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Looking at how income and housing are linked to health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Socioeconomic Health Inequalities Last updated: 05/02/26, 10:09 Published: 05/02/26, 08:00 Looking at how income and housing are linked to health This is Article no. 2 in a series on health equalities. Previous article: What are health inequalities? Next article: Ethnic inequalities (coming soon). Welcome to the second article in a series of articles about health inequalities. This article will look more in detail at what socioeconomic health inequalities are. Introduction Socioeconomic factors refer to the circumstances in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age. These conditions are often considered the wider determinants of health, and are a fundamental cause of health inequalities. These inequalities are not accidental; they are the result of underlying structural disparities, occurring as a result of unequal distribution of resources and opportunities in society. Addressing these disparities requires coordinated, cross-government action across a wide range of policy areas, including prevention and focused work on the wider determinants of health. How income is linked to health Poverty and financial insecurity have a significant negative impact on health, as living on a low income is a source of stress. It also affects an individual's ability to afford health-improving goods, from nutritious food to gym memberships. Across the income spectrum, lower incomes are associated with worse self-reported health. Data from the Department for Work and Pensions’ Family Resources Survey 2023/24 shows that 43% of people on the lowest income rate their health as fair, bad or very bad, compared with 31% in the middle (the fifth income decile) and 15% on the highest incomes. The Health Foundation has visualised this in Figure 1 . The impact on health is even greater when low pay persists for generations: children from households in the bottom fifth of income distribution are over 4 times more likely to experience severe mental health issues compared to those in the highest fifth. Furthermore, Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) individuals are disproportionately affected and are more likely to live in poverty, have low incomes, and lower levels of wealth compared to White individuals. How housing links to health The places where people live and age can significantly influence their health. Affluent areas have more access to green and other public spaces, clean air, and affordable and active travel. In contrast, deprived areas often have less access to green space, higher concentrations of fast-food outlets, and limited availability of affordable and healthy food. Individuals living in deprived areas will most likely have poor-quality and overcrowded housing conditions, associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, depression and anxiety. They may also experience fuel poverty, so they cannot afford to heat their home. BAME households are more likely than White households to live in overcrowded homes and to experience fuel poverty. Health outcomes and projections The consequences of socioeconomic inequalities can be seen in differences in health outcomes. People in more deprived areas experience major illness earlier in life and die younger: in England, individuals in the 10% most deprived areas are expected to develop major illness 10 years earlier compared to those in the 10% most affluent areas. They are also over three times more likely to die prematurely before the age of 70. This inequality is projected to continue through to at least 2040, with no expected improvement. These findings are supported by research which looked at the impact of socioeconomic factors on the COVID-19 pandemic. Results showed that unequal access to healthcare amplified COVID-19 cases. It meant that a significant portion of cases, which could have been prevented through timely diagnosis, treatment, and resource distribution, contributed to an overall case rate that was 6-fold higher than it otherwise might have been. Additionally, a small group of long-term conditions contributes to most diagnosed health inequalities: chronic pain, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and anxiety and depression. The prevalence of these conditions is 1.5 times higher in the 10% most deprived areas compared to the least deprived areas. The Health Foundation has visualised this in Figure 2 . Conclusion Socioeconomic health inequalities are fundamentally caused by the structural inequalities discussed throughout this article. Actions to address these disparities must be specifically targeted in the most deprived areas, which often see a disproportionate impact on BAME individuals. The next article in this series will look more in detail at ethnic health inequalities, so watch out for that! Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: Global Health Injustices (series) Project Gallery

