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Broadening access for (black) women in STEM Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Power of sisterhood in STEM Last updated: 28/03/25, 11:10 Published: 28/03/25, 08:00 Broadening access for (black) women in STEM In collaboration with SiSTEM for International Women's Month Entering a fluid dynamics lecture. Looking under a microscope confined to the four walls of a lab. Walking onto a construction site or a board meeting. As a woman in these spaces, particularly as a woman of colour it is easy to believe you are the ONLY one. That’s what we thought, two sisters of black heritage starting out in the biomedical and the engineering field respectively. The higher we went in education the less people that looked like us. Being 1 of 10 women in a cohort of 200 was a familiar sight. Being less than 2% of the engineering workforce as a woman, you can start to feel like science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) is not for you. But the reality is there are women in STEM doing incredible work. STEM is not a man’s industry. As women, we deserve our space on the STEM table. Through our struggles and isolating experiences, we decided to create SiSTEM, a community for all these wonderful women. Real life sisterhood We are often asked how we find working with your sister. Truth is, we wouldn’t be each other’s first choice for a business partner! We never thought we would start an organisation together, growing up as most siblings we have always wanted to do our own thing. Science and engineering was always seen as us doing separate things. Moreover we have completely different personalities. But we are two sisters with one dream; we don’t want another girl to leave the STEM field because she doesn’t believe she belongs there. We don’t want another girl to disqualify herself from her STEM career or degree because she has been told she doesn’t have the look for STEM or grades to do well. We have one passion and that’s to change the narrative of women in STEM, particularly black women and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is power in numbers Community and having a support system are important. We wouldn’t have completed our STEM degrees or broken into our careers without our personal sisterly support. We were always a phone call away for each other, ready to be a listening ear and a cheerleader. That same sisterly support is what we offer to other women and girls through our initiative. There’s power in sisterhood, standing on the shoulders of great women. Women face unique challenges particularly in the STEM industry, discrimination, feeling less valued, difficulty with pay and promotion but by building a culture of support we empower women to thrive despite the barriers. It’s beautiful to belong to a circle of women as we are stronger together. By belonging to a community it cultivates a feeling of belonging. You also learn from one another, sparking interesting conversations, building important connections. We learn from our community everyday: the conversations we are able to have inspire us and broaden our knowledge. Throwing the rope to the next generation From its inception, SiSTEM’s goal was to support women and girls throughout their STEM journey. The gender gap issue in STEM starts very early on, very often not when we choose our degree courses but as early as primary school. That’s why we empower young girls as young as five years old. Every girl, every woman deserves to be part of a community. Every stage of the journey has its unique challenges which belonging to community can help navigate. I’m sure you’ve heard the saying ‘empowered women empower women’ - now we feel empowered to empower other girls and women. We originally felt like we were not the people to create this community. Imposter syndrome told us we weren’t qualified enough, that we didn’t have a story to tell worth listening to. Reflecting on our own journeys, it’s women like our teachers, our mother, our friends who have been key in our success. Our mum telling us to ‘aim high and be the best’, a female science teacher telling us ‘you can be whatever you want to be’, a friend's comment on our graduation post saying how proud they are. And now a community of women who we can lean on for support, receive advice and inspire us every day. Today, we meet women at schools, events, universities and workplaces. A common theme in some of these women and girls we meet is a lack of confidence. Our biggest joy is when we are able to put a smile on a young girl’s face who feels giving up.Women need reminding how amazing they are so we continue to do amazing things, find a cure for cancer, make an innovative product to solve the world’s biggest problems or to design a beautiful building which would will be seen by generations to come. We shouldn’t be afraid to share our personal stories of how we got to where we are. when others hear they are empowered. This is what we use our platform to do. We are able to pass on the mic to other woman to share their untold stories. By putting a light on various women particularly black women in STEM we are giving others positive roles models to look to where they able to believe they do can do it. An empowered woman is a force of nature. She shines. She encourages. She breaks barriers and has the confidence to speak up in a place where she was told to be silent. By forming our community even though we may still find that we are the only women in the room, we have many women standing behind us and many more coming. Conclusion Retention of women in STEM is as equally as important as getting women into STEM. There is a leaky pipeline particularly between university level and STEM leadership positions and also many young girls already have a negative perception about certain STEM careers. That’s why we created an initiative to encourage more girls to get into STEM through innovative workshops and outreach programs and to create a community for women currently in the field. By doing so we aim to open the bottle top at one end and close any holes at the other end. Women supporting women in a powerful thing and there is space for all women in stem, no matter your background, academic records or skin colour. Together we make STEM colourful…preferably pink! -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks SiSTEM for this important piece on female representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! For more information, check them out on Instagram and LinkedIn . -- Related articles: Representation in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

