmiri women as solely victims, which can undermine their autonomy and political involvement. Therefore, addressing the plight of Kashmiri women by allowing them to discuss their experiences openly and actively involving them in key decisions regarding Kashmir can be a vital stepping stone towards supporting their health and well-being. To truly understand all of the various health challenges illustrated above impacting the Kashmiri population, it is vital to cite the various geopolitical factors I discussed in previous articles on Yemen, Sudan and Palestine. The most notable factor is the continuous international weapons/ arms trade, which I firmly believe must be thwarted because of how much damage it has caused, particularly through the sale of bombs and other explosives used to target the most vulnerable populations. However, stopping this trade requires actual political will and legislation, which is unlikely to happen anytime soon because our leaders make a lot of profit from selling weapons. NGOs: their role in supporting Kashmir International non-governmental organisations (INGOs), notably Aakar Patel, chair of board at Amnesty International India, shared this statement in 2024 regarding Kashmir: The Indian authorities are using arbitrary restrictions and punitive actions to create a climate of fear in Jammu and Kashmir. Anyone daring to speak out – whether to criticize the government or to stand up for human rights – faces a clampdown on their rights to freedom of expression and association and cannot move freely within and outside the country. Amnesty International also shared testimonies from a few Kashmiri people: I feel a deep responsibility to be the voice of my people, who are currently voiceless. There are no stories coming out of Kashmir anymore. - Masrat Zahra, an award-winning Kashmiri photojournalist. My freedom of movement is a right enshrined in the Indian Constitution, but I had to really struggle to exercise this right. - Iltija Mufti, daughter and media advisor to ex-chief minister of Jammu & Kashmir. To address the complex health and social issues previously discussed, international organisations and local communities need to come together for solutions. Programs focusing on building mental health support, improving healthcare availability, and creating safe spaces for women and young people can make a difference. The Kashmiri people need to have their voices heard in discussions about their health and wellbeing. Otherwise, their challenges will continue to affect their lives. Conclusion Overall, the health and well-being issues in Kashmir are closely linked to the long-standing conflict and warfare. Although this region has a rich cultural history and shows a lot of resilience, the current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people. The rise in mental health issues and the inadequate healthcare infrastructure illustrate that reforms are urgently needed. There is a real shortage of support for mental health, particularly when dealing with the trauma from ongoing violence. Moreover, marginalised groups face tremendous health challenges because of various factors ranging from poverty to a lack of education to limited access to basic needs. Living in violence and conflict not only affects physical health, but also leads to ongoing psychological trauma that is often ignored. Tackling these health inequalities and inequities requires a comprehensive approach incorporating mental health care into the standard healthcare system, improving access to clean water and food, and building communities. Listening to the Kashmiri people and focusing on their health needs is key to achieving peace and better living standards in the region. Therefore, national and international players must recognise these issues and take real action to ensure they receive the support they need and deserve. Only with continued efforts can we expect a healthier future for Kashmir. The following article in the Global Health Injustices series will focus on Bangladesh and the plight of the Rohingya population, which will also be a collaborative endeavour. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Understanding health through different stances / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health REFERENCES Sheikh Shoib, Arafat SMY. Mental health in Kashmir: conflict to COVID-19. Public Health. 2020 Sep 1;187:65–6. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7484691/ Center for Preventive Action. Conflict Between India and Pakistan. Global Conflict Tracker. 2015. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan Zeeshan S, Hanife Aliefendioğlu. Kashmiri women in conflict: a feminist perspective. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 2024 Feb 12;11(1). Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-02742-x Amin S, Khan A. Life in conflict: Characteristics of Depression in Kashmir. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2009 Jul;3(2):213. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3068807/ Housen T, Lenglet A, Ariti C, Shah S, Shah H, Ara S, et al. Prevalence of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in the Kashmir Valley. BMJ Global Health. 2017 Oct;2(4):e000419. Available from: https://gh.bmj.com/content/2/4/e000419 Mir A, Bhat S. Health Status and Access to Health Care Services in Jammu and Kashmir State. Asian Review of Social Sciences [Internet]. 2018;7(3):52–7. Available from: https://www.trp.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ARSS-Vol.7-No.3-October-December-2018-pp.52-57.pdf Habib A, Iqbal A, Rafiq H, Shah A, Amin S, Suheena, et al. Trends in the Magnitude of NCDs among Schedule Tribe Population of Kashmir with Special Reference to Health and Nutritional [Internet]. Journal of Community Medicine & Public Health. Gavin Publishers; 2023 [cited 2025 May 5]. Available from: https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/trends-in-the-magnitude-of-ncds-among-schedule-tribe-population-of-kashmir-with-special-reference-to-health-and-nutritional Jong K de, Ford N, van, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley I: exposure to violence. Conflict and Health [Internet]. 2008 Oct 14 [cited 2025 May 5];2(1). Available from: https://conflictandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1505-2-10 Authorities must end repression of dissent in Jammu and Kashmir [Internet]. Amnesty International. 2024 [cited 2025 Jun 11]. Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/09/india-authorities-must-end-repression-of-dissent-in-jammu-and-kashmir/ Project Gallery

Looking at caspase-8’s inability to trigger cell death Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link CEDS: a break in cell death Last updated: 12/09/25, 11:08 Published: 11/09/25, 07:00 Looking at caspase-8’s inability to trigger cell death This is article no. 11 in a series on rare diseases. Next article coming soon. Previous article: Ehlers-Danlos syndrome . Cell death, as we know it, is a crucial phenomenon by which our bodies remove unnecessary or damaged cells to maintain internal stability, a process known as homeostasis. Cell death can occur in many ways, but the mechanisms by which cells die follow two main paths. It may occur as naturally programmed, as in apoptosis, or as a result of toxic trauma or physical damage, like necrosis. While cell death due to trauma can often be more noticeable and dramatic, programmed cell death happens continually, not only because of cell damage but also because it is a normal part of development, and inducing it is a core function of immune system cells. In essence, cell death comes naturally, removing cells that are possibly damaged or infected to maintain the body as a whole. But what if cell death stops? As many fiction stories will tell you, immortality is never a good thing, and this is accurate for our cells, too. Although excessive cell death is also destructive, cell death in its natural controlled manner not only stops the spread of infection but also prevents the survival of cancer cells and auto-reactive immune cells, which can damage the body by forming cancerous tumours and triggering