What they are, which groups are affected, and pandemic and economic impacts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What are health inequalities? Last updated: 05/02/26, 10:08 Published: 08/01/26, 08:00 What they are, which groups are affected, and pandemic and economic impacts This is Article 1 in a series on health inequalities. Next article: Socioeconomic health equalities . Welcome to the first article in a series of articles about health inequalities. This first article will look more in detail at exactly what health inequalities are. Introduction Imagine that you lived in Blackpool, and that your friends or family lived in Kensington. Your life expectancy would be 76 years, while theirs would be 86 years, a full decade of difference! Or consider the fact that even though men have shorter life-spans compared to women, women spend longer living with ill health or major illnesses. These are some examples of health inequalities, which are health differences between different groups of people. They aren’t just random variations in health outcomes between different groups or people: instead, they’re systematic and avoidable. What groups are affected by health inequalities? Health inequalities can be seen across various populations. A person’s health can be impacted by socioeconomic factors, like income or wealth, and geographic factors, like where they live. Other characteristics affecting health include ethnicity or gender. These factors don’t act in isolation. For individuals who experience multiple levels of disadvantage, the effects of inequalities are worsened. For example, ethnic minority groups who live in deprived areas, or socioeconomically disadvantaged women, experience even worse health outcomes. This interconnectedness means that understanding health inequalities and addressing them requires a holistic approach. Health status and health inequalities Differences in health outcomes can manifest in different ways. One indicator is health status, which includes overall life expectancy and healthy life expectancy, which is the time people live in good health. In England, there’s an almost 10-year gap in life expectancy between the most and least deprived areas, shown by the example above, where the life expectancy is 76 years in Blackpool and 86 years in Kensington. Differences in healthy life expectancy between the most and least deprived areas are even more pronounced. Healthy life expectancy is more than 18 years lower for the most deprived areas compared to the least deprived areas, as shown in Figure 1 . Males living in the most deprived areas can expect to live 52.3 years in good health, while for males living in the least deprived areas, this number increases to 70.5 years. For females, it’s 51.9 years in the most deprived areas, compared to 70.7 years in the least deprived. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on health inequalities The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated health inequalities, with those living in the most deprived areas and people from ethnic minority backgrounds being the worst impacted. For example, as the pandemic strained healthcare services, more deprived areas had longer waiting lists, highlighting issues of unequal access and quality of care. In addition, death rates in the most deprived areas were higher compared to the least deprived areas: at a deprivation level of 1 (most deprived), deaths from COVID-19 were 566.2 per 100,000, with this number decreasing to 228.7 deaths per 100,000 at a deprivation level of 10 (least deprived), as seen in Figure 2 . The economic impact of health inequalities Health inequalities can have economic impacts as a result of the added costs needed to address them. The persistence of health inequalities, particularly among the working-age population, is a challenge to economic growth, as increasing levels of ill health can lead to economic inactivity. For example, data from before COVID-19 suggests that health inequalities cost the UK £31bn to £33bn per year in lost productivity, £20bn to £32bn per year in lost tax revenue and higher benefits payments and £4.8bn of the NHS budget. This is equivalent to almost a fifth of the NHS budget. As the pandemic exacerbated inequalities, these numbers have only increased: for example, the long-term impacts of COVID-19 have varied between demographics. Given that at least 2.5 million working-age adults are unable to work due to long-term sickness, as per the Office for National Statistics estimates, this is a significant economic challenge for the country, as well as a health issue. Conclusion Health inequalities have been shown to affect different groups disproportionately, with deprivation, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and other social factors having compounding effects, resulting in poorer health and shorter healthy lives. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated these inequalities, with the most marginalised communities being the most affected. Failure to address these differences has resulted in not only human costs but also billions in lost productivity and increased burdens on health services. Socioeconomic status is one specific factor that influences health outcomes: as mentioned above, people in the most deprived areas face a gap of approximately ten years in life expectancy compared to the least deprived, seen when comparing life expectancy in Blackpool and Kensington. The next article in this series will look more in detail at socioeconomic inequalities, so watch out for that! Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: Global Health Injustices (series) Project Gallery