The true cost Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Turkey Teeth 17/02/25, 14:52 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:57 The true cost Coined as 'Turkey teeth,' the rising trend of dental tourism has gained increasing popularity among the British population, largely influenced by social media. Many people are now traveling abroad for veneers, crowns, and implants, in the hope of achieving the perfect smile at a fraction of the cost in the UK. However, patients may be paying with their future oral health in the long run, as evidence emerges of botched procedures, with crucial steps missed and patients having long-lasting pain following their treatment. Many young people opt to visit cosmetic dentistry clinics in European countries to obtain veneers due to their cheaper costs compared to the UK dental fees, given that cosmetic dentistry is not covered under the subsidised NHS prices. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that many consumers are in fact receiving full dental crowns without their knowledge, as opposed to veneers, thus sacrificing more of their natural tooth structure in the trade for a seemingly perfect smile. A critical difference between crowns and veneers is the amount of natural tooth structure removed to fit the prosthesis. Veneers are a much more minimally invasive fix, whereby 0.5mm of enamel is shaved away to allow a porcelain cover to fit to the surface of the tooth. Veneers are primarily used to conceal enamel discoloration, variations in shades, and natural tooth shapes. The minimally invasive procedure preserves tooth tissue and can even be potentially reversible in cases where there has been no preparation to the tooth. Crowns in the UK are vastly indicated for badly broken-down teeth and teeth deemed unrestorable. The preparation for a crown is far more invasive, with a significant amount of tooth structure irreversibly removed. This process sees teeth shaved down, with almost 2mm of the structure being irreversibly removed. Filing down teeth when they are otherwise perfectly clinically healthy can have dire consequences, and many patients returning to England have found themselves needing corrective work to rectify the procedures they underwent abroad. A study conducted by the Irish Dental Association revealed that 75% of those who travelled abroad for dental procedures required corrective work back home. The harsh reality of this treatment is that it can result in severe infections, long-lasting tooth pain, inflamed gums, exposed nerves, and heightened sensitivity. The destructive process of crown preparations in clinically healthy teeth increases the likelihood of exposing the tooth's pulp as more tooth tissue is removed, making the tooth more susceptible to infection. If the tooth's pulp becomes exposed, a costly and uncomfortable root canal procedure may be necessary. In the long term, these patients are more likely to lose the affected teeth altogether, as irreversible damage has occurred to the teeth. Another disadvantage of quick-fix dentistry abroad is the lack of follow-up appointments. In the UK, services such as occlusion checks are offered to ensure the bite is correct and that the veneers provide the desired result while lasting for an extended period. In contrast, dental procedures abroad are often expedited, sometimes limited to a single appointment as tourists return home swiftly to resume their daily lives. This can raise the risk of rushed procedures and a lack of follow-up to ensure the prosthetics' longevity. This has seen patients crowns falling off, and leaving their teeth exposed. In a typical UK dental clinic, the process involves an initial assessment, a dental health check, trial designs, and finally, the fitting of new veneers. Teeth are meticulously assessed for potential issues, including periodontal disease, and bite evaluations are performed to ensure that the prosthetics do not interfere with the occlusion. This comprehensive approach differs significantly from the one-appointment dentistry often observed abroad. Love Island's Jack Finham underwent the procedure and documented his experience across social media to thousands of followers. He later went on to reveal that in hindsight, he would not have chosen the procedure has he known its intricacies. Influencers are slowly turning to reveal the true costs of fast dentistry abroad, and it can only be hoped that consumers become better informed on the processes performed abroad, and are more well informed before making an irreversible decision for their teeth. In conclusion, it is imperative for consumers to be well-informed when considering dental procedures, especially when faced with the allure of cheaper veneers, or rather crowns abroad. While the cost savings may initially seem enticing, the potential risks associated with overseas treatments, including inadequate follow-ups, irreversible damage to natural tooth structure, and a lack of comprehensive assessments, should not be overlooked. Opting for dentistry in the UK provides a safer and more comprehensive approach, with qualified professionals who prioritize patients' oral health and long-term well-being. While affordability is a significant consideration, the adage "you get what you pay for" holds true in the realm of dental care. Informed decision-making and prioritizing one's health should always take precedence when seeking dental treatments, ensuring not only a beautiful smile but also lasting oral health. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery

Insight into the different stages Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A deep dive into ovarian cancer 07/03/25, 15:54 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 14:41 Insight into the different stages Introduction Ovarian cancer occurs when abnormal cells in the ovary begin to grow and divide uncontrollably ; this may lead to tumour formation. According to Cancer Research UK , there are around 7,500 new cases of ovarian cancer each year - that is around 21 a day. This makes ovarian cancer the 6th most common cancer in females in the UK, as it makes up around 4% of all cancer cases. Nevertheless, a total of around 11% of all ovarian cancer cases are thought to be preventable. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of ovarian cancer including the risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Diagnostics At present, there is no screening test specific for ovarian cancer. Hence, this often leads to late-stage diagnosis, which results in death or high rates of recurrence within ten years of initial diagnosis, should remission be reached. Initial diagnostic testing includes transvaginal ultrasonography and serum cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) level testing. Transvaginal Ultrasonography This type of imaging is used to assess the overall architecture and vascularity of the ovaries as well as to differentiate cystic from solid masses and detect ascites (a collection of fluid within abdominal spaces). The sensitivity (a tests ability to correctly identify if an individual has a disease) and specificity (a tests ability to correct identify individuals who do not have a disease) for distinguishing malignant lesions using this type of imaging is 86% - 94%. Blood Testing Complete blood count, as well as liver function tests, calcium, and serum biomarkers, are often obtained if ovarian cancer is suspected. CA 125 is the most commonly tested biomarker. However, its usefulness in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer depends on the stage of the disease at the time of testing. CA 125 is elevated in around 80% of epithelial ovarian cancers overall. However, it is only elevated in around 50% of early-stage epithelial ovarian cancers. This biomarker may also rise in conditions such as fibroids and endometriosis. Other biomarkers involved include human epididymis protein 4 (HE4), a glycoprotein expressed in about 1/3rd of ovarian cancers that lack elevated CA125. Biomarkers for non-epithelial cancers include inhibin A/B