autoimmune diseases, respectively. This demonstrates that a careful balance of life and death must always be in place to maintain homeostatic conditions and allow our unimpeded survival. However, as cell death is a multi-step mechanism, it can go wrong in several ways. Furthermore, diseases causing faults in the cell death process can be challenging to diagnose. Not only can there be numerous reasons for patients to exhibit symptoms associated with the loss of cell death, but some of these reasons may also be rare disorders and, therefore, difficult for healthcare professionals to identify. One rare disease that researchers recently recognised is Caspase-8 Deficiency Syndrome (CEDS). This disease, stemming from a genetic mutation in the gene coding for caspase-8, results in extensive issues related to immunodeficiency, and they are all caused by caspase-8’s inability to trigger cell death. So what is Caspase-8? Caspase-8 is a pivotal regulator of the apoptotic pathway. Essentially, apoptosis can happen through two key pathways: the extrinsic pathway, when triggers originate outside the cell; and the intrinsic pathway, when the cell itself activates the cell death pathway. Whilst there are several key players in apoptosis, caspase-8 is a central mediator of the extrinsic apoptotic pathway. Caspase-8 can be activated through numerous ways, but it is often through so-called death receptors, which are typically members of the Tumour Necrosis Factor Receptor (TNFR) family of transmembrane proteins. Upon their activation, a chain reaction occurs, involving the recruitment of caspase-8 into a complex, known as the death-inducing signalling complex (DISC). This complex then cleaves further downstream caspases or the BH3 Bcl2-interacting protein. This cascade leads to DNA fragmentation, degradation of the cytoskeleton, formation of apoptotic bodies, expression of ligands for phagocytic cell receptors, and finally, uptake by phagocytes, thus completing the death of the cell and its cleanup ( Figure 2. ). Caspase-8 therefore plays a crucial role in completing the death inducing pathway. While there are other methods of cell death, the loss of Caspase-8 undoubtedly leads to significant consequences. Caspase-8 deficiency syndrome (CEDS) Scientists first discovered CEDs in the early 2000s. By this time, there had already been extensive research into a similar disease known as Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (ALPS), which results from defective apoptosis leading to abnormal immune cell survival. However, at the time of ALPS discovery, there was no identified link to a loss of Caspase-8. Furthermore, there was a lack of available mouse models to study, as inducing homozygous caspase-8 deficiency caused embryonic lethality in mice, significantly limiting research. Therefore, a loss of caspase-8 was also considered to have the same effect in humans. This train of thought continued until 2002, when Chun et al. conducted major studies into apoptosis-related diseases. During one of their many trials, two siblings—a 12-year-old girl and an 11-year-old boy—were found to exhibit symptoms similar to those of ALPS (lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, and defective CD95-induced apoptosis of peripheral blood lymphocytes). However, unlike ALPS, the siblings were also immunodeficient and suffered from recurrent sinopulmonary and herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, as well as a poor response to immunisation. Following the discovery of these additional symptoms in the siblings, researchers examined their other family members but were surprised to find that neither the parents nor another sibling suffered in a similar fashion. The only symptom they had was a partial defect in apoptosis mediated by CD95. It was determined that the mother, father, sibling, and several other extended family members were potentially heterozygous carriers of the mutation found in the affected siblings. Subsequently, a DNA analysis was conducted, and a mutation was found in the CASP8 gene. This mutation was a homozygous deletion, which ultimately led to a loss of function of the caspase-8 protein. This loss of function in caspase-8 resulted in defective interleukin 2 production and diminished T-cell proliferation, explaining the immunodeficiency associated with CEDS and highlighting the important role caspase-8 plays in regulating cell death and immune responses. Since CEDS was first identified in the 2002 study, very few cases have been reported in medical literature. However, despite this, research continues, and it has allowed further insights into caspase-8’s pathophysiology and, in many studies, new genetic variants have been identified. One such variant is a homozygous missense mutation resulting in significant immune dysregulation in an affected individual, which results in immune responses and inflammatory conditions associated with the disease. Alongside research into the causes of this disease, focus has also shifted to how we might best diagnose and treat the disease and provide patients with the good quality of life they deserve. Diagnosis As with all rare diseases, one of the main issues stopping correct diagnosis of CEDS and delaying treatment is the fact healthcare providers are not familiar with disease symptoms, let alone the genetic basis of the disease. To make matters worse, the presentation of disease varies depending on the age of onset, which makes it even more difficult to recognise CEDS as the common underlying cause. For instance, early-onset often results in symptoms, such as severe infections and organomegaly, while adult-onset patients may present with neurological issues, multi-organ failure and chronic inflammatory conditions. Further adding to these diagnostic difficulties is the fact CEDS overlaps with other conditions, such as the previously mentioned ALPs. As a result, a patient could receive multiple different diagnoses before CEDS is identified as the cause of their suffering. For effective CEDS diagnosis, expertise in immunology, genetics and infectious diseases is required. However, this specialised knowledge is hard to come by, and as with all diseases, the familiarity the healthcare provider has with it contributes greatly to whether you will get diagnoses, and this familiarity does not exist for rare diseases. Furthermore, diagnostic methods in general are tricky for this disease, with multiple tests often being required including an analysis of patient history alongside genetic testing through methods like whole exome sequencing and immunological tests analysing the types and states of immune cells and abnormal levels of immunoglobulins. Each of these diagnostic methods takes time, in an often-strained healthcare system, which can lead to a sense of helplessness in disease sufferers who only suffer more the longer they do not know what is wrong. Treatments Unfortunately for patients, a difficult diagnosis is not the only challenge they face, as there is currently no cure for CEDS, and no specific treatments. However, there are more general treatments available that could potentially alleviate symptoms and help individuals achieve some level of normality in their lives. The best possible way to approach treatment of CEDS, as with most immunodeficiency related diseases, would be to treat both the immune dysfunction and prevent recurrent infections. This could involve a multifaceted treatment plan tailored to the individual, aiming to avoid complications from immune dysfunction and improve quality of life. Potential treatment plans could include the use of antibiotic and antiviral medications for recurrent infections, and also more complex treatments such as Immunoglobulin replacement therapy (IVIG). IVIG provides necessary antibodies to bolster patients’ immune system, when they are not able to themselves, which both helps avoid overuse of antibiotic and antiviral treatments and prevents infections in the first place before treatment is required. Alongside these treatment methods, due to it being a relatively unknown disease, CEDS patients will also require a great deal of supportive and hands