​Dive into the latest biological research! Read about animal testing and ethics, and learn about the regulation and policy of stem cell research. Biology Articles Dive into the latest biological research! Read about animal testing and ethics, and learn about the regulation and policy of stem cell research. You may also like: Cancer , Ecology , Genetics , Immunology , Neuroscience , Zoology , and Medicine Regulation and policy of stem cell research The 14-day rule and stem cell-based embryo models Maveerar Naal Health, trauma, and resilience amid decades of war in Sri Lanka What are health inequalities? Unequal access to healthcare. Article #1 in a series on health inequalities. Socioeconomic health inequalities Unequal access to healthcare due to social and financial factors. Article #2 in a series on health inequalities. Previous

The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The celestial blueprint of time: Stonehenge, United Kingdom Last updated: 08/10/25, 16:22 Published: 09/10/25, 07:00 The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator This is Article 3 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article coming soon. Previous article: The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids . Stonehenge, located within the south-west of England, is one of the UK’s most notable man-made structures, built during the neolithic period around 3100BC. Not only is this famous UNESCO heritage site a breakthrough in engineering, but the sandstone architecture also holds an enigmatic connection between the land and the sky. Its location and stone arrangement mirrors a blueprint that can be analysed to predict the timings of astronomical phenomena. The utilisation of Stonehenge as an astronomical calculator was established by astronomer Gerald Hawkins in 1965. Using computer software, Hawkins discovered that the location of Stonehenge aligned with several solar and lunar positions. He theorised that Stonehenge was built to predict astronomical events, such as eclipses, and to determine the position of summer and winter solstices. From the shape and positions of the 19 stones that comprise Stonehenge, its ‘horseshoe’ shape could predict the lunar eclipses. A booklet titled Stonehenge: Sun, Moon, Wandering Stars , written by M.W. Postins further detailed the significance of Stonehenge in archaeoastronomy. Postins suggested two scale models, the ‘Temple model’ and the ‘Enclosure model’, which detailed the significance of each stone and its relation to different events. For example, the booklet notes that the Altar Stone, a large sandstone located in the centre of Stonehenge, was placed across the solstice axis and represents the ‘Summer solstice sunrise’. Additionally, Postins hypothesised that the five trilithons, which are the vertical stones that form the structure of Stonehenge, represented planets that can be viewed with the naked eye. These include the two lowest trilithons on the East and Northern sides of the structure, representing Mercury and Venus. There has been new research, currently underway by the universities of Oxford, Leicester and Bournemouth in collaboration with the Royal Astronomical Society, linking the Stonehenge monument to a unique lunar phenomenon, called the ‘Major Lunar Standstill’. Right from the early construction of Stonehenge, researchers note that the major lunar standstill may have influenced the design of the monument. Four of the stones at Stonehenge align with two of the Moon’s positions, which aid to indicate moonrise and moonset. This would have allowed individuals to use the moonlight for longer periods of activity, such as night time hunting, as well as visualise the cycle of the lunar phases as a method of time watching for farming and celebratory purposes. Potentially, there is speculation that this made the positioning and construction of Stonehenge intentional. The timeless effect of the Stonehenge landmark, which shaped life in the past and continues to be of astronomical interest to determine the future, is a remarkable example of the functions of built structures for the analysis of astronomical events. It truly is a celestial blueprint for the relationship between the earth and cosmology. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Astro-geography of Lonar Lake REFERENCES English Heritage. (2024). Stonehenge: Major Lunar Standstill . https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/things-to-do/major-lunar-standstill/ OSR. (2009). Stonehenge: An Astronomical Calculator . https://osr.org/blog/astronomy/stonehenge-an-astronomical-calculator/?srsltid=AfmBOopNQnJ-XUZSyLY_Aqu3L2nOJgSoAceRzQJIVZbsIsFhW6s3U_NT Tiverton & Mid Devon Astronomy Society. (n.d.). Astro-Archaeology at Stonehenge . http://www.tivas.org.uk/stonehenge/stone_ast.html Project Gallery