for sex-cord stromal tumours and serum α-fetoprotein and quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin for germ cell tumours. Staging Ovarian cancer is often categorised using the FIGO (1 – 4 staging) system, named after the International Federation of Gynaecological Oncologists. Stage 1 Stage one ovarian cancer means that the cancer is only located in the ovaries and is further divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 1A : the cancer is entirely confined within a singular ovary Stage 1B : the cancer is entirely confined within both ovaries Stage 1C is split into 3 subgroups: Stage 1C1 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures during a surgical procedure Stage 1C2 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures before a surgical procedure or there is evidence of cancer on the surface of the ovary Stage 1C3 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and cancer cells are detected in the fluid collected from the abdominal cavity during surgery These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 1 at the end of the text. Stage 2 Stage 2 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the ovaries and is growing within the pelvis. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website the two groups are. Stage 2A : the cancer has extended its growth into either the fallopian tubes or the womb Stage 2B : the cancer has infiltrated surrounding tissues within the pelvic region such as the bladder or the bowel These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 2 at the end of the text. Stage 3 Stage 3 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the pelvis into the abdominal cavity or lymph nodes. It is divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 3A is divided into two subgroups: Stage 3A1 : the cancer has infiltrated lymph nodes in the rear of the abdomen Stage 3A2 : there are cancer cells detected in tissue samples taken from the peritoneum, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3B : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure up to 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3C : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure over 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 at the end of the text. Stage 4 Stage 4 ovarian cancer means the cancer has metastatic and has spread to organs some distance away from the ovaries. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website, the two groups are: Stage 4A : the cancer has induced a build-up of fluid in the pleura Stage 4B : the cancer has infiltrated various locations throughout the body including the interior of the liver or spleen, lymph nodes outside the abdominal region and any other organ within the body These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6 at the end of the text. Types of Ovarian Cancers There are three known types of ovarian cancer: epithelial, germ cell ovarian tumours and sex cord-stromal tumours. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common type of cancer. According to Cancer Research UK , about 90% of all ovarian tumours are epithelial. In this type of ovarian cancer, cancer starts in the surface layer covering the ovary. There are four stages of epithelial ovarian cancer - stages 1 to 4. Type Summary High-grade serous tumours ● 90% of all tumour tumours ● 10-year mortality rate of roughly 70% Low-grade serous tumours ● 10% of all tumour types ● Diagnosed at a younger age; better prognosis than high-grade serous tumours Endometrioid carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● Good prognosis; mostly diagnosed at an early stage and are low-grade Clear cell carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● 10% of epithelial ovarian cancers; rare form ● Often diagnosed in early stages. Late diagnosis has a poor prognosis. Mucinous carcinoma ● Least common form of epithelial ovarian cancer ● Origins linked with metastasis from gastrointestinal tract Table 1. Types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Germ Cell Ovarian Cancers Germ cell ovarian tumours are rare as they make up only 3% of ovarian cancer cases. They have a younger age of diagnosis with the average age being between 10 and 30 years old. Germ cell ovarian tumours can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous) Sex Cord-Stromal Tumours Sex cord-stromal tumours (SCSTs) are rare tumours of the ovary that originate in tissues that support the ovaries, known as the stroma or the sex cords. SCSTs account for around 5% of all ovarian cancer cases and are often diagnosed early. There are three main groups of SCSTs: Pure stromal tumours such as fibromas and thecomas. These are mainly benign. Pure sex cord tumours such as adult and juvenile granulosa cell tumours. These are the most common types of SCSTs and are malignant. Mixed sex cord-stromal tumours such as Sertoli-Leydig cell tumours. These can be either malignant or benign. Symptoms Historically, the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer are non-specific and vague. The most common presenting symptoms in women are: Swelling or bloating of the abdomen Feel full quickly when eating Unexplained weight loss Pelvic and or abdominal pain or discomfort Unexplained fatigue A frequent need to urinate Changes in bowel habits or IBS symptoms The most common presenting symptom in children and adolescents is persistent abdominal pain. However, precocious puberty, irregular periods or hirsutism (excessive hair growth) may also be present. Due to the non-specific nature of these symptoms, many women will not get them checked by a doctor. It is still vitally important for a person to get any non-typical symptoms checked out by a doctor. Early diagnosis will lead to better outcomes. Treatment There are a variety of different treatment options for ovarian cancer. The treatment an individual undergoes is dependent on the size and location of the cancer as well as if it is metastatic. Debulking Surgery Debulking is a type of cytoreductive surgery that aims to remove as much cancer as possible if it has spread to areas within the pelvis and abdomen. This type of surgery is a mainstay of ovarian cancer treatment as most cases are more advanced in staging when initially diagnosed. Generally, debulking surgery is used on cancer that has spread widely throughout the abdomen and its goal is to do ‘optimal cytoreduction’, meaning no visible cancer is left behind or, if removing all visible disease is not possible, lesions less than 1cm in size are left. Hysterectomy For most women, a hysterectomy is the first-line treatment for ovarian cancer. The surgery removes the womb (including the cervix) as well as both ovaries and fallopian tubes and is known as a total abdominal hysterectomy (TAH) and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO) . This procedure is further illustrated by Figure 7 at the end of the text. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer drugs to destroy cancer. These drugs circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream. In the treatment of ovarian cancer, chemotherapy can be given before, during or after surgery. The most commonly used drugs are carboplatin and paclitaxel. However, these are not the only options. Chemotherapy is typically used in the treatment of ovarian cancer if the cancer is: ● Stage 1C or above ● Stage 1A or 1B but is high grade ● Has come back (recurrence) Medication Route of administration Stage treated Duration Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and cisplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Dose-dense paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Carboplatin and liposomal doxorubicin Intravenous II, III, IV 28 days Bevacizumab with paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Table 2. Commonly used chemotherapy drugs for ovarian cancer Radiotherapy Radiotherapy involves the use of high-energy X-rays to destroy ovarian cancer cells. It is not the main treatment of ovarian cancer and is often used to try and shrink the size of tumours or to reduce the symptoms of advanced ovarian cancer. This is known as palliative radiotherapy . Targeted Therapies Cancer-targeting drugs change how a cell works by acting on cellular processes or by modifying cell signalling. They stimulate the body to attack or control cancer cell growth. These drugs are a form of palliative treatment. The two most common drugs are olaparib and bevacizumab. Olparib Olaparib (Lynparza) belongs to a drug type known as cancer growth blockers. It acts on PARP (poly ADP-ribose polymerase); a protein that helps damaged cells repair and regenerate themselves. Olaparib inhibits PARP from working. Bevacizumab Bevacizumab (Avastin) belongs to a drug type known as anti-angiogenesis treatments. It targets VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) proteins. VEGFs aid in cancer cell growth as they help cancers develop their blood supplies, meaning they can become self-sufficient. Bevacizumab blocks VEGF proteins from working, which cuts off the blood supply that feeds the cancer, ultimately starving it and preventing its growth. Risk Factors Modifiable Nonmodifiable Smoking BRCA1 and/ord BRCA2 mutation carrier Hormone Replacement Therapy (particularly for more than five years) Family predisposition/history Obesity Lynch syndrome Endometriosis Uninterrupted ovulation cycles Ethnicity/race Table 3. Ovarian cancer risk factors Genetic Syndromes Familial genetic syndromes are the strongest known risk factor for the development of ovarian cancers, as they account for around 10% - 12% of all cases. Table 4 which is taken from the paper ‘Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer’ by Doubeni et al (2016) illustrates genetic syndromes known to have an increased risk of ovarian cancer. Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome (HBOC) Mutations of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are primarily associated with a genetic risk of developing ovarian cancer and can increase the risk from 1.6% to 40% ( BRCA1 ) and 1.6% to 18% ( BRCA2 ). This syndrome should be considered if a woman has close blood relative with a diagnosis of ovarian or breast cancer by the age of 50. Lynch Syndrome Although less common, Lynch syndrome is also linked to the development of ovarian cancer as it is involved in 2% - 3% of cases. Lynch syndrome is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder in which there is a mutation that increases the risk for certain cancers, specifically colorectal cancer, as well as increases the risk for other malignancies. Ovulation Ovulation is directly linked to the risk of ovarian cancer. Studies have shown that the more ovulatory cycles a woman has, the higher her risk of developing ovarian cancer. This may be due to the pro-inflammatory response from the distal fallopian tube during ovulation, which is known to promote malignant ovarian tendencies. Assuming this is true, factors that interrupt or prevent ovulation, such as contraception, early onset menses, pregnancy, breastfeeding and early menopause, could decrease a woman’s risk of developing ovarian cancer. Endometriosis Endometriosis, a disease in which tissue similar to the uterine lining grows outside the uterus, is known to be linked to some types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Endometriosis-associated epithelial ovarian cancers tend to develop in younger women and have an overall better prognosis. -- Where to seek help if affected by this article... F or support and more information regarding ovarian cancer: Macmillan Cancer Research If you or somebody you know have been affected by this article, help is always available: Mind and Samaritans -- Written by Lily Manns Related articles: A breakthrough drug discovery process in cancer treatment / Potential treatment for prostate cancer / Immune signals and metastasis Reference guide Cancer Research. Ovarian Cancer Statistics: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/statistics-by-cancer-type/ovarian-c ancer Cancer Research. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/types/epithelial-ovarian-cancers/ep ithelial Cancer Research. Stages and grades of ovarian cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/stages-grades Elsevier. Ovarian Cancer: An integrated review: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749208119300129?via%3Dihub American Family Physician. Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2016/0601/p937.html Cancer Research. Treatment for Ovarian Cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/treatment Project Gallery

Properties of space Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Topology in action 17/02/25, 14:51 Last updated: Published: 29/09/23, 20:09 Properties of space Let’s say I put a sphere in front of you. I’m sure you could go through and tell me the basic facts and formulas surrounding it, many if which containing Pi. And even better, if you were a bit more fluent in maths, you could go further and start telling me about the geometry of the shape, say how the gradient had to disappear at a certain point or an assortment of many other things. But if we dive a little deeper into pure maths, it starts getting a little more complicated. When labels like Hausdorff get casually thrown about (meaning you can always separate two distinct points with an open boundary, which you certainly can do on a sphere!) it can really build up and become quite hard, especially if someone then puts in front of you two spheres stuck together. This is where the study of topology comes in and starts helping out, allowing us to start to categorise certain spaces without having to worry about all the small details that could catch you out. Topology is certainly found in the purer side of maths, generally seen as one of the more abstract modules to be taking at undergraduate level (as seen by the exam scores). But thinking of it just as some far away concept disconnected with the rest of the world would be foolish. Thinking back to what I said before about gradient fields on a sphere, this is more commonly known in maths as the “Hairy Ball Theorem” named as such as if you had a ball of hair, you wouldn’t be able to smooth it all out without a cow’s lick. And in mathematical terms it means that a continuous vector field has to disappear at a certain point. And maybe not readily apparent but this comes up in loads of places, the most obvious of which is that two points on the Earth will always have the exact temperature! But moving to Biology we see a lot more applications, even as early as in A-level study. Just thinking about how a protein will fold is all to do with the topological properties of them. DNA is a bit more complex understandably, with more base pairs it becomes incredibly flexible, able to bend into many shapes, but like topological spaces this flexible has limits. It doesn’t pass through itself nor tear, so it allows us to start applying our theorems to it. A key one of these is Knot theory, which of course is the study of knots. Knots in maths are defined as having no open ends and being complex, which helpfully is exactly like DNA! As you hopefully know, its coiled form has no open ends, and in order to untangle it we have to go through the process of cutting at double points. The amount of times this is needed to untangle is called the 'unknotting number' in topology and this mathematical modelling of the process allows biologists to move away from the microscope and still get a more accurate look on what’s happening. Written by Tom Murphy Related article: Quantum chemistry Project Gallery