on care. As part of this care patients could potentially be provided with a specialised diet plan with all the correct nutrition to help them combat any gastrointestinal issues (GI’s) associated with CEDS, as primary immunodeficiency patients have found this method to help with control of GIs. In addition to current therapies several innovative approaches to treatment of genetic diseases are in development which could be used in CEDS treatment. Recent advances in gene therapy research offer new hope for treating immune deficiencies resulting from genetic defects, which means these therapies could potentially benefit CEDS patients. One promising method for gene therapy utilises CRISPR-Cas9 to correct the genetic mutations, such as those in CASP8 leading to CEDS. Another approach uses viral vectors to deliver functional genes into patients’ cells, and this could potentially deliver a functional CASP8 gene. Additionally, another very promising therapy, previously used for ALPS patients, involves genetically modifying stem cells to correct a faulty gene (such as the faulty CASP8 gene) before re-infusing them into the patient to produce healthy immune cells. These treatments could revolutionise the management of rare genetic diseases like CEDS. The future for CEDS as a rare disease Rare diseases like CEDS are often chronic and, in many cases, life threatening. Due to the scarcity of information on these conditions, few if any treatments exist. Furthermore, due to their rarity, patients of rare diseases are not only small in number but also dispersed worldwide, leading to a feeling of isolation as they rarely meet someone who shares in their experiences. However, as scientific research progresses, treatments and therapies become more effective and accessible, and with 72% of rare diseases, including CEDS, having a genetic basis, gene therapies appear incredibly promising. Yet, there is still a long way to go to fully realize their potential, and even more that can be done to help and support those who continue to suffer alone with rare diseases. Written by Faye Boswell REFERENCES Telford WG. Multiparametric analysis of apoptosis by flow cytometry. Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1678:167–202. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8063493/ Smith C. Monitoring apoptosis by flow cytometry. Biocompare. 2017 Jan 17. Available from: https://www.biocompare.com/Editorial-Articles/332620-Monitoring-Apoptosiby-Flow-Cytometry/ Tummers B, Green DR. Caspase-8; regulating life and death. Immunol Rev. 2017 May;277(1):76–89. doi: 10.1111/imr.12541. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5417704/ Leeies M, Flynn E, Turgeon AF, Paunovic B, Loewen H, Rabbani R, Abou-Setta AM, Ferguson ND, Zarychanski R. High-flow oxygen via nasal cannulae in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2017 Oct 18;6(1):202. doi: 10.1186/s13643-017-0607-1. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4439260/ Goyal A, Moitra D, Goldstein DB, Savage H, Lisco A, Rosenzweig SD, et al. Caspase-8 deficiency presenting as a novel immune dysregulation syndrome: case report and literature review. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2023;19(1):57. doi:10.1186/s13223-023-00778-3. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10084589/ Chun HJ, Zheng L, Ahmad M, Wang J, Speirs CK, Siegel RM, et al. Pleiotropic defects in lymphocyte activation caused by caspase-8 mutations lead to human immunodeficiency. Nature. 2002 Sep 26;419(6905):395–9. doi:10.1038/nature01063. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12353035/ Khan S, Saha S, Saha S, et al. Early and frequent exposure to antibiotics in early childhood and risk of overweight: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2021;22(3):e13113. doi:10.1111/obr.13113. Available from: https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(18)35036-4/fulltext Casanova JL, Abel L. Caspase-8 deficiency syndrome. Front Immunol. 2019;10:104. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00104. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7750663/ Castiello MC, Villa A. Stem cell editing repairs severe immunodeficiency. The Scientist. 2024 Mar 6. Available from: https://www.the-scientist.com/stem-cell-editing-repairs-severe-immunodeficiency-71733 Ha TC, Morgan M, Schambach A. Base editing: a novel cure for severe combined immunodeficiency. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1):354. doi:10.1038/s41392-023-01586-2. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01586-2https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7750663/ Project Gallery

Impact of war and geopolitics on health in Palestine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Life under occupation: the health and well-being of Palestinians Last updated: 08/01/26, 18:56 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Impact of war and geopolitics on health in Palestine This is article no. 1 in a series about global health injustices. Next article: Civil war in Sudan . Introduction Welcome to the Global Health Injustices Series, which will focus on critically examining the health inequalities and inequities faced by vulnerable populations within different countries and regions worldwide and even put forward actionable steps to improve their health and wellbeing. This series will begin with Palestine, as it has been an enduring crisis that should be addressed to include long-lasting benefits and outcomes for the Palestinians. Palestine: from a rich history to current occupation Palestine is a country in the Middle East (West Asia) mainly bordered by Israel. Palestine is unique in its various cultures and knowledge, moulded by multifaceted events and geopolitical shifts over centuries. The multidimensional cultural landscape of Palestine illustrates the impact of civilisations, such as the Romans, Byzantines, and Ottomans, who each had their religions, languages, and cultures, which still exist in various forms today. The resilience of the Palestinians is evident through their distinct traditions, art, food and environment, which are essential to their identity. With these testaments in mind, Palestinians are facing consistent strife because they are under constant occupation, blockade and cutting off of needed supplies carried out by Israel, as noted by several humanitarian and human rights non-governmental organisations (NGOs) like Amnesty International and Save the Children. These actions are facilitated by nations, notably the United States and the United Kingdom, through arms and weapons trade. Hence, the struggle for the Palestinians to have autonomy and freedom, among other human rights within their own homeland, is a consistent fight that requires ongoing international cooperation and solidarity. Geopolitics: its detrimental impacts on the Palestinians Given the currently divisive geopolitical landscape, it is essential to bring attention to the health outcomes of the Palestinian population, especially since at least half of them are children. A report from the Global Nutrition Cluster called “Nutrition Vulnerability and Situation Analysis / Gaza” had several key findings and tables (see Tables 1 and 2 ). Firstly, more than 90% of children less than a year old, along with pregnant and breastfeeding women, encounter high under-nutrition due to poverty. Another finding was that approximately 90% of children under five are impacted by at least one infectious disease, and 81% of households in Gaza lack clean and safe water. However, the authors noted limitations in their analysis, such as limited data sources because collecting it is difficult within the context of Gaza, and this was true for screening. Another report from the organisation Medical Aid For Palestinians (MAP), titled “Health Under Occupation” from 2017, discussed healthcare access and outcomes more broadly. For example, they noted that in 2016, up to one-third of patients’ permits to exit Gaza for healthcare access were either denied or delayed. Moreover, they stated that 40% of people in Gaza live below the poverty line. Given the recent geopolitical shifts in