A restored wildlife reserve in Mozambique Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How Gorongosa National Park went from conflict to community Last updated: 06/11/25, 11:53 Published: 27/03/25, 08:00 A restored wildlife reserve in Mozambique This is article no. 5 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: Emperor penguins, the kings of the ice . Previous article: Pangolins: from poached to protected . Gorongosa National Park was the centre of a dark time in Mozambique’s history, which led to most mammals being hunted and entire species going locally extinct. Over the last 20 years, a public-private collaboration has restored many of these species and made Gorongosa National Park a healthy ecosystem again. In this article, I explore what nearly wiped out Gorongosa’s mammals and how they are doing today. About Gorongosa National Park Gorongosa National Park is a wildlife reserve in Mozambique containing grasslands, savannahs, woodlands, and wetlands. It lies at the East African Rift's southern end, making for a complex geological landscape centred around Lake Urema ( Figure 1 ). Lake Urema and the rivers draining into it support a high diversity of herbivorous mammals like elephants, zebras, and antelopes. Civil war and subsequent recovery Gorongosa National Park has illustrated the connections between society and ecology for decades. Civil war raged in Mozambique between 1977 and 1992. During this war, both sides hunted without restrictions in Gorongosa for meat and for valuable animal parts like ivory, which were exported to pay for ammunition. This decreased the population sizes of all animal species in the national park by at least 90%. Twelve years after the war ended, an American non-profit called the Gregory Carr Foundation partnered with the government of Mozambique to conserve and restore Gorongosa. The initiative, now called the Gorongosa Project, aims to bring back mammal species which went locally extinct in the war. In addition to providing healthcare, jobs, and education to 200,000 people living near the national park, the Gorongosa Project invests in tourism and ecological research. Ecologists are interested in how different animal species would rebound from the war and how a diverse ecosystem could be created nearly from scratch. By fostering healthy connections between local communities, scientists, and wildlife after the Mozambican Civil War, the Gorongosa Project has become something special. How different animal species recovered after the Mozambican Civil War Since mammalian herbivores were the cornerstone of pre-war Gorongosa National Park, their recovery has been prioritised. The populations of most herbivores have increased since the Civil War but at varying rates. Waterbucks, a species of antelope, have dominated Gorongosa in the years following the war ( Figure 2 ). This could be because more waterbuck survived the war in the first place and/or because they naturally reproduced faster than other mammals. Stalmans et al. found that waterbucks were found to be growing as fast as they biologically could, as though they had infinite resources and no diseases or predators. Meanwhile, the populations of larger herbivores like hippos, buffaloes, and elephants, which used to dominate Gorongosa, are recovering much slower than waterbucks ( Figure 2 ). With this change in the herbivore community came changes in vegetation. According to Daskin et al., the amount of land covered by trees in Gorongosa increased by 34% between 1977 and 2012 ( Figure 3 ). This was because there were fewer elephants or other ‘browsing’ herbivores to clear out woody vegetation. Thus, the Mozambican Civil War altered the community structure of herbivorous mammals and plants in Gorongosa National Park. After herbivores showed signs of recovery, scientists turned to restoring carnivorous mammals. Lions were the only carnivores not to go locally extinct during the war, so they recovered fastest. Between 2012 and 2016, Bouley et al. counted 104 lions in Gorongosa – about half the pre-war count. Following the success of lions, wild dogs were introduced from two different South African populations in 2018 and 2019. Over the following three breeding seasons, 82 pups were born, and dogs originally from different populations naturally formed their own packs. Wild dogs and lions prefer different prey and hunt in different habitats within Gorongosa, allowing both carnivores to coexist. This successful restoration of mammalian carnivores completed Gorongosa National Park’s post-war ecosystem. Conclusion After most mammals in Gorongosa National Park were hunted during a civil war, the Gorongosa Project restored a functioning ecosystem by diligently monitoring wildlife and working alongside local people. The park has brought attention to the often neglected non-human impacts of war. Conservationists are optimistic that if Gorongosa National Park’s ecosystem can recover from almost nothing, it is not too late to save other damaged ecosystems. Although Gorongosa’s ecosystem today is dominated by waterbucks, time will tell whether populations of carnivores and larger herbivores will return to their former glory. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Galapagos tortoises / Vicuna conservation / Wildlife corridors REFERENCES Stalmans, M.E. et al. (2019) ‘War-induced collapse and asymmetric recovery of large-mammal populations in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique’, PLOS ONE , 14(3), p. e0212864. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212864 . Daskin, J.H., Stalmans, M. and Pringle, R.M. (2016) ‘Ecological legacies of civil war: 35-year increase in savanna tree cover following wholesale large-mammal declines’, Journal of Ecology , 104(1), pp. 79–89. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12483 . Bouley, P. et al. (2018) ‘Post-war recovery of the African lion in response to large-scale ecosystem restoration’, Biological Conservation , 227, pp. 233–242. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.024 . Bouley, P. et al. (2021) ‘The successful reintroduction of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) to Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique’, PLOS ONE , 16(4), p. e0249860. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249860 . Gorongosa National Park (2020) Our Mission , Gorongosa National Park . Available at: https://gorongosa.org/our-mission-2/ (Accessed: 8 December 2024). Poole, J. et al. (2023) ‘A culture of aggression: the Gorongosa elephants’ enduring legacy of war’, Pachyderm , 64, pp. 37–62. Available at: https://doi.org/10.69649/pachyderm.v64i.518 . Project Gallery