The importance of implementing Maths into our lives Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Teaching maths like it matters 11/02/25, 12:24 Last updated: Published: 03/10/23, 13:43 The importance of implementing Maths into our lives …But I’m never going to use Algebra in my life! The above is a typical response from students across the country when walking into a Maths class. I did not understand others’ disdain, because I love Maths. I got satisfaction from solving numerical problems, stimulation from equations, and excitement from learning new variables like alpha, or constants like Pi. The abstract nature of Maths was like art to me. Later, I realised that not all my peers felt the same way, that somehow, I was the anomaly and that they were the norm. Many maths teachers feel the same way. They get lost in the subject that they love and try to teach it in the way that makes sense to them, without thinking on how the lack of context in equations and processes means nothing to disengaged students. As teachers, our job is to show how applicable Maths can be to our students on an individual basis. Rather than using real-life questions as extensions after the core activity, we must utilise them from the beginning when introducing topics, showing student’s how the methods that they learn can be applied to have some use beyond a pass mark in their exams. I am not talking about examples of ladders leaning against walls when teaching Pythagoras’ theorem and SOHCAHTOA, or, taking counters from a bag, to explain Probability. The examples here are forced, no student will connect with them because they are not lived examples or likely scenarios in most of their lives. We need to build strong relationships with our students, understand their demographic and interests, then introduce topics based on this. For example: If I know that my class enjoys football, I will begin with a video of Messi playing the game, pausing the video, and splitting the pitch up into segments, which can lead a conversation into areas of segments and circles, or, I can discuss the trajectory of the ball after a kick, to talk about quadratic equations. In another class, we can ask what students are budgeting for, perhaps concert tickets or new clothes, and use that to open a discussion into arithmetic series. Another great example is asking students to find an event happening somewhere in the country that they would like to go to, and as a class, plan for this. We would use research skills, calculate speed, distance and time if going by car, or pull up a train timetable where we can teach two-way tables and time conversions. To create meaningful connections to Math topics will take time, effort, and research, and the difficulty will be that not every application will be relatable to every cohort. We will need to build a portfolio of contextual examples related to each topic, however, if there is buy-in from others in our departments, it is an achievable target. In conclusion, we must teach Maths to students in meaningful ways that applies to their life, to keep up engagement and motivation as well as providing opportunities to deepen understanding. Maths should be based around conversation and interests, rather than an exercise of memorising and processes. It should make sense to students, it should matter. Written by Sara Altaf Related article: The game of life Project Gallery

Vicuñas are members of the camelid family Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The cost of coats: celebrating 55 years of vicuña conservation 14/02/25, 13:51 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 14:03 Vicuñas are members of the camelid family This is article no. 1 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: Conserving the California condor . Is the softest coat in the world worth the near-extinction of a species? Just ask a vicuña, the wild cousin of llamas and alpacas. After being widely hunted in South America in the mid-20th century, the vicuña population thrives. Their recovery is considered one of the earliest successes in modern wildlife conservation, setting a precedent for sustainable development. This October marks the 55th anniversary of the first international agreement to conserve these furry friends. In its honour, here is the story of vicuña conservation. What are vicuñas? Vicuñas have a unique biology. They are members of the camelid family ー which includes llamas, alpacas, and camels. Vicuñas live in high-altitude arid grasslands in South America ( Figure 1 ). Their families consist of one alpha male, multiple females, and their offspring – while bachelor males form their own groups. Unlike other camelids, vicuña families remain together for most of the year. Vicuñas are herbivores with characteristic grazing and defecating behaviours that shape the surrounding plant community. Therefore, their ecological role cannot be underestimated. How vicuñas nearly went extinct However, vicuñas are hunted by humans because their wool is the finest and softest in the world. They are difficult to domesticate, and their habitat has no hiding spots, so they are easy poaching targets. Their intricate social structure means killing one vicuña has unforeseen impacts on the rest of the population. Consequently, expensive wool comes at the expense of a fascinating species. Demand for ultra-fine vicuña wool made hunting the animals a lucrative business in South America. Although 15th-16th century Inca rulers wore high-end clothing made from vicuña wool, it was usually harvested without killing the animals. European colonisation in the 19th-20th centuries opened vicuña wool to a wealthy international market, making poaching more popular and reckless than under Inca rule. These inconsiderate hunting practices continued after South American countries gained independence. As the luxurious wool remained in demand, the vicuña population decreased by over 99% between 1940 and 1965. Conservation policies saved the vicuñas South American national governments soon realised that indiscriminate vicuña hunting had to stop. As well as being ecologically important, vicuñas should not be allowed to go extinct because of their economic value. Peru had the largest proportion of the vicuña population, so in 1966 its government set up a nature reserve called Pampa Galeras. Creating this reserve involved negotiating with rural communities so that both people and