power, these findings from both reports will likely be higher now. This brings forthcoming uncertainty about whether the health outcomes of Palestinians will improve. In a recent qualitative study involving the views of Palestinian physicians in the West Bank, they shared their experiences of violence, threats of violence, issues with healthcare access for themselves and patients, financial difficulties to support their families, struggle to help their patients and limited access to education due to harsher life under occupation. Thinking more largely about emergency care in Palestine, one scoping review reported the depletion of healthcare resources such as medical equipment and medications. The authors even related how human rights violations and the destruction of the Palestinian healthcare system, including emergencies, have exacerbated outcomes; the most notable were stroke, myocardial infarction and traumatic injury, among other non-infectious diseases. Although the authors included this information from a human rights standpoint, they called for additional interventions and research to fill in and learn gaps within emergency care to enhance health outcomes for Palestinians. This review was published in 2022, and again, many geopolitical shifts in power have taken place within a few years. Therefore, it can be deduced that emergency care is drastically needed for the Palestinians; this is primarily compelled by the blockade in Gaza and occupation in the West Bank. Focusing on the mental health outcomes among Palestinians, they have become worse. In another scoping review, researchers focused on trauma among young Palestinian people in Gaza; the authors noted that events, such as exposure to devastation and violence, as well as the death or loss of friends and family, have contributed to mental health outcomes ranging from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to depression. Nevertheless, the authors stated that further qualitative research is vital to addressing gaps in knowledge and enhancing mental health outcomes among the Palestinian youth and the wider population. Connecting back to how the modern geopolitical landscape is very dynamic, the poorer mental health outcomes among Palestinians have conceivably increased. Urgent calls to action: recommendations from NGOs to upholding human rights Given all of these detrimental impacts on the health and wellbeing of Palestinians, there are recommendations from organisations, notably the United Nations (UN), for ways forward towards upholding the human rights of Palestinians: Immediately end all practices of collective punishment, including lifting its blockade and closures – and the “complete siege”- of Gaza, and urgently ensure immediate access to humanitarian and commercial goods throughout Gaza, commensurate with the immense humanitarian needs. Ensure that all Palestinians forcibly displaced from Gaza are allowed to return to their homes creating safe conditions and fulfil its responsibilities as an occupying Power in this regard. End the 56-year occupation of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem as part of a broader process towards achieving equality, justice, democracy, non-discrimination, and the fulfilment of all human rights for all Palestinians. These recommendations, among others mentioned in the report from the United Nations (UN) High Commissioner for Human Rights, were divulged in 2024; the year had been a challenging time, particularly in Gaza, due to the complete blockade of food, water and essentials like medical supplies; in addition to this, many explosives were dropped on Gaza, killing thousands of men, women and children. Finally, buildings, such as hospitals and homes, were destroyed. Conclusion: moving forward towards a equitable and equal future for Palestinians Reflecting on everything discussed in this article, the numerous injustices happening to Palestinians must not go on; they have been suppressed for nearly 75 years by governments and the mainstream media before receiving closer attention, examination and debate within Western society recently. Therefore, we need to take actionable steps by initiating more open discussions of justice and advocacy involving the voices of Palestinians, such as myself and others. Furthermore, it is crucial always to nudge those in positions of power worldwide to fulfil their responsibilities as civil servants and defend human rights for everyone. Both of these actions uphold the health and wellbeing of Palestinians living in Gaza and the West Bank, especially as enabling the recommendations from the UN and other NGOs. As for the wider international community, we must continue upholding human rights to maintain our health and wellbeing. In my next article, I will discuss Sudan because this population has also encountered many injustices, primarily the civil war that has been occurring since 2023. This has impacted the health and wellbeing of the Sudanese population, which requires thorough attention and discussion. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Gentrification and well-being / Health Inequalities / Impacts of global warming on NTDs / Global health injustices- Bangladesh , Sri Lankan Tamils REFERENCES Human rights in Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territory. Amnesty International. 2022. Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/middle-east/israel-and-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/report-israel-and-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/ Occupied Palestinian Territory. Save the Children International. 2024. Available from: https://www.savethechildren.net/occupied-palestinian-territory Nutrition Vulnerability and Situation Analysis / Gaza. 2024. Available from: https://www.nutritioncluster.net/sites/nutritioncluster.com/files/2024-02/GAZA-Nutrition-vulnerability-and-SitAn-v7.pdf HEALTH UNDER OCCUPATION. Medical Aid For Palestinians. 2017. Available from: https://www.map.org.uk/downloads/health-under-occupation---map-report-2017.pdf Husam Dweik, Hadwan AA, Beesan Maraqa, Taher A, Zink T. Perspectives of Palestinian physicians on the impact of the Gaza War in the West Bank. SSM - Qualitative Research in Health. 2024 Nov 14;6:100504–4. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667321524001136 Rosenbloom R, Leff R. Emergency Care in the Occupied Palestinian Territory: A Scoping Review. Health and Human Rights. 2022 Dec;24(2):255. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9790939/ Abdallah Abudayya, Fugleberg T, Nyhus HB, Radwan Aburukba, Tofthagen R. Consequences of war-related traumatic stress among Palestinian young people in the Gaza Strip: A scoping review. Mental Health & Prevention. 2023 Nov 25;32:200305–5. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212657023000478 M.I. Human rights situation in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and the obligation to ensure accountability and justice - Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - Advance unedited version (A/HRC/55/28) - Question of Palestine. United Nations. Available from: https://www.un.org/unispal/document/human-rights-situation-in-opt-unohchr-23feb-2024/ Project Gallery