Study the plethora of interactions between drug and target with these articles focusing on antibiotic resistance, analgesics, and drug treatments for diseases with presently no cure. Pharmacology Articles Study the plethora of interactions between drug and target with these articles focusing on antibiotic resistance, analgesics, and drug treatments for diseases with presently no cure. You may also like: Chemistry , Medicine Effect of heat on medicine When medication is exposed to extreme heat, what happens? Antibiotic resistance Its rising threat Exploring ibuprofen Ibuprofen is a painkiller A treatment for Parkinson's disease By using a common diabetes drug mRNA vaccines What they are, and how they are different to traditional (live, attenuated, or viral-vectored) vaccines Anthrax toxin Using bacterial toxins to treat pain 'The Molecule': an upcoming biotech thriller A book review

Pisaster ochraceus (also known as ‘ochre stars’) is a keystone species and common starfish found in the Pacific Ocean and are very interesting species to research on. They are found mainly in Alaska and Baja California. Their size range from 15 to 36cm in diameter come in different ranges of colours eg: red, yellow, orange and purple. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Designing an experiment on sea stars Last updated: 17/11/24 Published: 25/03/23 Title: How do light and dark rocky surfaces affect the relative fitness of the orange and purple ochre stars? Pisaster ochraceus (also known as ‘ochre stars’) is a keystone species and common starfish found in the Pacific Ocean and are very interesting species to research on. They are found mainly in Alaska and Baja California. Their size range from 15 to 36cm in diameter come in different ranges of colours eg: red, yellow, orange and purple. They are mainly found near rocky shores and found under rocks and in crevices in the low and intertidal zones and they often cluster together. They are simple organisms, they do not have brain or ganglia and around its mouth there is a nerve ring which connects with 5 radial nerves. The population of Pisaster ochraceus that are orange are 6- 28%, whilst majority are purple and researchers have seen that mainly genetic traits cause these species to have different colours whilst they develop. There have also been experiments that examined how colour changes across the geographic range. Figure 1: Image of purple and orange ochre stars The aim of the experiment would be to see how either light or dark rocky surfaces affect the relative fitness of the orange and purple ochre stars, meaning their offspring. The relative fitness shows how much fitness there is in a genotype compared to the maximum fitness. Before starting this experiment, a risk assessment has to be done to make sure it is safe and increases hazard awareness when the experiment is being done. The likelihood, severity and risk has to be looked into during the assessment and how to reduce the risk. One example is, doing the experiment by the shores can be risky due to wind waves and tides and so appropriate footwear has to be worn and the weather should be looked into before going to do this experiment. There are going to be control variables such as: season, quadrat area, number of samples calculated and same equipment being used throughout the whole day so validity would be affected. The uncontrolled variables would be: temperature, pH of seawater and predators that consume Pisaster ochraceus . In order to see how the Pisaster ochraceus are affected, 10 - 15 sites should be chosen and a quadrat can be used (10 metres by 10 metres) on each site and running parallel by using a tape measure on darker rocky surfaces and then after on lighter rocky surfaces. This will be useful as you can see the distribution. Place 15 quadrats randomly over each area in every site to work out the abundance. Within each quadrat, orange and purple Pisaster ochraceus are counted separately to illustrate the set of results with the different colours and the rocky surfaces on a table of results. After collecting the results, this should be shown on a set of tables and then placed on a stratified bar graph showing all the sites, the colour of the starfish (on the x- axis) and results of relative fitness(on the y-axis) showing a good visualisation of the experiment. A paired t-test should be done as we want to see the difference between two variables which are the light and dark rocky surfaces for the same sample which is the colour of the starfish through their means. It should then be concluded by seeing which morph has a higher relative fitness and conclude to see if there is an effect. If the p-value is lesser or equal to the significance value, then the hypothesis should be rejected