vicuñas benefitted, for example, by employing locals at the reserve. This was one of the earliest examples of what is now known as sustainable development, which provides rural communities with a way of life that works alongside ecosystems rather than damaging them. Scientists found that vicuñas changed their social structures inside Pampa Galeras to maximise reproductive success. A 1987 study suggested that because females had more time to graze without the constant threat of predators and poachers, their reproductive success was higher. The creation of this reserve was the first of many successful steps South America took in the 1960s towards vicuña recovery. In October 1969, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia joined Peru in the efforts to conserve vicuñas. Their Convention for the Conservation of the Vicuña banned international trade and massively restricted hunting. Since the convention successfully led to a rise in vicuña numbers, it was modified in 1979 so that sustainable vicuña wool could be sold. Meanwhile, conservation laws were being established in the United States and European Union, the wildlife trade regulator CITES was established, and public awareness about the biodiversity crisis was rising. This international effort saved vicuñas from extinction, and today there are 350,000 to 500,000 of them ( Figure 2 ). Vicuñas were classified as ‘least concern’ for conservation by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2018. Climate change, mite infestations, and competition with livestock are affecting the population today – but to a much smaller extent than poaching was. Thus, vicuñas are back to freely roaming the Andes. Conclusion Conserving the vicuña relied on political willpower and community involvement. In the 55 years since, ecologists have used this charismatic and distinctive animal to galvanise wildlife conservation worldwide. The vicuña’s story should also remind us that what we wear has financial and ecological costs. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine igunanas / Gal á gapos tortoises REFERENCES Acebes, P., Wheeler, J., Baldo, J.L., Tuppia, P., Lichtenstein, G., Hoces, D. & Franklin, W.L. (2018) Vicuna: Vicugna vicugna . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 . Available from: https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/178499 (Accessed 12th September 2024). Bosch, P.C. & Svendsen, G.E. (1987) Behavior of Male and Female Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna Molina 1782) as It Relates to Reproductive Effort. Journal of Mammalogy . 68 (2): 425–429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/1381491 (Accessed 23rd September 2024). González, B. et al. (2019) Phylogeography and Population Genetics of Vicugna vicugna : Evolution in the Arid Andean High Plateau. Frontiers in Genetics . 10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00445 (Accessed 22nd September 2024). Karandikar, H., Donadio, E., Smith, J.A., Bidder, O.R. & Middleton, A.D. (2023) Spatial ecology of the Vicuña ( Lama vicugna ) in a high Andean protected area. Journal of Mammalogy . 104 (3): 509–518. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad018 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Lyster, S. (1985) VICUNA. In: International Wildlife Law: An Analysis of International Treaties concerned with the Conservation of Wildlife . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 88–94. Reider, K.E. & Schmidt, S.K. (2021) Vicuña dung gardens at the edge of the cryosphere. Ecology . 102 (2): 1–3. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26998110 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Vilá, B. & Arzamendia, Y. (2022) Weaving a vicuña shawl. Pastoralism . 12 (1): 46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-022-00260-6 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Wakild, E. (2020) Saving the Vicuña: The Political, Biophysical, and Cultural History of Wild Animal Conservation in Peru, 1964–2000. The American Historical Review . 125 (1): 54–88. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhz939 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Yacobaccio, H. (2009) The Historical Relationship Between People and the Vicuña. In: Gordon, I.J., ed. The Vicuña: The Theory and Practice of Community Based Wildlife Management . Boston, MA: Springer US: 7–20. Project Gallery

Investigating the outbreak in Devon, UK in May 2024 Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Cryptosporidium: bridging local outbreaks to global health disparities 20/03/25, 12:06 Last updated: Published: 01/09/24, 12:50 Investigating the outbreak in Devon, UK in May 2024 In early May, news emerged of numerous Devon (UK) residents experiencing vomiting and diarrhoea. Majorly affecting the Brixham region, over 40 people were diagnosed with cryptosporidiosis, and over 16,000 homes were advised to boil water before consuming it to kill potential pathogens ( Figure 1 ). Despite a controversial handling of the situation from South West Water (SWW) (from initial denial of the ‘crisis’, to major profit increases for the company), the outbreak was eventually linked to a broken pipe from where animal faeces could have entered, contaminating the water supply, a SWW representative suggested. In this article, we will investigate the disease and its relevance worldwide. So, what is Cryptosporidiosis? Cryptosporidiosis is commonly associated with gastrointestinal symptoms, such as vomiting, diarrhoea and severe abdominal cramps. It is caused by cryptosporidium, from the Apicocomplexa family. This microorganism is an intra-cellular gut parasite which invades the microvilli in the gut and depletes host nutrients. The parasite is spread via faecal-oral transmission, and it is commonly found in contaminated water, food and animals. Its life cycle starts with oocyst (egg) ingestion, leading to attachment to host gut epithelia, and asexual reproduction. This allows sexual reproduction to ensue, and oocyst formation. Eventually, the oocysts are released via faeces, for the cycle of infection to continue. Cryptosporidium species are often identified by the immune system via Toll-Like Receptors, specifically TLR-4, in the gut epithelia; Cryptosporidium-derived molecules are treated as TLR-4 ligands, since the microbe does not produce LPS molecules. Adaptive immune signalling pathways, such as NF-kB, are triggered, encouraging IL-8, CXCL1 and other chemokine secretion from the gut ( Figure 2 ). Consequently, gut inflammation is increased, as well as levels of Intracellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1), to aid immunocyte recruitment and improve pathogenic clearance. Other mechanisms the epithelial barrier uses to eliminate cryptosporidium infection include NO secretion and mucin production, to kill the pathogen, and prevent further infection by blocking extracellular oocyst binding, respectively. In some individuals, cryptosporidium can evade immune response due to its intracellular nature. Most immunocompetent patients suffer mild symptoms and so are offered symptomatic treatment, but some immunocompromised patients (those with HIV, for example) can develop chronic diarrhoea as a result of cryptosporidium infection. In this instance, managing fluid loss and rest is often insufficient; these patients are prescribed