New research suggests that the cause extends far beyond the nervous system Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can what we eat, breathe, and do for a living affect our Parkinson’s risk? Last updated: 21/03/25, 11:59 Published: 10/04/25, 07:00 New research suggests that the cause extends far beyond the nervous system Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most prevalent movement disorder and the second most common neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. PD is best known for causing tremors and stiffness, but it’s much more than a movement disorder. It also affects mood and speech. While PD is caused by the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain’s substantia nigra, new research suggests that its roots may extend far beyond the nervous system. Surprisingly, the gut microbiome – trillions of bacteria living in our digestive tract – may play a key role in both the development and prevention of PD. These microbes help regulate inflammation and support brain health by influencing microglia, the brain’s immune cells. Diet also seems to matter: a Mediterranean-style diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and healthy fats appears to lower PD risk, while smoking – despite its well-known dangers – has been linked to a puzzling protective effect, possibly due to nicotine’s impact on the brain. Meanwhile, specific jobs, like farming, may increase PD risk due to pesticide exposure, which has been associated with neurodegeneration. The idea that what we eat, breathe, and do for a living could shape our brain health is intriguing. As research continues to uncover these surprising links, it raises an important question: could simple lifestyle changes help protect against neurodegenerative diseases? Gut-Brain Axis The gut-brain axis (GBA) is a two-way communication network between the enteric nervous system of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the central nervous system, connecting emotions and cognition with the intestines’ functions. This involves the brain sending signals to the gut and vice versa, which happens through the vagus nerve, gut hormones and the gut microbiome, which can produce chemicals to impact brain activity. This usually explains why stress signals from the brain can influence the digestion of food, causing symptoms such as stomach pain, bloating or changes in bowel movements. Alternatively, signals travelling from the gut to the brain can be seen when we eat something that makes us feel sick – we naturally avoid that food and the place where we ate it. Gut dysbiosis can be triggered by multiple factors, including diet, antibiotic use, infection, inflammation, and chronic stress. Dysbiosis is the imbalance in the composition and activity of the microbiota (microorganisms present in the gut). It is considered a risk factor for PD, but is not a direct cause of it. Changes in the microbiota can induce metabolic changes, which can result in increased local and systemic inflammation in addition to increased permeability of the intestines, making the gut ‘leaky’. Additionally, this can cause increased harmful gut bacteria (such as E. coli or Salmonella ) as they leak through the intestinal lining, producing amyloid proteins which can travel to the brain and cause the accumulation of α-synuclein – a protein linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as PD. There is also a reduction in healthy gut bacteria – which usually produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate – which reduce inflammation and protect the brain cells. Less SCFAs cause an increase in inflammation and loss of the neuroprotective effects of SCFAs. Increased inflammation can eventually cause the weakening of the gut lining and a cycle of worsening dysbiosis, increased inflammation and increased α-synuclein accumulation, which spreads to the brain. Furthermore, gut dysbiosis can decrease the efficacy of dopaminergic treatments, which may be used to treat PD. In gut dysbiosis, harmful bacteria can produce an enzyme called dopa-decarboxylase – which converts Levodopa (a drug used to treat PD) into dopamine within the intestines. Hence, less Levodopa reaches the bloodstream and the brain, where it primarily acts and is converted to dopamine. This results in less Levodopa being converted to dopamine within the brain, reducing the effectiveness of the treatment. Consequently, this leads to motor symptoms and impairments such as tremors, which is a characteristic symptom of PD. Can food protect the brain? Could your diet be influencing your brain health in ways you never imagined? Research suggests that what you eat might play a critical role in either protecting your brain from PD or increasing your risk. People who follow a Mediterranean diet (MD) – rich in olive oil, fish, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts – may have up to a 25% lower risk of developing PD. Interestingly, this protective effect appears stronger in younger individuals and those in the early stages of PD. So.. what makes the MD so powerful? Gut microbiome boost: the MD promotes beneficial gut bacteria while reducing harmful microbes, supporting overall brain health. Anti-inflammatory effects: fibre from plant-based foods fuels the gut microbiome, leading to the production of SCFAs, which reduce inflammation and may slow PD progression. Mitochondrial protection: compounds in the MD, such as polyphenols in olive oil and omega-3 fatty acids in fish, help repair and protect mitochondria – the powerhouses of our cells. This helps prevent brain cell damage and maintain dopamine function. Neural growth & repair: walnuts and omega-3s may support neuronal growth and reduce protein clumping, a hallmark of PD. On the other hand, a Western diet – high in processed foods, saturated fats, refined sugars, and excess salt – may increase the risk of developing and worsening PD symptoms. Foods commonly associated with faster PD progression include canned fruits and vegetables, soda, fried foods, beef, ice cream, and cheese. Why does this happen? Microbiome disruption: the Western diet fosters an imbalance in gut bacteria, leading to inflammation and potential brain damage. Gut leakiness and neuroinflammation: a diet high in unhealthy fats and low in fibre can damage the gut lining, allowing harmful substances to enter the bloodstream and trigger brain inflammation. Hormonal imbalance: key gut-derived hormones (GLP-1, GIP, and IGN) that help protect neurons are disrupted by poor diet but can be restored through healthier food choices. While diet alone cannot cure PD, growing evidence suggests it can modify the disease course. A diet rich in fibre, healthy fats, and plant-based foods supports gut health, reduces inflammation, and may protect neurons from degeneration. Understanding these diet-microbiome-brain interactions could open new doors to PD prevention and treatment – proving once again that food truly is medicine. The smoking paradox One of the most intriguing findings in PD research is that smokers appear to have a lower risk of developing the disease. Epidemiological studies consistently show that people who smoke are less likely to be diagnosed with PD compared to non-smokers. But why? Scientists believe that nicotine, a key compound in tobacco, may play a neuroprotective role by affecting dopamine-producing neurons – the same cells that are progressively lost in PD disease. Nicotine interacts with receptors in the brain that influence dopamine release, which could help protect these neurons from degeneration. However, clinical trials testing nicotine as a treatment for PD have not shown significant benefits, suggesting that other compounds in tobacco or alternative mechanisms might be involved. Some researchers propose that additional chemicals in cigarette smoke, such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors, antioxidants, or even carbon monoxide at low levels, might contribute to this protective effect. Others suggest that genetic factors or lifestyle differences between smokers and non-smokers could also explain the association. Despite this fascinating link, smoking is not a recommended strategy for preventing PD. The well-documented risks – including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and lung damage – far outweigh any potential benefit. Instead, scientists are investigating whether specific compounds found in tobacco could be harnessed for new treatments without the harmful effects of smoking itself. What about my job? Can your job affect your risk of developing PD? Some studies suggest that certain occupations – like farming – might increase the risk, while others find no clear connection. So, what’s the truth? Let’s break it down. Some research suggests that farmers are more likely to develop PD, possibly due to exposure to pesticides like paraquat and rotenone, which have been linked to brain cell damage. Additionally, heavy metals found in agricultural environments – such as lead and manganese – may contribute to brain inflammation and oxidative stress, both of