if the p-value is higher than the significance value the hypothesis should be accepted. Figure 2: Purple and orange ochre stars on rocky surfaces Carrying out an experiment in a natural environment is an advantage as this can be reflected on real life therefore having higher ecological validity. However, doing this experiment can have some disadvantages, even though this is cost-effective and done in a natural environment, we do not know how reliable these results will be because the collection of results can have some inaccuracy. Also, it also has to be understood that many other biotic and abiotic factors can affect this experiment. As it is done in the natural environment there will be issues with Pisaster ochraceus being predated by sea otters or even seagulls which can have an effect on results and also making it less generalisable. Air temperature and water temperature can also have an effect on these species as well and it cannot be controlled which can create issues on results. Also, by using a quadrat, it can be prone to human errors (miscounting or overcounting) and having randomly spaced quadrats, can miss out individual species therefore showing under-representative estimates and results in the populations of the Pisaster ochraceus . More repeats would have to be done throughout the years to collect more accurate results and also be tested by other variables such as temperature, wave exposure and even pH of seawater to see if this also affects relative fitness of Pisaster ochraceus with different colouration. It is important to think about the ethical considerations as it is a natural area and these species organisms live there and it should not be damaged before, during and after the experiment. The creatures must be respected as well as the environment they live in. With many equipment being used, it is vital not to interfere with the organisms, create litter or disturb the habitat as it will be unethical. In conclusion, this experiment is effective as it is done in a natural environment at different sites but it will be time consuming due to changes in weather and working out the abundance over all the sites for a long period of time. By doing the paired t-test, a difference in the two means can be seen and create smaller effects on error from the samples. Written by Jeevana Thavarajah Related articles: An experiment on castor oil / on pendulums REFERENCES The Biological Bulletin. 2022. Color Polymorphism and Genetic Structure in the Sea Star Pisaster ochraceus | The Biological Bulletin: Vol 211, No 3. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022]. Animal Diversity Web. 2022. Pisaster ochraceus. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022]. Sanctuarysimon.org. 2022. SIMoN :: Species Database. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022]. Rgs.org. 2022. Royal Geographical Society - Fieldwork in schools. [online] Available at: [Accessed 18 January 2022].

It’s been found that the species Dicrurus adsimilis (fork-tailed drongos) uses deception by flexible alarm mimicry to target and carry out food-theft attempts. The deceptive tactics of the fork-tailed drongo were studied which includes the use of false alarm calls and mimicked calls. Research was done on 64 wild drongos in the Kalahari Desert and it was found that the drongos spent more than a quarter of their time watching their target species which included southern pied babblers and meerkats Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Deception by flexible alarm mimicry in an African bird Last updated: 05/11/24 Published: 28/12/22 It’s been found that the species Dicrurus adsimilis (fork-tailed drongos) uses deception by flexible alarm mimicry to target and carry out food-theft attempts. The deceptive tactics of the fork-tailed drongo were studied which includes the use of false alarm calls and mimicked calls. Research was done on 64 wild drongos in the Kalahari Desert and it was found that the drongos spent more than a quarter of their time watching their target species which included southern pied babblers and meerkats. The other species’ would listen to the alarm calls made by drongos and would rush to take cover as they would if it was an alarm call from their species. These alarm calls were beneficial to them as it increased the number of returns from foraging and reduced their vigilance. However, the drongos used this to their advantage and if the target species was to find a large item of food the drongos could produce a false alarm call to make the target species run to cover out of fear which allowed the observing drongo to steal the deserted food. In 42% of cases of false alarms the drongos used a mimicked cry and in another 27% it was a mixture of mimicked and drongo-specific. This could be because target species are more likely to respond to a mimicked alarm call. In the case of babblers, if they heard a mimicked alarm call they would take longer to carry on foraging than with a drongo-specific call. The results show that false alarm calls by drongos work to distract their target but the call should also be frequently changed and not overused for best results. Written by Areebah Khan Related article: Conserving the Californian condor SUMMARISED FROM Flower, T.P., Gribble, M. and Ridley, A.R. (2014) “Deception by flexible alarm mimicry in an African bird,” Science, 344(6183), pp. 513–516.

Not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Sleep less…remember less: the hidden link between sleep and memory loss Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:27 Published: 17/04/25, 07:00 Not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s People often don’t get enough sleep for a variety of reasons, ranging from intentional choices like work or study demands (because who needs sleep when you’ve got deadlines, right?), to the growing concern with screen time (a.k.a. the “I’ll just watch one more episode” syndrome), and of course, procrastination (where your brain convinces you that 3 a.m. is a great time to suddenly get productive). But it’s not all fun and games—serious issues like insomnia, sleep apnoea, family responsibilities, or even shift work can also interfere with rest. Sleep disorders are increasingly common, with around one in three people in the UK affected, and they’re particularly prevalent among the elderly. However, not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). How do sleep disorders impact Alzheimer’s disease? Insomnia is characterised by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, which can lead to prolonged fatigue and memory issues. As shown in Figure 1 , people with insomnia tend to have some similarity in markers as those with Alzheimer’s disease, such as an increased level of Aβ and tau proteins in the brain. This is primarily because a lack of sleep prevents the effective removal of harmful products from the brain – this accumulation increases a person’s risk of AD. A plethora of experimental studies on humans and animals have shown that lack of sleep can lead to increased circulating levels of TNF-α and the gene resulting in more TNF-α secretion. This pro-inflammatory cytokine exacerbates AD pathology because neuroinflammation can lead to dysfunction and cell death, which are key markers of AD. Other pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1, have been found to be relevant in the link between sleep deprivation and AD. Overexpression of IL-1 in the brain leads to abnormal changes in nerve cell structures especially relating to Aβ plaques. This highlights IL-1’s key role in plaque evolution and the synthesis of Amyloid Precursor Protein, which promotes amyloid production that eventually results in AD pathology. What type of sleep can impact one’s risk of Alzheimer’s disease? Studies using more objective measures, like actigraphy (which tracks sleep-wake activity), found that sleep quality (sleep efficiency) is more important than total sleep time. For example, women with less than 70% sleep efficiency were more likely to experience cognitive impairment. Increased wakefulness during the night also moderated the relationship between amyloid deposition (a hallmark of AD) and memory decline. Uncertainties… However, it remains unclear whether poor sleep directly causes AD or if the disease itself leads to sleep disturbances. Some studies suggest a bidirectional relationship. Aging itself leads to poorer sleep quality, including reduced sleep efficiency, less slow-wave sleep (SWS), and more frequent awakenings. Sleep disorders like obstructive sleep apnoea, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome also become more common with age. What are the next steps? The good news is that many sleep disorders, including insomnia, are manageable, and improving sleep quality could be a simple yet powerful way to reduce Alzheimer’s risk. Additionally, early diagnosis and treatment of conditions like sleep apnoea and insomnia may help slow or even prevent neurodegenerative changes. s researchers continue to explore the intricate relationship between sleep and Alzheimer’s, one thing is clear: getting a good night’s sleep isn’t just about feeling refreshed. It is a crucial investment in long-term brain health. Written by Blessing Amo-Konadu Related articles: Overview of Alzheimer's / Hallmarks of Alzheimer's / CRISPR-Cas9 in AD treatment / Memory erasure / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES Lucey, B. (2020). It’s complicated: The relationship between sleep and Alzheimer’s disease in humans. Neurobiology of Disease , [online] 144, p.105031. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105031 . NHS (2023). Insomnia . [online] www.nhsinform.scot . Available at: https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/insomnia/ . Pelc, C. (2023). Not getting enough deep sleep may increase the risk of developing dementia . [online] Medicalnewstoday.com . Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/not-getting-enough-deep-sleep-may-increase-dementia-risk#Clarifying-the-link-between-sleep-aging-and-dementia-risk [Accessed 22 Dec. 2024]. Sadeghmousavi, S., Eskian, M., Rahmani, F. and Rezaei, N. (2020). The effect of insomnia on development of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation , 17(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01960-9 . Project Gallery

Causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Hypertension: a silent threat to global health Last updated: 13/03/25, 11:38 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Introduction Did you know that hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a leading cause of premature death, affecting 1.28 billion adults aged 30-79 worldwide? According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), two-thirds of these individuals live in low and middle-income countries. Despite its widespread prevalence, many people remain undiagnosed as most cases are asymptomatic, and individuals are unaware they have the condition. Hypertension can lead to serious clinical manifestations such as heart disease. It can also cause eye retinopathy, causing vision problems and kidney damage, including proteinuria. It also contributes to vascular contributions like atherosclerosis, leading to stenosis and aneurysms. It also significantly raises the risk of stroke and heart failure (Figure 1 ). Addressing hypertension through early diagnosis, improved access to treatment and lifestyle changes