nitazoxanide, a broad-spectrum antiparasitic, to manage their diarrhoea. Cryptosporidiosis on a global scale Although controversial, the management of the cryptosporidium ‘crisis’ in Devon was resolved relatively quickly compared to outbreaks in other countries ( Figure 3 ). There are clear links between socio-economic dynamics and water-borne illness prevalence. In some developing regions, such as areas in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), cryptosporidiosis is considered endemic, due to poor quality water-sanitation centres, rapid population growth and inadequate potable water supply. Globally, 3.4 million people die each year from water-borne illnesses - and poor sanitation ranks higher in causes of human morbidity than war and terrorism. Additionally, in 2015, cryptosporidium was the fourth leading cause of death amongst children under 5, clearly highlighting the danger this parasite can cause. For children in developing countries, who are already predisposed to starvation, cryptosporidiosis can kick-start a malnutrition cycle. Here, cryptosporidium exacerbates host malnutrition due to its parasitic nature, potentially causing cognitive impairment and growth stunting. Cryptosporidiosis, although typically mild, can be devastating for some people (the immunocompromised and young children). Particularly, those who are malnourished can suffer severe effects. The water contamination in Devon (UK), handled by SWW, was unfortunate and many in the region experienced severe illness. Globally, cryptosporidiosis is a major problem and in some regions, it is considered endemic. Thus, it is important we spread awareness of the devastating effects of this disease, continue efforts to prevent transmission and strive for eradication. Written by Eloise Nelson REFERENCES Abuseir, S. (2023) ‘A systematic review of frequency and geographic distribution of water-borne parasites in the Middle East and North Africa’, Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal , 29(2), pp. 151–161. doi:10.26719/emhj.23.016. Chalmers, R.M., Davies, A.P. and Tyler, K. (2019) ‘Cryptosporidium’, Microbiology , 165(5), pp. 500–502. doi:10.1099/mic.0.000764. Hassan, E.M. et al. (2020) ‘A review of cryptosporidium spp. and their detection in water’, Water Science and Technology , 83(1), pp. 1–25. doi:10.2166/wst.2020.515. News, S. (2024) ‘Brixham: More than 50 people in Devon ill from contaminated water - as South West Water’s owner posts £166m profit’, Sky News , 21 May. Available at: https://news.sky.com/story/brixham-more-than-50-people-in-devon-ill-from-contaminated-water-as-south-west-waters-owner-posts-166m-profit-13140820#:~:text=More%20than%2050%20cases%20of,water%2C%20health%20bosses%20have%20said . Sparks, H. et al. (2015) ‘Treatment of cryptosporidium: What we know, gaps, and the way forward’, Current Tropical Medicine Reports , 2(3), pp. 181–187. doi:10.1007/s40475-015-0056-9. Caccio SM. Cryptosporidium : parasite and disease, Immunology of Cryptosporidiosis. Springer Verlag Gmbh; 2016. Project Gallery

Understanding the problem and solutions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The rising threat of antibiotic resistance 09/03/25, 16:19 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 13:47 Understanding the problem and solutions ! Widget Didn’t Load Check your internet and refresh this page. If that doesn’t work, contact us. Project Gallery

The evolutionary theory VS the empathy-altruism theory Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Explaining Altruism 20/06/24, 10:39 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 13:58 The evolutionary theory VS the empathy-altruism theory Altruism is the behaviour of helping others without a reward or even at a cost to the individual who performs it. For instance, volunteering in a soup kitchen to help feed those in need. This article aims to explain altruistic behaviour using the evolutionary and the empathy-altruism theories. The evolutionary theory, originally proposed by Darwin, is based upon three pillars: variation of genes within a species, heritability of those variations to the next generations and differential fitness, also known as survival and reproduction. Evolutionary theory suggests that the degree of relatedness – the extent to which the person being helped carries copies of the altruist's genes – and reproductive value – the extent to which the relative can pass on their genes down to future generations – are the two determining factors in an individual’s decision on whether to help someone in need. Burnstein et al. (1994) conducted a study presenting participants with hypothetical situations involving altruism, in which they manipulated the degree of relatedness, health of the target and the context in which help was needed. They found that in both life-or-death and everyday situations individuals were more likely to help close kin than distant kin and strangers. Additionally, in everyday situations, participants helped ill people more. However, in life-or-death situations, they tended to help healthy people more, proposedly due to their higher reproductive value. Therefore, these findings indicate that altruistic behaviour depends on the degree of relatedness between the individual helping and the individual being helped, and the latter individual’s reproductive value. The empathy-altruism theory is based on the notion that pure altruism can only occur due to empathy – the ability to identify with and experience another person’s emotional state. The empathy-altruism theory suggests that if the altruistic person does not feel empathy, help would only be given if it is in the individual’s interest, also known as the social exchange view. However, the theory suggests that if the altruistic person does feel empathy, help would be given regardless of self-interest and even when costs outweigh the rewards. Toi & Batson (1982) conducted a study in which they manipulated two factors: the empathy felt by participants towards the hypothetical victim by giving them different prompts and the cost of helping the victim by telling the participants whether they will ever come in contact with the victim again. The researchers found that the participants with induced empathy were likely to engage in altruistic behaviour regardless of personal cost and were motivated by an altruistic concern for the victim’s welfare, whilst the individuals in the low empathy condition were more likely to help the victim if the personal costs of seeing the victim again were high. Therefore, the empathy-altruism model has empirical support and is suitable for explaining individual differences in altruistic behaviour. The evolutionary and empathy-altruism theories both suggest that personal gains can motivate altruistic behaviour. In the evolutionary theory, those gains consist of passing the altruist’s genes down to the next generations. In the empathy-altruism theory those gains are the personal interests and cost when the altruist does not feel empathy towards the target. However, the empathy-altruism theory also proposes that when the individual feels empathy towards the target, personal gains are irrelevant to their decision on whether to help them. Therefore, the theories propose two different perspectives on the individual differences in altruism. Whilst the evolutionary theory has significant explanatory value for altruism, there is evidence that emotional closeness is a mediating factor for altruism in kin. Korchmaros & Kenny (2001) found that among genetically related individuals, the tendency to display altruism was affected by their emotional closeness with the specific relative being helped. Therefore, the degree of relatedness alone cannot fully explain the individual differences in altruistic behaviour, and the empathy-altruism theory might be a more suitable explanation because the level of empathy felt by altruists increases with the levels of closeness the individual feels towards the target. Additionally, the evolutionary theory suggests that people rarely help strangers in need, which is overly reductionist and incorrect. Worldwide, many volunteers help people they are unfamiliar with. The empathy-altruism theory is more holistic and, therefore, might be a more appropriate theory for altruism, as many studies have found that empathy can be experienced towards complete strangers. Moreover, even if empathy is not experienced, the empathy-altruism theory explains altruism towards strangers through the social exchange view. Consequently, the empathy-altruism theory explains a wider range of behaviours and individual differences in altruistic behaviour than the evolutionary theory. Therefore, while both theories provide wide descriptions of individual differences in altruism, I think that the empathy-altruism theory provides a more comprehensive explanation for individual differences in altruism than the evolutionary theory. The empathy-altruism model accounts for not only the role of emotional closeness and empathy in motivating altruism towards kin, but also why people help strangers by highlighting how empathy can induce altruistic acts even without genetic relatedness or reproductive value incentives. By encompassing a wider range of situational and psychological factors influencing our decisions to help others, the empathy-altruism theory represents a more complete account of the complex phenomenon of altruism. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related article: The endowment effect REFERENCES Baker R. L. (2008). The social work dictionary . Washington, DC: NASW Press. Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Slingsby, J. K., Harrell, K. L., Peekna, H. M., & Todd, R. M. (1991). Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of personality and social psychology , 61 (3), 413. Burnstein, E., Crandall, C., & Kitayama, S. (1994). Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal of personality and social psychology , 67 (5), 773. Grynberg, D., & Konrath, S. (2020). The closer you feel, the more you care: Positive associations between closeness, pain intensity rating, empathic concern and personal distress to someone in pain. Acta Psychologica , 210 , 103175. Kerr, B., Godfrey-Smith, P., & Feldman, M. W. (2004). What is altruism?. Trends in ecology & evolution, 19( 3), 135-140. Korchmaros, J. D., & Kenny, D. A. (2001). Emotional closeness as a mediator of the effect of genetic relatedness on altruism. Psychological science , 12 (3), 262-265. Rodrigues, A. M., & Gardner, A. (2022). Reproductive value and the evolution of altruism. Trends in ecology & evolution , 37 (4), 346-358. Toi, M., & Batson, C. D. (1982). More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of personality and social psychology , 43 (2), 281. Project Gallery

From the Big Bang to the current model Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Story of the atom 11/02/25, 12:23 Last updated: Published: 20/04/24, 11:16 From the Big Bang to the current model The Greek philosopher and physicist Democritus proposed the idea of an atom at around 440 B.C. The atom is first explained by him using a stone. When a stone is split in half, it becomes two separate stones. There would eventually come to be a portion of the stone that would be too small to be cut if it were to be cut continuously i.e., indivisible. Since then, many scientists have adopted, discarded, or published their own theories about the nature, structure, and size of atoms. However, the most widely accepted, and still the basic model used to study atoms is Rutherford’s model. Rutherford published his theory of the atom suggesting that it had an electron orbiting a positively charged nucleus. This model was created after a series of experiments which included shooting alpha particles at thin gold sheets. Most of the alpha particles flowed through with little disturbance, but a tiny fraction was scattered at extreme angles to their initial direction of motion. Rutherford calculated the estimated size of the gold atom's nucleus and discovered that it was at least 10,000 times smaller than the atom's total size, with a large portion of the atom made up of empty space. This theory paved the way to further the atomic models by various other scientists. (Figure 1) Researchers have discovered unidentified molecules in space which are believed to be the precursor of all chemistry in the universe. The earliest "atoms" in the cosmos were actually nuclei without any electrons. The universe was incredibly hot and dense in the earliest seconds following the Big Bang. The quarks and electrons that make up matter first appeared when the cosmos cooled, and the ideal conditions were met for them to do so. Protons and neutrons were created by quarks aggregating a few millionths of a second later. These protons and neutrons joined to form nuclei in a matter of minutes. (Figure 2) Things started to happen more slowly as the cosmos cooled and expanded. The first atoms were formed 380,000 years ago when electrons were locked into orbits around nuclei. These were mostly hydrogen and helium, which are still the elements that are found in the universe in the greatest quantities. Even now, the most basic nucleus, found in ordinary hydrogen, is only a single, unadorned proton. There were other configurations of protons and neutrons that also developed, but since the number of protons in an atom determines its identity, all these other conglomerations were essentially just variations of hydrogen, helium, and lithium traces. To say that this is an exciting time for astrochemistry is an understatement. Furthermore, the formation mechanism of amino acids and nucleobases is being demonstrated by laboratory simulations of interstellar environments. Now that we are finding answers to these known problems, even more are arising. Hopefully, a more thorough understanding of these chemical processes will enable us to make more precise deductions about the general history of the universe and astrophysics. Written by Navnidhi Sharma REFERENCES CERN (n.d.). The early universe. [online] CERN. Available at: https://home.cern/science/physics/earlyuniverse#:~:text=As%20the%20universe%20continued%20to . Compound Interest (2016). The History of the Atom – Theories and Models | Compound Interest. [online] Compound Interest. Available at: https://www.compoundchem.com/2016/10/13/atomicmodels/ . Fortenberry, R.C. (2020). The First Molecule in the Universe. Scientific American. [online] doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0220-58 . Sharp, T. (2017). What is an Atom? [online] Live Science. Available at: https://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-definition.html . Project Gallery