which play a role in PD. Furthermore, certain metals, including iron, mercury, copper, and manganese, can build up in the brain over time. Scientists believe that long-term exposure could damage the neurons that produce dopamine. However, the exact link isn’t fully understood, and not everyone exposed to these metals develops PD. That said, not all studies agree. Some large-scale research has found no significant link between farming, pesticide exposure, heavy metals and PD risk. This means that while environmental factors might play a role, other things – like genetics, lifestyle, or how long and intensely someone is exposed – could be just as important. So.. should you worry? If you work in farming or are regularly exposed to pesticides and heavy metals, it might be a good idea to take precautions, like using protective equipment and following safety guidelines. However, more research is needed to fully understand how these exposures contribute to PD. For now, staying informed and taking steps to reduce unnecessary exposure to harmful chemicals is a smart approach. What can you do? While there’s no guaranteed way to prevent PD, research suggests that certain lifestyle choices may help reduce the risk. Here are some science-backed steps you can take: 1. Adopt a Mediterranean-style diet: eating a diet rich in whole, plant-based foods, healthy fats (like olive oil and nuts), and lean proteins has been linked to a lower risk of PD. The Mediterranean diet is packed with antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds that may help protect brain cells. 2. Stay active: regular exercise isn’t just good for your muscles and heart – it may also help maintain gut health and protect neurons. Activities like walking, swimming, or strength training have been associated with a reduced risk of PD and other neurodegenerative diseases. 3. Limit pesticide exposure: for those in agricultural or industrial settings, protective measures, such as wearing gloves and masks and following safety guidelines, can help reduce exposure to potentially harmful chemicals linked to PD. 4. Monitor gut health: emerging research suggests that the gut microbiome may play a key role in PD. While scientists are still exploring microbiome-targeted therapies, maintaining good gut health by eating fibre-rich foods, fermented foods (like yogurt and kimchi), and staying hydrated may support overall well-being. Conclusion The connection between diet, gut health, lifestyle, and PD is an exciting area of research. While we don’t yet have all the answers, it’s clear that healthy habits – such as eating well, staying active, and minimising harmful exposures – can support both brain and overall health. As science continues to uncover new insights, making informed choices today can help protect your well-being in the long run! Written by Joecelyn Kirani Tan, Hanin Salem, Devikka Sivashanmuganathan & Barayturk Aydin Related articles: TDP43 and Parkinsonism / Diabetes drug to treat Parkinson's REFERENCES Berthouzoz E, Lazarevic V, Zekeridou A, Castro M, Debove I, Aybek S, Schrenzel J, Burkhard PR, Fleury V. Oral and intestinal dysbiosis in Parkinson's disease. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2023 Nov;179(9):937-946. doi: 10.1016/j.neurol.2022.12.010. Epub 2023 Mar 16. PMID: 36934020. Bisaglia M. Mediterranean Diet and Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Dec 20;24(1):42. doi: 10.3390/ijms24010042. PMID: 36613486; PMCID: PMC9820428. Firestone JA, Lundin JI, Powers KM, Smith-Weller T, Franklin GM, Swanson PD, Longstreth WT Jr, Checkoway H. Occupational factors and risk of Parkinson's disease: A population-based case-control study. Am J Ind Med. 2010 Mar;53(3):217-23. doi: 10.1002/ajim.20788. PMID: 20025075; PMCID: PMC3299410. Gorell JM, Johnson CC, Rybicki BA, Peterson EL, Richardson RJ. The risk of Parkinson's disease with exposure to pesticides, farming, well water, and rural living. Neurology. 1998 May;50(5):1346-50. doi: 10.1212/wnl.50.5.1346. PMID: 9595985. hms.harvard.edu . (2017). The Gut and the Brain. [online] Available at: https://hms.harvard.edu/news-events/publications-archive/brain/gut-brain . Hrncir, T. (2022). Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis: Triggers, Consequences, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Options. Microorganisms, [online] 10(3), p.578. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8954387/#:~:text=Dysbiosis%20can%20be%20caused%20by,food%20additives)%2C%20and%20hygiene .. Jackson A, Forsyth CB, Shaikh M, Voigt RM, Engen PA, Ramirez V, Keshavarzian A. Diet in Parkinson's Disease: Critical Role for the Microbiome. Front Neurol. 2019 Dec 10;10:1245. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01245. PMID: 31920905; PMCID: PMC6915094. Johns Hopkins Medicine (2025). Can Environmental Toxins Cause Parkinson’s Disease? https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/parkinsons-disease/can-environmental-toxins-cause-parkinson-disease Kwon, D. et al. (2024) ‘Diet and the gut microbiome in patients with parkinson’s disease’, npj Parkinson’s Disease , 10(1). doi:10.1038/s41531-024-00681-7. Physiopedia. (n.d.). Gut Brain Axis (GBA). [online] Available at: https://www.physio-pedia.com/Gut_Brain_Axis_(GBA) . Project Gallery

An analysis of risk and protective factors Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers Last updated: 24/06/25, 16:39 Published: 10/07/25, 07:00 An analysis of risk and protective factors Impact and prevalence According to the DSM-5, postpartum depression (PPD), also known as postnatal depression, is characterised by psychological and physical symptoms – including anhedonia, depressed mood and abnormal differences in sleep patterns – with a postpartum onset within one month after childbirth. Long-term effects of PPD, which are the same for adult and adolescent mothers, include weaker attachment between the mother and the child and developmental delays in children. Whilst treatment methods for postnatal depression have been more thoroughly investigated in adult mothers than in teenage mothers, prevalence rates of postpartum depression are found to be higher in adolescent mothers, with teenage mothers being twice as likely to be depressed as adult mothers. Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers is a prominent concern, as studies have found that up to 57% of teenage mothers report moderate to severe symptoms of PPD. Risk and protective factors A definite risk factor for postpartum depression in teenage mothers is a lack of social support. Research shows that adolescent mothers face more challenges but have fewer resources and less social support than adult mothers. This is prominent in Barnet et al.’s (1996) research, which found that adolescent mothers who received emotional support from either their mother or the baby’s father were less likely to exhibit depressive symptoms postpartum. Others support this research and suggest that social support has a direct effect on PPD in teenage mothers. Additionally, a lack of wider social support results in stigma, with a common assumption being that young mothers are incompetent parents and that children should not raise other children. Thus, another aspect of the lack of social support that might lead to PPD is stigma. However, an abundance of social support can also be detrimental, as it might make the young mothers feel incapable or inadequate, also leading to postnatal depression. Therefore, it is vital to determine the appropriate amount of support required for adolescent mothers. Another important risk factor affecting adolescent mothers that leads to postpartum depression is stress, which can be, but does not have to be, caused by a lack of social support. Research shows that higher stress levels are positively associated with depressive symptoms, and teenage mothers who reported higher stress levels displayed higher levels of PPD than adolescent mothers with lower stress levels. Therefore, in order to reduce the rate of postpartum depression in adolescent mothers, interventions should focus on decreasing the mothers’ stress levels. A crucial protective factor for PPD in adolescent mothers is self-esteem. Logsdon et al. (2005) found that lower self-esteem was predictive of postnatal depression in teenage mothers, and Caldwell & Antonucci (1997) found that self-esteem has a strong negative correlation with PPD symptoms in adolescent mothers. Therefore, higher self-esteem can shield young mothers from postpartum depression. Conclusions Overall, adolescent mothers are a particularly vulnerable population due to the additional challenges they face and the common lack of preparation for motherhood amongst teenage mothers. Social support, both a lack thereof or an excess amount, is commonly identified in the literature as a key risk factor for PPD in young mothers, as well as stigma and stress. High self-esteem and confidence in one’s own parenting skills are prominent and promising protective factors. The few interventions that are present demonstrate a promising start towards developing ways to tackle PPD in adolescent mothers. However, there has not been an extensive meta-analysis evaluating existing interventions, a clear limitation and a gap in the literature that should be addressed in future research. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related articles: Depression / Depression in children / Childhood stunting / Gynaecology REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Barnet, B., Joffe, A., Duggan, A. K., Wilson, M. D., & Repke, J. T. (1996). Depressive symptoms, stress, and social support in pregnant and postpartum adolescents. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine , 150 (1), 64-69. Caldwell, C. H., Antonucci, T. C., Jackson, J. S., Wolford, M. L., & Osofsky, J. D. (1997). Perceptions of parental support and depressive symptomatology among black and white adolescent mothers. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders , 5 (3), 173-183. Deal, L. W., & Holt, V. L. (1998). Young maternal age and depressive symptoms: Results from the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 88 , 266–270 Dinwiddie, K. J., Schillerstrom, T. L., & Schillerstrom, J. E. (2017). Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology , 39 (3), 168–175. Field T. (1992). Infants of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 4 , 49-66. Logsdon, M. C., Birkimer, J. C., Simpson, T., & Looney, S. (2005). Postpartum depression and social support in adolescents. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing , 34 (1), 46-54. Radke-Yarrow, M., Cummings, E. M., Kuczynski, L., & Chapman, M. (1985). Patterns of attachment in two- and three-year-olds in normal families and families with parental depression. Child Development, 56 , 886-893. Schmidt, R. M., Wiemann, C. M., Rickert, V. I., & Smith, E. O. B. (2006). Moderate to severe depressive symptoms among adolescent mothers followed four years postpartum. Journal of Adolescent Health , 38 , 712–718. Project Gallery

Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Same-sex attraction in non-human animals Last updated: 17/06/25, 11:20 Published: 11/09/25, 07:00 Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Biased science communication can have detrimental consequences. For example, facts about animal reproduction have been twisted to justify discrimination against the LGBTQIA+ community. Some people call homosexuality a “Darwinian paradox”, because it does not fit their preconceived belief that an animal’s job is to stay alive and make babies. This belief ignores how some animals, like humans, have complex social structures and do things just for fun. Same-sex sexual behaviours (SSSB) have been observed in 1500 animal species, none of whom do it to make babies. This article describes some of these behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates. Same-sex sexual behaviour (SSSB) in birds The first recorded example of SSSB in non-human animals comes from Aristotle about 2300 years ago. He wrote about male pigeons, partridges, and quails mating with other male conspecifics. Since then, same-sex relationships have been recorded in other bird species. Greylag geese form “gander pairs” of two males, whose behaviours resemble pairs of opposite-sex mates. In Oahu, Hawaii, female-female Laysan albatross pairs looked after 31% of nests between 2004 and 2007. These pairs, one of which is pictured in Figure 1 , were equally good at raising chicks as male-female pairs. SSSB was also observed in unbonded king penguins, meaning penguins which had not committed to a mate for that breeding season. Using DNA to assess individual sex, 26.4% of courtship displays between unbonded king penguin couples were same-sex. There was also one male-male and one female-female pair of bonded king penguins, but both couples broke up and re-bonded with opposite-sex mates in the same season. The most famous same-sex bird couple is Roy and Silo from Central Park Zoo. They were a pair of chinstrap penguins who raised a chick named Tango when given a fertile egg. This family was the subject of a children’s book ( Figure 2 ) and an American culture war. Thus, many bird species pair with individuals of the same sex in captivity and more importantly, in the wild. SSSB in mammals Humans are not the only mammals to mate with individuals of the same sex. Male bats from the Myotis genus have been observed getting intimate with each other, and Mytois lucifugus releases sperm during this activity. In another bat species called the Bonin flying fox, males groomed each other in a way scientists perceived as sexual. Japanese macaques have monogamous female-female pairs called consortships, in which females carry out the same mating behaviours seen with male-female pairs. SSSB in insects In addition to birds and mammals, some insects conduct sexual activities to others of the same sex. In a 2012 study, 16% of male field crickets did courtship displays to and/or tried to mate with another male. The authors conducted experiments to rule out some leading Darwinian causes of SSSB, such as establishing dominance relationships (similar to an ‘alpha male’) or defusing hostile encounters. SSSB is well studied in flour beetles, where the males mount other males and release capsules of sperm like they would to females. In these beetles, the sexes are sexually dimorphic - distinguishable by appearance, smell, and/or sound - so a male beetle is intentionally choosing to mate with another male. When 59 male damselflies were offered a male and female in the same cage, 10 approached and began mating with the male. More damselflies chose the male over the female after spending a few days in a male-only population, perhaps because they were used to only having males to choose from. Therefore, analogies to both homoromantic and homosexual partnerships in humans exist in insects. Conclusion Since mammals, birds, insects, and molluscs all have evidence of SSSB in the wild, it is normal and certainly not unnatural for humans to do the same. These behaviours range from preferentially approaching the same sex to intentional, intimate actions. All the papers I used in this article are over a decade old, with the earliest evidence of non-human same-sex behaviour being 2300 years old. This means using biology to justify homophobia is very outdated, and factually incorrect. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Young LC, Zaun BJ, VanderWerf EA. Successful same-sex pairing in Laysan albatross. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2008 Aug 23 [cited 2025 Feb 1];4(4):323–5. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0191 Richardson J, Parnell P, Cole H. And Tango makes three. First Little Simon board book edition. New York: Little Simon; 2015. 1 p. Sugita N. Homosexual Fellatio: Erect Penis Licking between Male Bonin Flying Foxes Pteropus pselaphon . Pellis S, editor. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2016 Nov 8 [cited 2025 Feb 1];11(11):e0166024. Available from: https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166024 Bailey NW, French N. Same-sex sexual behaviour and mistaken identity in male field crickets, Teleogryllus oceanicus . Animal Behaviour [Internet]. 