is essential to reducing its global burden. This article aims to explore the causes, diagnosis and treatments. What drives hypertension? Hypertension is characterised by persistently elevated BP in the systemic arteries. Blood pressure is typically presented as a ratio: systolic BP, which measures the pressure on arterial walls during heart contraction, and diastolic BP, which reflects the pressure when the heart is at rest. Hypertension is diagnosed when the systolic blood pressure is 130 mmHg or higher and/or diastolic blood pressure exceeds 80 mmHg based on multiple readings taken over time ( Figure 2 ). In contrast, secondary hypertension occurs only in 5% of cases and is caused by an underlying condition, such as kidney disease, hormonal imbalances, or vascular problems. This form of hypertension is often reversible if the underlying cause is treated. Common causes of secondary hypertension include chronic kidney disease, polycystic kidney disease, hormone excess (such as aldosterone and cortisol), vascular issues like renovascular stenosis and certain medications. Drugs that can cause secondary hypertension include chronic use of non-steroidal inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antidepressants and oral contraceptives. Hypertension, regardless of its cause, can be exacerbated by certain health behaviours, including excessive dietary salt, a sedentary lifestyle, heavy alcohol consumption, and diets low in essential nutrients, such as potassium. These factors contribute to the development and worsening of high blood pressure. However, blood pressure can be improved by reversing these behaviours, as well as following a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, which helps to mitigate the negative impact on blood pressure. Spotting hypertension: how it is diagnosed Hypertension is usually detected when blood pressure (BP) is measured during regular checkups. Since it often doesn’t show symptoms, all adults must check their BP regularly. The most common way to diagnose hypertension is by measuring BP several times in a doctor’s office. To get an accurate reading, BP must be measured carefully. Since BP can vary throughout the day, multiple measurements are needed. Doctors have recently started using home BP monitoring (HBPM) and ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) to check BP outside of the office. ABPM records BP every 20-30 minutes over 24 hours, while HBPM lets patients measure BP at home. These methods help identify conditions like 'white coat hypertension' (high BP in the doctor’s office but normal at home) or 'masked hypertension' (normal BP at the doctor’s office but high at home). When diagnosing hypertension, doctors also look for other health issues related to high BP, such as heart disease or kidney problems. If high BP is sudden or difficult to control, doctors may suspect secondary hypertension, which is caused by another condition, like kidney disease or hormonal imbalances. A thorough medical history is essential. This includes asking about past BP readings, medications, and lifestyle factors such as smoking and diet. Doctors also check for other risk factors like diabetes or high cholesterol, increasing heart disease risk. A physical exam helps confirm the diagnosis of hypertension and checks for any damage to organs like the heart and kidneys. BP should be measured on both arms and if there's a significant difference in readings, further tests may be needed. If necessary, doctors may also check for conditions like atrial fibrillation or perform ultrasounds to look for heart or kidney problems. Blood tests can also help identify risk factors, confirm or rule out secondary hypertension, and assess overall heart health. Managing hypertension, from lifestyle changes to medications Studies show that weight loss can reduce systolic blood pressure by 5 to 20 mmHg, making it an effective strategy for managing hypertension. However, the exact "ideal" body weight or Body Mass Index (BMI) for controlling blood pressure is not clearly defined, but small weight reductions can make a difference. Reducing salt intake, staying active, and managing sleep apnoea also help. While smoking does not directly raise blood pressure, quitting reduces long-term heart risks. Overall, lifestyle changes alone can cut cardiovascular events by up to 15%. Most national and international guidelines recommend the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), calcium channel blockers (CCBs), and thiazide or thiazide-like diuretics as first-line pharmacological treatments for hypertension. Conclusion Hypertension is a prevalent and often silent condition with serious health consequences, including heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure. Its widespread impact on global health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, underscores the importance of early diagnosis and proactive management. While lifestyle modifications are crucial in managing blood pressure, medications remain essential for many individuals. By raising awareness, promoting regular blood pressure checks, and ensuring access to both preventative and therapeutic measures, we can reduce the burden of hypertension and improve long-term health outcomes globally. Written by Michelle Amoah Related article: Cardiac regeneration REFERENCES Iqbal, A. M., and Jamal, S. F. (2023). Essential hypertension. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from [ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539859/ ] Schmieder, R. E. (2010). End Organ Damage In Hypertension. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2010.0866 Touyz, R. M., Camargo, L. L., Rios, F. J., Alves-Lopes, R., Neves, K. B., Eluwole, O., Maseko, M. J., Lucas-Herald, A., Blaikie, Z., Montezano, A. C., and Feldman, R. D. (2022). Arterial Hypertension. In Comprehensive Pharmacology (pp. 469–487). Elsevier. World Health Organization. (2023). Hypertension. Retrieved [24th January 2025], from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hypertension Project Gallery