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Unmasking the complexities of the condition Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Crohn's disease 09/07/25, 14:01 Last updated: Published: 22/03/24, 20:16 Unmasking the complexities of the condition Introduction Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory condition that primarily targets the gastrointestinal tract. While it commonly afflicts individuals aged 20 to 50, it can also manifest in children and older adults, albeit less frequently. Symptoms of Crohn's disease vary widely and may include skin lesions spanning from the mouth to the anus, along with prevalent issues such as diarrhoea, abdominal pain, weight loss, rectal bleeding, fatigue, and fever. Diagnosis Diagnosing Crohn's disease can be challenging due to its similarity to other conditions. However, specific symptoms like bloody diarrhoea, iron deficiency, and unexplained weight loss are significant indicators that warrant further investigation by a gastroenterologist. Many tests that can confirm Crohn’s disease: Endoscopy: endoscopy, including procedures like colonoscopy and upper endoscopy, is a dependable method for diagnosing Crohn's disease and distinguishing it from other conditions with similar symptoms. During an endoscopy, a thin tube called an endoscope is inserted into the rectum to visually inspect the entire gastrointestinal tract and collect small tissue samples for further analysis. Imaging: Computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasonography are valuable tools for assessing disease activity and detecting complications associated with Crohn's disease. These imaging techniques can examine areas of the gastrointestinal tract that may not be accessible via endoscopy, providing comprehensive insights into the condition's progression and associated issues. Laboratory testing: various laboratory tests, including complete blood count, C-reactive protein levels, pregnancy tests, and stool samples, are conducted to screen for Crohn's disease. These tests are typically the initial step in diagnosis, helping to avoid the necessity for more invasive procedures like endoscopies and imaging. Additionally, laboratory testing may involve assessing inflammatory markers such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and faecal calprotectin to further aid in diagnosis and monitoring of the condition. Treatment and prevention While there is currently no cure for Crohn’s disease, numerous treatments have been developed over time to effectively manage symptoms and sometimes even induce remission. When determining a treatment plan for patients, factors such as age, specific symptoms, and the severity of inflammation are taken into careful consideration. Corticosteroids and immunomodulators are medications commonly used to manage Crohn’s disease. Corticosteroids work by reducing inflammation and suppressing the immune system, typically employed to address flare-ups due to their rapid action. However, they are not suitable for long-term use as they may lead to significant side effects. In contrast, maintenance therapy often involves immunomodulators such as azathioprine, methotrexate, or biologic agents like anti-TNF drugs (such as infliximab or adalimumab). These medications target specific immune pathways to enhance the effectiveness of the immune system. Research indicates that immunomodulators are associated with fewer adverse effects compared to corticosteroids and are effective in maintaining remission. Monoclonal antibody treatment is another approach used to manage symptoms and sustain remission in Crohn's disease. These therapies are categorised as biologic treatments, targeting precise molecules involved in inflammation and the immune response. Despite carrying certain risks, such as infections, the likelihood of developing cancer with these treatments is typically deemed low. Crohn’s disease frequently leads to complications that may necessitate surgical intervention. Gastrointestinal surgeries can greatly alleviate symptoms and enhance the quality of life for patients. However, surgery is usually considered only when medical therapy proves insufficient in controlling the disease or when complications arise. Although the exact cause of Crohn’s disease remains uncertain, factors such as genetics, immune system dysfunction, and environmental influences are believed to contribute to its development. While there is no definitive evidence pinpointing specific causative factors, numerous studies suggest potential links to an unhealthy diet and lifestyle, dysbiosis (imbalance of healthy and unhealthy gut bacteria), smoking, and a family history of the disease. Therefore, it is crucial to minimise exposure to these risk factors in order to decrease the likelihood of developing Crohn’s disease. Written by Sherine Abdul Latheef Related articles: the gut microbiome / the dopamine connection / Diverticular disease / Mesenchymal stem cells REFERENCES Veauthier B, Hornecker JR. Crohn's Disease: Diagnosis and Management. Am Fam Physician. 2018;98(11):661-669. Torres J, Mehandru S, Colombel JF, Peyrin-Biroulet L. Crohn's disease. Lancet. 2017;389(10080):1741-1755. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31711-1 Mills SC, von Roon AC, Tekkis PP, Orchard TR. Crohn's disease. BMJ Clin Evid. 2011;2011:0416. Published 2011 Apr 27. Sealife, A. (2024) Crohn’s disease, Parkland Natural Health. Available at: https://wellness-studio.co.uk/crohns-disease/ (Accessed: 09 March 2024). How to stop anxiety stomach pain & cramps (2022) Calm Clinic - Information about Anxiety, Stress and Panic. Available at: https://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/symptoms/stomach-pain (Accessed: 09 March 2024). Project Gallery

Delving into the impacts of gut bacteria on health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Gut Microbiome 11/07/25, 09:58 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 16:41 Delving into the impacts of gut bacteria on health Inflammatory Bowel Disease The microbiome is hugely important to human health, and has been shown to beneficial to digestion, the immune system and even our mental health when in good working condition. However, disruption to the balance of the microbial flora has likewise been associated with multiple diseases and poor general health. Dysbiosis, or a poor balance, of human microbiome communities has been implicated in a wide range of disease, such as cardiovascular disease, chronic inflammation, obesity and even mental health issues. A diverse and well-balanced microbial community is important for disease prevention, however modern over usage of antibiotics as well as poor diets low in dietary fibre and high in artificial additives can lead to compromised communities dominated by single pathogenic strains of bacteria. The human microbiome plays a critical role in overall health, from providing valuable metabolites to aiding the immune system. Friendly commensal bacteria colonise major regions in our gut, with characteristic diverse communities of microbes inhabiting them. These microbes occupy these niches and outcompete pathogenic organisms, actively preventing infection and disease. In this article we will be specifically looking into the link between the gut microbiome and Inflammatory Bowel disease (IBD), as this is currently one of the most well researched cases of a causal relationship between the microbiome and disease state. Dysbiosis and Disease state Disruption of the gut flora is associated with painful inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, diagnosed as IBD. Crohn’s disease and Ulcerative Colitis are conditions under the umbrella term of IBD and cause painful swelling and eventually ulcers in the gastrointestinal tract. The exact cause of IBD remains unclear, with the true cause likely a combination of genetics, environmental factors and the gut microbiome. Evidence has come to light that shows a link between disease state and the gut dysbiosis, where they influence each other and are potentially both each other’s cause and effect. Successfully treating IBD has proved difficult; medications focus on alleviating inflammation or other symptoms as antibiotics have shown limited effectiveness in curing the disease. Antibiotics have even been suggested to weaken the immune system long-term, as evidence suggests that antibiotic clearance of commensal bacteria can provide opportunity for pathogenic strains to establish themselves. Medical treatments destabilizing the microbiome can lead to a change in overall metabolism and chronic Clostridium difficile infection. When colonization resistance is compromised there is more opportunity for single bacteria to dominate the community, with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea a common side effect associated with antibiotic induced dysbiosis. Microbial-based therapies Recently potential therapies pivoted to target the microbiota, as reinstating a healthy colony of gut microbials should alleviate the cause of IBD. Previous treatments relied on antibiotics followed by a course of probiotics; however, this has had variable levels of success as the antibiotic treatment can further reduce bacterial diversity in the gut. Probiotics have limited effectiveness in alleviating symptoms; any effect is transient as no probiotic microbial strains are detectable after 2 weeks of stopping intake. In modern clinical trials we have already seen positive results from microbiome treatments in clearing C. difficile infection, such as faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) therapy. FMT uses faeces from a healthy donor, which are processed and delivered to the gastrointestinal tract of patients. Faeces contain a high microbial load, with up to 1011 bacterium per gram and multiple archaea, fungi and viruses that could not be delivered orally in a probiotic form. Success in resolving dysbiosis through FMT is variable but shows more promise than other therapies. Future Potential Specific forms of IBD such as ulcerative colitis (UC) was first treated with FMT in 1989, with patients reducing medications within a week of enema treatments and remaining clinically disease free for multiple years after treatment. More recent trials have had more variable levels of remission, suggesting donor compatibility, disease prevalence and engraftment of the microbiota all factor into the success of FMT. There is potential in this therapy, as FMT has proved more robust than previous treatments for IBD. Modern research into the relationship between disease and gut flora has come a long way in a relatively short time and shows there is much potential for future research in this area. Written by Charlotte Jones Related articles: the power of probiotics / Crohn's disease / the dopamine connection / Diverticular disease / Nanoparticles on gut health / Microbes in charge Project Gallery

The tireless challenge Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Childhood stunting in developing countries 10/07/25, 10:16 Last updated: Published: 09/03/24, 17:53 The tireless challenge Introduction Certain countries worldwide face numerous challenges that decrease their populations' quality of life; some include hunger, poverty and rising harmful emissions, which are complicated to resolve. This is because international cooperation is needed to tackle them effectively. Furthermore, they are associated with stunting, defined as diminished growth and development that children experience because of undernutrition or lack of sufficient nutrients, frequent infections and deficient psychosocial interventions, according to the World Health Organisation. With this definition in mind, this article will delve into stunting and malnutrition before discussing how stunting is linked to infectious diseases and harmful emissions and steps forward to reduce this condition in developing countries, as shown in Figure 2 . Undernutrition and stunting Stunting is one of the consequences of undernutrition, possibly due to reduced synthesis of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the body, leading to amplified growth hormone (6). As for the determinants of undernutrition, a paper from Brazil found socioeconomic characteristics like family income and biological ones such as age notably linked to undernutrition. Another result of undernutrition is being underweight. A systematic review from Ethiopia focusing on nutrition in 5-year-old children amalgamated 18 studies. It estimated that stunting and being underweight had 42% and 33% prevalence, respectively; it could be inferred that undernutrition is linked to stunting. Additionally, a paper that used data from 32 Sub-Saharan African countries discovered that providing maternal health insurance (MHI) reduces stunting and being underweight, which is more apparent in girls than boys. In turn, MHI is necessary for supporting children’s health. Non-nutritional factors and stunting As for infections and stunting, an article highlighted that children with stunted growth are vulnerable to diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases besides malaria. Moreover, conditions worsen undernutrition, causing a vicious cycle between them, manifesting into growth defects. Furthermore, a systematic review of 80 studies found a connection between helminth infections and stunting, but insufficient evidence supported this hypothesis. With this said, there may need to be additional studies to investigate this further. With undernutrition’s impact on the immune system, newborns and small children with extreme protein deficiency have smaller thymuses and underdeveloped peripheral lymphoid organs, leading to immunological cell defects such as reduced T-cell count. Before concluding this article, exposure to harmful emissions is a recurring problem that affects everyone, including children. Different observational studies proposed that inhaling nitrogen oxide and particulate matter in utero could modify DNA methylation, possibly influencing foetal growth. Conclusion Reflecting on all the evidence in this article, stunting in developing countries is heading in a direction where it could become problematic. However, according to findings from UNICEF, stunting has gradually reduced between 2000 and 2020 in children under 5 years old. Nevertheless, awareness of stunting in developing countries is critical because it is the first step to tackling this health issue. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Childhood obesity / Depression in children / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES Jamali D, Leigh J, Samara G, Barkemeyer R. Grand challenges in developing countries: Context, relationships, and logics. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility. 2021 Sep;30(S1):1–4. Maleta K. Undernutrition. Malawi medical journal: the journal of Medical Association of Malawi. 2006 Dec;18(4):189–205. World Health Organization. Stunting in a nutshell. www.who.int . 2015 Nov;19. Beal T, Tumilowicz A, Sutrisna A, Izwardy D, Neufeld LM. A review of child stunting determinants in Indonesia. Maternal & Child Nutrition. 2018 May 17;14(4):e12617. Vaivada T, Akseer N, Akseer S, Somaskandan A, Stefopulos M, Bhutta ZA. Stunting in childhood: an overview of global burden, trends, determinants, and drivers of decline. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2020 Aug 29;112. Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Alaaraj N, Ahmed S, Alyafei F, Hamed N, et al. Early and Long-term Consequences of Nutritional Stunting: From Childhood to Adulthood. Acta Bio Medica : Atenei Parmensis. 2021;92(1) Correia LL, Silva AC e, Campos JS, Andrade FM de O, Machado MMT, Lindsay AC, et al. Prevalence and determinants of child undernutrition and stunting in semiarid region of Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública. 2014 Feb 1;48:19–28. Abdulahi A, Shab-Bidar S, Rezaei S, Djafarian K. Nutritional status of under five children in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 2017 Mar 15;27(2):175. Kofinti RE, Koomson I, Paintsil JA, Ameyaw EK. Reducing children’s malnutrition by increasing mothers’ health insurance coverage: A focus on stunting and underweight across 32 sub-Saharan African countries. Economic Modelling. 2022 Dec 1;117:106049. Vonaesch P, Tondeur L, Breurec S, Bata P, Nguyen LBL, Frank T, et al. Factors associated with stunting in healthy children aged 5 years and less living in Bangui (RCA). Wieringa F, editor. PLOS ONE. 2017 Aug 10;12(8):e0182363. Raj E, Calvo-Urbano B, Heffernan C, Halder J, Webster JP. Systematic review to evaluate a potential association between helminth infection and physical stunting in children. Parasites & Vectors. 2022 Apr 20;15(1). Schaible UE, Kaufmann SHE. Malnutrition and Infection: Complex Mechanisms and Global Impacts. PLoS Medicine. 2007 May 1;4(5):e115. Sinharoy SS, Clasen T, Martorell R. Air pollution and stunting: a missing link? The Lancet Global Health. 2020 Apr;8(4):e472–5. UNICEF. Malnutrition in Children. UNICEF DATA. 2023. Project Gallery

How they're used in treatments Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A new model: miniature organs in biomedicine 23/10/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 16/10/23, 21:39 How they're used in treatments Introduction Within biomedicine, the study of diseases and understanding their mechanisms are crucial to the treatments we can develop for them. Before a treatment option can be rolled out to the general public, it must be tested for safety and efficacy. Usually, this testing takes place in the form of cell cultures or animal models. However, these methods cannot always accurately replicate the human body's complexity and physiological responses and are sometimes quite expensive and difficult to maintain. In the past few years, a new model has come to light known as organoids, allowing for a new realm of understanding into drug development, disease, and human biology. What Are Organoids? Organoids are self-organised, small, three-dimensional organ models which allow scientists and researchers to study different biological organs and tissues in a lab setting, including their physiological functions, development, and structure. These miniature organs are remarkable in their resemblance to actual organs and are obtained from stem cells, and they can undergo division to become any cell type. From their theoretical abilities, organoids may be able to serve utmost value in biomedicine and how we think about testing new treatments. Disease Modelling, Drug Development and Personalised Medicine One of the ways in which organoids can be used is to model diseases and test for potential drug targets and treatment programmes. In this way, researchers can replicate congenital and acquired conditions, such as cystic fibrosis and cancer, to study key target phenotypes and understand disease progression, which can help identify potential drug targets. From here, the efficacy of these therapeutics can be assessed quite quickly under different circumstances. As an example of this being used currently, scientists involved in cancer research have produced organoids from tumour cells stemming from cancer patients. These patient-derived organoids have been made for various cancers, including endometrium. They will allow for the ability to test chemotherapy drugs and determine which are most effective for individual patients whilst factoring in comorbidities and other unique factors to that person. Through this personalised approach, it is hoped that therapeutics will allow for a customised treatment programme which lowers the risk of side effects and improves the quality of care. Understanding Development and Function Another use of organoids is going into more depth and exploring our understanding of how an organ may develop and function. Using organoids can help us observe how different cells may work together and interact to organise themselves, allowing researchers to strengthen their knowledge of organogenesis by mimicking the natural growth conditions of the human environment. By combining tissue engineering with an appreciation of an organ's functional and developmental processes, organoid use can be extended to regenerative medicine to help fill research gaps in the molecular and cellular mechanisms of tissue regeneration. Techniques such as ELISA and immunofluorescent staining can help garner these critical details. By achieving this, organoids may produce entire organs for transplantation, addressing the organ donor shortage and lowering the risk of donor rejection. Recent Breakthroughs Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death around the world. The human heart is limited to regenerating damaged tissue; thus, research must explore using organoids and other cell-based therapies to encourage natural repair processes. By investigating this avenue, cardiomyocytes derived from human pluripotent stem cells are a promising source. These cell types have the potential to restore contractile functions in animal models as well as the ability to regenerate myocardial tissue. Researchers have developed a cardiac organoid with silicon nanowires that have significantly improved the medicinal efficacy of stem cell-derived cardiac organoids. Using these nano-wired organoids, electrical activity was shown to improve, which in turn supported improved contractility in ischemia-injured mice. Challenges and Future Directions While the promising nature of organoids must be acknowledged, they are not without limitations. Research is currently ongoing to improve the reproducibility and scalability of organoids and their cultures to make organoids more accessible and their use more widespread. Below are some summarised advantages and disadvantages of organoids. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of organoids has created a revolutionary era within the scope of biomedicine. These miniature organs have remarkable potential in various research, development, and tissue engineering facets. Organoids provide scientists with precise modelling of diseases across a range of different organs, assuring their versatility. From understanding organ development to combating cardiovascular diseases and introducing personalised treatment for cancer patients, it is unclear why they are being more rapidly explored. While they hold their promise, there are still challenges surrounding their reproducibility, restricting them from being used in organ transplantation. However, with ongoing progress, organoids undoubtedly have the aptitude to tailor treatments and address complexities of tissue regeneration, heralding a groundbreaking era in healthcare. Written by Irha Khalid Related article: iPSCs and organoids / Animal testing ethics Project Gallery

How chemistry plays a part Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The role of chemistry in space exploration 14/07/25, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 05/08/23, 09:41 How chemistry plays a part Background Space exploration is without a doubt one of the most intriguing areas of science. As humans, we have a natural tendency to investigate everything around us – with space, the main question we want to answer is if there is life beyond us on Earth. Astronomers use advanced telescopes to help look for celestial objects and therefore study their structures, to get closer in finding a solution to this question. However, astronomers do have to communicate with other scientists in doing so. After all, the field of science is all about collaboration. One example is theoretical physicists studying observed data and, as the name suggests, come up with theories using computational methods for other scientists to examine experimentally. In this article, we will acknowledge the importance of chemistry in space exploration, from not only studying celestial bodies but also to life support technology for astronauts and more. Examples of chemistry applications 1) Portable life support systems To survive in space requires advanced and well-designed life support systems due to being exposed to extreme temperatures and conditions. Portable life support systems (PLSS) are devices connected to an astronaut’s spacesuit that supplies oxygen as well as removal of carbon dioxide (CO2). The famous apollo lunar landing missions had clever PLSS – they utilised lithium hydroxide to remove CO2 and liquid cooling garments, which used any water to remove heat from breathing air. However, these systems are large and quite bulky, so hopefully we can see chemistry help us design even more smart PLSS in the future. 2) Solid rocket propulsion systems Chemical propellants in rockets eject reaction mass at high velocities and pressure using a source of fuel and oxidiser, causing thrust in the engine. Simply put, thrust is a strong force that causes an object to move – in this case, a rocket launching into space. Advancements in propellant chemistry has allowed greater space exploration to take place due to more efficient and reliable systems. 3) Absorption spectroscopy Electromagnetic radiation is energy travelling at the speed of light (approx. 3.0 x 108 m/s!) that can interact with matter. This radiation consists of different wavelengths and frequencies, with longer wavelengths possessing shorter frequencies and vice versa. Each molecule has unique absorption wavelength(s) – this means that if specific wavelengths of radiation ‘hits’ a substance, electrons in the ground state will become excited and can jump up to higher energy states. A line appears in the absorption spectrum for every excited electron (see Figure 1 ). As a result, spectroscopic analysis of newly discovered planets or moons can give us information on the different elements that are present. It should also be noted that the excited electrons will relax back down to the ground state and emit a photon, allowing us to observe emission spectra as well. In the emission spectra, the lines would be in the exact same place as those in the absorption, but coloured in a black background (see Figure 2 ). Fun fact: There are six essential elements needed for life – carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. In 2023, scientists concluded that Saturn’s moon Enceladus has all these which indicates that life could be present here! 1) Space medicine Whilst many people are fascinated by the idea of going to space, it is definitely not an easy task as the body undergoes more stress and changes than one can imagine. For example, barotrauma is when tissues filled with air space due to differences in pressure between the body and ambient atmosphere becomes injured. Another example is weakening of the immune system, as researchers has been found that pre-existing T cells in the body were not able to fight off infection well. However, the field of space medicine is growing and making sure discomforts like those above are prevented where possible. Space medicine researchers have developed ‘countermeasures’ for astronauts to follow, such as special exercises that maintain bone/muscle mass as well as diets. Being in space is isolating which can cause mental health problems, so early-on counselling and therapy is also being provided to prevent this. To conclude Overall, chemistry plays a vital role in the field of space exploration. It allows us to go beyond just analysis of celestial objects as demonstrated in this article. Typically, when we hear the word ‘chemistry’ we often just think of its applications in the medical field or environment, but its versatility should be celebrated more often. Written by Harsimran Kaur Related articles: AI in space / The role of chemistry in medicine / Astronauts in space Project Gallery

How kidney damage can be detected Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link NGAL: A Valuable Biomarker for Early Detection of Renal Damage 10/07/25, 10:22 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 16:20 How kidney damage can be detected Nestled under the ribcage, the kidneys are primarily responsible for the filtration of toxins from the bloodstream and their elimination in urine. In instances of Acute Kidney Injury (AKI), however, this vital function is compromised. AKI is the sudden loss of kidney function, which is commonly seen in hospitalised patients. Because patients don’t usually experience pain or distinct symptoms, AKI is difficult to identify. Early detection of AKI is paramount to prevent kidney damage from progressing into more enduring conditions such as Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD). So, how can we detect AKI promptly? This is where Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (NAGL), a promising biomarker for the early detection of renal injury, comes into focus. Until recently, assessing the risk of AKI has relied on measuring changes in serum creatinine (sCr) and urine output. Creatinine is a waste product formed by the muscles. Normally, the kidney filters creatinine and other waste products out of the blood into the urine. Therefore, high serum creatinine levels indicate disruption to kidney function, suggesting AKI. However, a limitation of the sCr test is that it is affected by extrarenal factors such as muscle mass; people with higher muscle mass have higher serum creatinine. Additionally, an increase in this biomarker becomes evident once the renal function is irreversibly damaged. NGAL’s ability to rapidly detect kidney damage hours to days before sCr, renders it a more fitting biomarker to prevent total kidney dysfunction. Among currently proposed biomarkers for AKI, the most notable is NGAL. NGAL is a small protein rapidly induced from the kidney tubule upon insult. It is detected in the bloodstream within hours of renal damage. NGAL levels swiftly rise much before the appearance of other renal markers. Such characteristics render NGAL a promising biomarker in quickly pinpointing kidney damage. The concentration of NGAL present in a patient's urine is determined using a particle-enhanced laboratory technique. This involves quantifying the particles in the solution by measuring the reduced transmitted light intensity through the urine sample. In conclusion, the early detection of AKI remains a critical challenge, but NGAL emerges as a promising biomarker for promptly detecting renal injury before total loss of kidney function unfolds. NGAL offers a significant advantage over traditional biomarkers like serum creatinine- its swift induction upon kidney injury allows clinicians and healthcare providers to intervene before renal dysfunction manifests. Written by Fozia Hassan Related article: Cancer biomarkers and evolution REFERENCES Bioporto. (n.d.). NGAL . [online] Available at: https://bioporto.us/ngal/ [Accessed 5 Feb. 2024]. Branislava Medić, Branislav Rovčanin, Katarina Savić Vujović, Obradović, D., Duric, D. and Milica Prostran (2016). Evaluation of Novel Biomarkers of Acute Kidney Injury: The Possibilities and Limitations. Current Medicinal Chemistry , [online] 23(19). doi: https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867323666160210130256 . Buonafine, M., Martinez-Martinez, E. and Jaisser, F. (2018). More than a simple biomarker: the role of NGAL in cardiovascular and renal diseases. Clinical Science , [online] 132(9), pp.909–923. doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/cs20171592 . Giasson, J., Hua Li, G. and Chen, Y. (2011). Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin (NGAL) as a New Biomarker for Non – Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) Diseases. Inflammation & Allergy - Drug Targets , [online] 10(4), pp.272–282. doi: https://doi.org/10.2174/187152811796117753 . Haase, M., Devarajan, P., Haase-Fielitz, A., Bellomo, R., Cruz, D.N., Wagener, G., Krawczeski, C.D., Koyner, J.L., Murray, P., Zappitelli, M., Goldstein, S.L., Makris, K., Ronco, C., Martensson, J., Martling, C.-R., Venge, P., Siew, E., Ware, L.B., Ikizler, T.A. and Mertens, P.R. (2011). The Outcome of Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin-Positive Subclinical Acute Kidney Injury. Journal of the American College of Cardiology , [online] 57(17), pp.1752–1761. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.11.051 . Moon, J.H., Yoo, K.H. and Yim, H.E. (2020). Urinary Neutrophil Gelatinase – Associated Lipocalin: A Marker of Urinary Tract Infection Among Febrile Children. Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics . doi: https://doi.org/10.3345/cep.2020.01130 . Vijaya Marakala (2022). Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in kidney injury – A systematic review. International Journal of Clinical Chemistry and Diagnostic Laboratory Medicine , [online] 536, pp.135–141. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2022.08.029 . www.nice.org.uk . (2014). Overview | The NGAL Test for early diagnosis of acute kidney injury | Advice | NICE . [online] Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/mib3 [Accessed 6 Feb. 2024]. Project Gallery

How metal compounds can be used as anti-cancer agents Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anticancer Metal Compounds 28/01/25, 15:02 Last updated: Published: 23/05/23, 08:17 How metal compounds can be used as anti-cancer agents Metal compounds such as platinum, cobalt and ruthenium are used as anticancer agents. Anticancer metal compound research is important as chemotherapy is not selective, being very toxic to patients damaging normal DNA cells. Such metal compounds act as anti-cancer agents with the metals being able to vary in oxidation states. Selectivity of metal compounds to target only cancer cells arises from the metals properties of varying oxidation states for redox reactions. As cancer exists in hypoxic environments, the oxidation state of the metal is able to vary releasing the cancer drug only in the cancer environment. For example prodrugs are relatively inert metal complexes with relatively high oxidation states. PtIV, and CoIII are selective carriers undergoing reduction by varying the metals oxidation state in cancerous hypoxic environments releasing anticancer drugs. CoIII reduced to CoII, PtIV reduced to PtII in hypoxic environments. CoIII two oxidation states: Cobalt (III) is kinetically inert with low-spin 3d6 configuration, CoII is labile (high-spin 3d7). When CoIII is reduced to CoII in hypoxic environments, the active molecule is released then restored to its active form killing cancer cells. Cobalt can also bind to ligands like nitrogen mustards and curcumin ligands, exhibiting redox reactivity for cancer therapy. Nitrogen mustards are highly toxic due to their DNA alkylation and cross-linking activity. In vivo they are not selective for tumour tissue however can be deactivated by coordination to CoIII, released on reduction to CoII in hypoxic tumour tissue. This reduces systemic toxicity concluding an efficient anticancer drug. Platinum anticancer metal compounds treat ovarian, cervical and neck cancer. Platinum ( Pt IV) (cisplatin) exhibits redox-mediated anticancer activity, highly effective towards tumours. Platinum causes severe side-effects for patients so PtIV prodrug is used selectively reducing tumour sites. Ruthenium is used for cancer therapy as a less toxic metal over platinum. Ruthenium targeted therapy selectively disrupts specific cellular pathways where cancer cells rely for growth and metastasis. Reduction of Ru (III) to Ru(II) selectively occurs in hypoxic reducing environments where tumours over express transferrin receptors, ruthenium binding to. Overall metal compounds for cancer treatment attracted high interest due to redox activity properties. Metal compounds are selective to cancer cells, limiting patients' side effects. Such therapy shows how inorganic chemistry is important to medicine. Written by Alice Davey Related article: MOFs in cancer drug delivery Project Gallery

From bonds to emotions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Emotional chemistry on a molecular level 26/06/25, 10:12 Last updated: Published: 16/01/24, 00:03 From bonds to emotions Emotions have a crucial role in how we perceive the world, behave, and interact with others. Our emotional states significantly influence how our lives are shaped, from the happiness of a long-awaited reunion to the grief of a heartbreaking farewell. But have you ever wondered what happens on a molecular level when we experience emotions? In this article, we will delve into the fascinating world of the chemistry behind emotions and explore how neurotransmitters, hormones, and brain regions collaborate to orchestrate the symphony of our feelings. Neurotransmitters , the chemical messengers in charge of transferring impulses between brain neurons, lie at the core of the chemistry of emotions. The "happiness hormone," serotonin , is known for its critical function in controlling mood, appetite, and sleep. Anxiety and sadness have been associated with low serotonin levels. Dopamine : this "reward neurotransmitter" is linked to reinforcement and pleasure. Dopamine is released when we like or receive a reward, which reinforces the behaviour and motivates us to seek out more of those kinds of experiences. Norepinephrine is a component of the body's fight-or-flight response that causes increased attention and arousal in reaction to stress or danger. Lastly, Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) , an inhibitory neurotransmitter, counteracts the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters to maintain emotional stability by calming and soothing the brain. Our emotional experiences are significantly shaped by hormones as well. These chemical messengers affect the brain and other organs by entering the circulation after being released by numerous glands throughout the body. Cortisol , also referred to as the "stress hormone," is a key component of the body's fight-or-flight response and is released while under stress. Anxiety and a sense of being overpowered might result from elevated cortisol levels. The "love hormone" or "bonding hormone," oxytocin , is a chemical that is released during social interactions, particularly during times of closeness, trust, and bonding. The body's own natural mood lifters and painkillers are called endorphins . Exercise, laughing, and other enjoyable activities all produce endorphins, which contribute to a feeling of pleasure. Emotions are orchestrated within various brain regions , each with its own role in processing and interpreting emotional stimuli. Some key brain regions associated with emotions are: Amygdala : The "emotional hub" of the brain is commonly referred to as the amygdala. It analyses emotional inputs, particularly those connected to aggressiveness and fear, and participates in the development of emotional memories. Prefrontal cortex: This part of the brain controls rational higher-order thought, judgement, and emotional regulation. Even in highly emotional situations, it supports our ability to control our emotions and make logical decisions. Hippocampus : The hippocampus helps people remember emotional memories in particular. It is essential for remembering previous emotional experiences and creating emotional bonds. In conclusion, the chemistry of emotion is a gorgeously sophisticated dance of neurotransmitters, hormones, and different parts of the brain. It highlights the delicate balance that shapes our emotional experiences and influences our behaviour and well-being. Understanding this molecular magic can provide insight into our emotional reactions and open the door to novel treatment strategies for treating emotional disorders and mental health issues. Next time you feel overwhelmed with joy, anger, or any emotion in between, remember that there's a symphony of chemicals and brain activity behind the scenes, composing the unique melody of your emotional journey. Embrace your emotions, for they are an essential part of what makes us human. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Exploring food at the molecular level / Psychology of embarrassment / Unmasking aggression / Chemistry of depression / Music and emotions Project Gallery

Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The game of life 11/07/25, 10:03 Last updated: Published: 20/11/23, 11:22 Maths till 18? No! All subjects till 18! I am a Maths graduate, a Maths teacher, and an all-rounder academic, yet in my twenties, when I began the process of buying a home, I had no idea where to start. I did not know how to get a mortgage, what shared ownership was, or when to get a solicitor involved. This is a problem, and this, I believe, is what needs to be taught from 16-18 years of age. The skills, opportunities, and options for young adults to simply move forward in this world. My suggestion: (for those who do not take A-Levels) To create a well-structured, virtual reality, cross-curricular running project about life, a little bit like an AI version of the ‘game of life.’ Students can begin the project in a virtual reality world of choice, and then slowly branch out depending on their interests. They can learn CV building skills , go to an AI job centre, choose the job they want to do and learn the skills for it by conducting research and completing online courses . At the same time within the project, students can be given a budget according to the job they are training for, in which they can forecast their savings and plan for the route that they would take in purchasing a property. Students would need to learn about shared ownership, the pros and cons of renting, the deposits needed for mortgage, all within a game format, like a PS5 game. This aspect of the project would be heavy with Maths. Students would be expected to write a final assessment piece summarising each of their decisions and why, which would include high levels of the English curriculum. To differentiate the project, we could ask students to use Geography, to find a country in the world where their skills may be more in demand and ask them to consider the possibility of relocating to another country for work, which would broaden the horizon of the project massively. They could look at tax laws in different countries, such as Dubai, and how that would benefit them in terms of salary, but what the importance of tax is in a country too. Students would get to explore countries which have free healthcare and schooling vs which countries do not. This would work on their analysis and deeper thinking skills. The game-like format of this project would be ideal for disengaged students who did not thrive with the traditional style of teaching in schools. We could include potential for earning points in the ‘game’ for each additional piece of research they conduct, and a real-life benefit to earning those points too, such as Amazon vouchers, as rewards. A project like this would enable all curriculums to get involved in, for students to understand the world better and a massive scope for AI, potentially asking Meta to design it, who are at the forefront of virtual reality. To make it work, the project would require teachers from all fields to come together to form a curriculum that is inclusive, considers British Values and mirrors the real-life that we live in today. There is potential for psychologist to be involved to ensure we are considering mental health implications as well as parents/guardians, who would need to be onboard with this too. In conclusion, I believe that 16-18 years do need guided learning that is standardised, but I do not think it is as simple as pushing Maths on to them. The future generation and their society will benefit from a holistic guided route to life, which will make them informed and educated individuals in topics that matter to THEM, based on THEIR lives, not chosen by us. Give students control over their education, over their lives... Written by Sara Altaf Project Gallery

Strategies for success and mathematical mastery Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How to excel in maths 09/07/25, 14:19 Last updated: Published: 01/10/23, 20:00 Strategies for success and mathematical mastery Mathematics is a subject that can be both daunting and rewarding. While some individuals seem to effortlessly grasp mathematical concepts, most of us need to put in extra effort to excel. This article is dedicated to the majority—the ones willing to work hard to achieve success in their A-level maths exams and beyond. By following a structured approach and embracing a growth mindset, you can unlock your mathematical potential and reach heights you may have never thought possible. Understanding the concepts Fundamentally, to be able to get anywhere in mathematics, you need to understand what you are doing with numbers and why. There is no point in knowing how to differentiate if you don’t know why you want to differentiate and why it works. Now, I am a strong believer that anyone can learn anything if they approach it with an open mind and determination to succeed. This is called having a growth mindset. However, there is a caveat with how maths is taught at school. When maths is taught, it is taught by someone who understands a concept in a particular way. We are all inherently different, and similarly, our minds all work slightly differently. So when your teacher explains how they understand something, it does not mean that you should also understand it as you both think differently. Now for some, they manage to grasp what their teacher is saying easily as they think similarly, but for others this may need an alternative approach. Some examples could be supplementary lessons with a tutor, buying a subscription to online lessons or asking for some 1-on-1 time with your teacher. But sometimes this may still not even work. If my teacher can’t help me, how can I learn? Well, for A-Levels and GCSEs, we are extremely blessed that there is a plethora of different resources that we can use, both written and in video format! Some of my favourites include, but are not limited to, TLMaths (Youtube), BBC Bitesize (GCSE only), and Khan Academy. (Also see: Extra Resources for more maths resources). YouTube really can be your best friend. There are thousands of videos explaining mathematical concepts, and they are not all as trivial as those shared by Numberphile. By simply searching for a topic that you are stuck on, you can get many different professionals to explain the same problem; with enough grit and determination, you’ll be able to find a video that you can easily understand! If, however, that does not seem to work, it may be an indicator that you need to step back and learn the fundamentals a bit better. There is little point in using the integral to calculate the area under a line graph if you don’t know what a line graph actually shows. Practice the concepts Once you’ve got the concepts down to the tee, there is only one option to go with. Practice. Practice. Practice. I foolishly made the mistake during my year 10 final exams, where instead of doing practice questions, I made notes from watching videos and thought that was enough. Not only is this not engaging, but when it comes to maths, practice is the only way to revise. Truthfully, I would never recommend taking notes in maths as it is not only quicker to look something up, but I believe the time spent making notes could be spent better elsewhere. The best way to practice for an exam is through practice papers. You may now be dashing off to find practice papers for your exam board; however, I would recommend not touching these until you are around 1 month away from your exam. If you are as crazy as I am, you could even leave it until the last week and complete 2 or 3 per day, but maybe for your sanity, I’d advise against this. Instead, use all of the resources that you are fortunate enough to have available to you thanks to the internet. Complete every question in your textbook and revision guide; complete predicted papers; do it all! This is the surefire way to get top marks and become a competent mathematician. But maybe you’re not studying for a big A-level exam just yet. By completing the questions that you may not have done in class and researching topic-specific questions (Math’s Genie and Physics and Maths Tutor are both excellent resources for this), you will, with time, start to develop your skills and put the theory into practice. By better applying these concepts, you begin to understand them and maybe even start to enjoy them. (Bonus tip: do your homework. It’s given out for a reason.) Apply the concepts to unfamiliar situations Now that you have mastered the concepts and put them to the test by answering every question you can get your hands on, comes the trickiest part of mathematical mastery: These are the questions that separate the A’s and the A*’s. The geniuses and the sedulous, but more importantly, those who can do maths, and those who understand maths. By applying the mathematical concepts that you’ve learned to unfamiliar situations, you start to develop an extremely sought-after skill. Problem solving. By using maths in an unfamiliar context, most students are hasty to give up, and this is why the last question on the test is so ‘difficult’, but in fact it's the same as the prior questions but in disguise. To conquer these questions, you have to be able to decipher what the question is asking and then apply the appropriate techniques to solve it. The only way that you will know which techniques to use is by attempting similar questions that push you, and in time, your brain's pattern recognition will kick in and you’ll start to find that you just know what to do. You can't explain it; you just want to differentiate here, factor out here, and expand these brackets here, and bam! You’ve got the answer. But the only way you can get there is by putting in the hours and attempting questions that are outside your comfort zone. At the beginning of the article, I said it would be tough, but maths does not require you to spend 4 hours every night (until you are smack in the middle of your A-level exams), but instead a mere 20 minutes, maybe only 5 days a week, but I promise you that this small amount of time after school, before bed, or during break, if uninterrupted and follows the rules that I have just suggested, will work absolute wonders on your mathematical ability. Imagine the impact of dedicating just 20 minutes a day to math starting right now. If you're in year 13, with your first math paper 38 weeks away on June 4th, time will fly. By committing to 20 minutes daily, five days a week, you'll accumulate over 63 hours of revision. Bump it up to half an hour, and you'll hit almost 100 hours. This early start saves you precious time closer to exams, allowing you to focus on other subjects. Unlike some subjects, math doesn't require rote memorisation. Building these skills gradually pays off. Yes, 20 minutes daily may seem modest, but consistency can be challenging. Skipping just one day can turn into a week, then a month. Dedication, determination, and discipline are essential for success. If you maintain this routine, you can achieve remarkable results, even surpassing natural mathematical geniuses. Now with the three steps to mathematical freedom: Understand the concepts. Practice the concepts. Apply the concepts to unfamiliar situations. Go out there and give it your best shot! I wish you all the best of luck in your journey to mathematical mastery! Written by George Chant Related articles: The game of life / Teaching maths / Topology Project Gallery