2012 Oct [cited 2025 Feb 1];84(4):1031–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0003347212003508 Huber R, Martys M. Male-male pairs in Greylag Geese ( Anser anser ). J Ornithol [Internet]. 1993 Apr [cited 2025 Feb 1];134(2):155–64. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01640084 Levan KE, Fedina TY, Lewis SM. Testing multiple hypotheses for the maintenance of male homosexual copulatory behaviour in flour beetles. J of Evolutionary Biology [Internet]. 2009 Jan [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1):60–70. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jeb/article/22/1/60-70/7324140 Pincemy G, Dobson FS, Jouventin P. Homosexual Mating Displays in Penguins. Ethology [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];116(12):1210–6. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01835.x Riccucci M. Same-sex sexual behaviour in bats. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy [Internet]. 2010 Sep 24 [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.4404/hystrix-22.1-4478 Van Gossum H, De Bruyn L, Stoks R. Reversible switches between male–male and male–female mating behaviour by male damselflies. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2005 Sep 22 [cited 2025 Feb 1];1(3):268–70. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0315 Vasey PL, Jiskoot H. The Biogeography and Evolution of Female Homosexual Behavior in Japanese Macaques. Arch Sex Behav [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];39(6):1439–41. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-009-9518-2 Project Gallery

Broadening access for (black) women in STEM Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Power of sisterhood in STEM Last updated: 28/03/25, 11:10 Published: 28/03/25, 08:00 Broadening access for (black) women in STEM In collaboration with SiSTEM for International Women's Month Entering a fluid dynamics lecture. Looking under a microscope confined to the four walls of a lab. Walking onto a construction site or a board meeting. As a woman in these spaces, particularly as a woman of colour it is easy to believe you are the ONLY one. That’s what we thought, two sisters of black heritage starting out in the biomedical and the engineering field respectively. The higher we went in education the less people that looked like us. Being 1 of 10 women in a cohort of 200 was a familiar sight. Being less than 2% of the engineering workforce as a woman, you can start to feel like science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) is not for you. But the reality is there are women in STEM doing incredible work. STEM is not a man’s industry. As women, we deserve our space on the STEM table. Through our struggles and isolating experiences, we decided to create SiSTEM, a community for all these wonderful women. Real life sisterhood We are often asked how we find working with your sister. Truth is, we wouldn’t be each other’s first choice for a business partner! We never thought we would start an organisation together, growing up as most siblings we have always wanted to do our own thing. Science and engineering was always seen as us doing separate things. Moreover we have completely different personalities. But we are two sisters with one dream; we don’t want another girl to leave the STEM field because she doesn’t believe she belongs there. We don’t want another girl to disqualify herself from her STEM career or degree because she has been told she doesn’t have the look for STEM or grades to do well. We have one passion and that’s to change the narrative of women in STEM, particularly black women and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is power in numbers Community and having a support system are important. We wouldn’t have completed our STEM degrees or broken into our careers without our personal sisterly support. We were always a phone call away for each other, ready to be a listening ear and a cheerleader. That same sisterly support is what we offer to other women and girls through our initiative. There’s power in sisterhood, standing on the shoulders of great women. Women face unique challenges particularly in the STEM industry, discrimination, feeling less valued, difficulty with pay and promotion but by building a culture of support we empower women to thrive despite the barriers. It’s beautiful to belong to a circle of women as we are stronger together. By belonging to a community it cultivates a feeling of belonging. You also learn from one another, sparking interesting conversations, building important connections. We learn from our community everyday: the conversations we are able to have inspire us and broaden our knowledge. Throwing the rope to the next generation From its inception, SiSTEM’s goal was to support women and girls throughout their STEM journey. The gender gap issue in STEM starts very early on, very often not when we choose our degree courses but as early as primary school. That’s why we empower young girls as young as five years old. Every girl, every woman deserves to be part of a community. Every stage of the journey has its unique challenges which belonging to community can help navigate. I’m sure you’ve heard the saying ‘empowered women empower women’ - now we feel empowered to empower other girls and women. We originally felt like we were not the people to create this community. Imposter syndrome told us we weren’t qualified enough, that we didn’t have a story to tell worth listening to. Reflecting on our own journeys, it’s women like our teachers, our mother, our friends who have been key in our success. Our mum telling us to ‘aim high and be the best’, a female science teacher telling us ‘you can be whatever you want to be’, a friend's comment on our graduation post saying how proud they are. And now a community of women who we can lean on for support, receive advice and inspire us every day. Today, we meet women at schools, events, universities and workplaces. A common theme in some of these women and girls we meet is a lack of confidence. Our biggest joy is when we are able to put a smile on a young girl’s face who feels giving up.Women need reminding how amazing they are so we continue to do amazing things, find a cure for cancer, make an innovative product to solve the world’s biggest problems or to design a beautiful building which would will be seen by generations to come. We shouldn’t be afraid to share our personal stories of how we got to where we are. when others hear they are empowered. This is what we use our platform to do. We are able to pass on the mic to other woman to share their untold stories. By putting a light on various women particularly black women in STEM we are giving others positive roles models to look to where they able to believe they do can do it. An empowered woman is a force of nature. She shines. She encourages. She breaks barriers and has the confidence to speak up in a place where she was told to be silent. By forming our community even though we may still find that we are the only women in the room, we have many women standing behind us and many more coming. Conclusion Retention of women in STEM is as equally as important as getting women into STEM. There is a leaky pipeline particularly between university level and STEM leadership positions and also many young girls already have a negative perception about certain STEM careers. That’s why we created an initiative to encourage more girls to get into STEM through innovative workshops and outreach programs and to create a community for women currently in the field. By doing so we aim to open the bottle top at one end and close any holes at the other end. Women supporting women in a powerful thing and there is space for all women in stem, no matter your background, academic records or skin colour. Together we make STEM colourful…preferably pink! -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks SiSTEM for this important piece on female representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! For more information, check them out on Instagram and LinkedIn . -- Related articles: Representation in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery