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The potential of MSCs to treat diseases like rheumatoid arthritis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The role of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in regenerative medicine 23/10/25, 10:18 Last updated: Published: 28/11/24, 15:16 The potential of MSCs to treat diseases like rheumatoid arthritis This is article no. 2 in a three-part series on stem cells. Next article: Regulation and policy of stem cell research . Previous article: An introduction to stem cells . Welcome to the second article in a series of three articles about stem cells. I will explore mesenchymal stem cells and their role in regenerative medicine in this article. Additionally, I will consider the potential of mesenchymal stem cells in treating three different diseases: multiple sclerosis (MS), rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Consider reading Article 1 for more information on mesenchymal stem cells! Multiple sclerosis (MS) Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease affecting the brain and spinal cord. It can cause symptoms such as muscle stiffness and spasms, problems with balance and coordination, vision problems and more. According to the Multiple Sclerosis Society UK (MS Society UK), it is estimated that there are around 150,000 people with MS in the UK, with nearly 7,100 people being newly diagnosed every year. Scientists have found that MSCs can be used to treat some of the symptoms of MS as MSCs protect the nerves in the CNS by secreting substances called neurotrophic growth factors, which increase nerve growth and the survival of nerve cells. These neurotrophic growth factors can also repair damaged nerves, improving nerve function. However, the exact mechanisms of this are still being studied. Furthermore, MSCs can activate the brain's natural healing mechanisms by stimulating the brain's stem cells to become active and repair the damaged tissue. This results in patients having a reduction in symptoms and the severity of the symptoms, improving the quality of life for those with MS. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease affecting the joints. The charity Versus Arthritis has said there are around 400,000 adults aged 16 and over affected by RA in the UK. Scientists have found that MSCs can reduce inflammation in the joints as they have immunomodulatory properties, so they can regulate the immune system's abnormal responses that cause RA. MSCs suppress immune cell activity, resulting in a decrease in inflammation and joint damage. In addition, MSCs can migrate (travel) to the inflamed joints and release anti-inflammatory molecules, reducing joint swelling and pain. This results in patients having a reduction in pain and joint swelling, improving the quality of life for those with RA. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an umbrella term for chronic inflammatory digestive diseases, including ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease (CD), affecting the gastrointestinal tract. A study by the University of Nottingham estimates that 500,000 people in the UK are living with IBD. Scientists have found that MSCs can reduce inflammation and increase tissue repair in the gastrointestinal tract. This is because MSCs can migrate to sites of inflammation in the gut, where they can replace damaged tissue cells. MSCs release signalling molecules that regulate the immune response and reduce inflammation. They can even directly interact with immune cells in the gut, influencing their behaviour and decreasing the inflammatory response. Also, MSCs can transfer mitochondria to damaged cells through cell fusion, helping the damaged cells function better and reduce inflammation. This results in reduced inflammation in patients, improving the quality of life for those with IBD. Looking to the future MS, RA and IBD are just three of the multiple diseases MSCs can target, and while there are many refinements to be made for MSCs to become more viable as treatment options, current findings show promising results. With further development, including more research to understand the exact biology of MSCs, there is massive potential for this method to revolutionise the treatment of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases and cancer. As stem cell research continues to advance, policies must also adapt to this changing landscape; watch out for the last article in the series, where I will discuss the regulation and policy of stem cell research! Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: The biggest innovations in the biosciences / Neuromyelitis optica and MS / Crohn's disease Project Gallery

Unraveling the mysteries of protein-DNA interactions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Zinc fingers in action 14/07/25, 15:21 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 14:22 Unraveling the mysteries of protein-DNA interactions Zinc-finger proteins are one of the most prevalent proteins used in DNA-binding motifs in biological processes. They are common as eukaryotic transcriptional factors. As they are structurally diverse, they interact in cellular processes like RNA packaging, DNA recognition, and transcriptional activation. Cys2His2 zinc- finger proteins are significant in cellular processes because of their short helical structure. The motif forms from a few amino acid sequences that contain cysteine and histidine residues that coordinate to a zinc ion. The zinc ions are crucial in stabilising the protein during folding. They also hold the α-helix and β-sheetstructures in place. The protein’s stability comes from the weak hydrophobic core and zinc coordination created by chelating. The zinc-finger/DNA complex is formed from the fingers interacting with up to four bases. The zinc finger DNA complex was first discovered from the transcription factor TFIIIA. The transcription factor had a ninefold pattern containing hydrophobic residues, histidine, and cysteine. The zinc finger motif was then concluded to consist of thirty amino acids and have a DNA binding domain with a zinc ion. This was confirmed by an extended x-ray absorption fine structure analysis. It was concluded that the contacts between the DNA strand and α helix occur due to hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals interactions. From these studies, the structures of zinc finger domains play vital roles in many processes other than DNA binding. Their tertiary structure allows the proteins to act as DNA-binding motifs. The alpha helix functions as the protein recognition component by inserting the protein into the main groove of DNA. Immobilizing zinc-finger proteins on a polymer chip can be used as an example to identify infections in the human body. This section provides a summary of the many kinds of DNA recognition and the generic protein-folding principles. Firstly, a specific binding site probe is needed to identify the DNA sequence region. This allows the identification of specific base pairs in the sequence. The hydrogen bonds between the amino acids in the zinc-finger proteins and DNA bases allow the zinc- finger proteins to bind to non-specific backbone phosphates. The non-specific backbone phosphates are formed from the interactions in the major and minor grooves of the DNA. The zinc-finger DNA interactions contribute substantially to hydrogen bonding and overall binding energy. To conclude, zinc fingers are very common structural motifs that are used as model systems to investigate how these proteins can recognise DNA sequences. This research has been involved in developing important therapeutic tools. Their unique structure allows them to be heavily involved in DNA binding, most commonly the Cys2His2 fingers. These binding interactions can be further explored to understand how certain target genes are bound to or how inhibitors can show the pharmacological properties of the zinc finger proteins. Written by Anam Ahmed Related articles: p53 protein / Anti-freeze proteins Project Gallery

Unleashing the power of mRNA: revolutionising medicine with personalised vaccines Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The exciting potential of mRNA vaccines 11/07/25, 10:03 Last updated: Published: 03/12/24, 12:19 Unleashing the power of mRNA: revolutionising medicine with personalised vaccines Basic mRNA vaccine pharmacology Basic mRNA vaccine pharmacology involves the study of two types of RNA used as vaccines: non-replicating mRNA and self-amplifying RNA. Non-replicating mRNA-based vaccines encode the antigen of interest and contain untranslated regions (UTRs) at both ends. Self-amplifying RNAs, on the other hand, encode both the antigen and the viral replication machinery, allowing for intracellular RNA amplification and abundant protein expression. For successful protein production in mRNA therapeutics, the optimal translation of in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA is crucial. Factors such as the length of the poly(A) tail, codon usage, and sequence optimisation can influence translation efficiency and accuracy. Adding an optimal length of poly(A) to mRNA is necessary for efficient translation. This can be achieved by directly incorporating it from the encoding DNA template or by using poly(A) polymerase. Codon usage also plays a role in protein translation. Replacing rare codons with frequently used synonymous codons, which have abundant cognate tRNA in the cytosol, can enhance protein production from mRNA. However, the accuracy of this model has been subject to questioning. Optimally translated IVT mRNA encoding mRNA IVT mRNA plays a crucial role in mRNA vaccines as it is designed for optimal translation, ensuring efficient protein production. To achieve this, a 5ʹ cap structure is added, which is essential for efficient protein synthesis. Different versions of 5ʹ caps can be added during or after the transcription process. Furthermore, the poly(A) tail plays a significant regulatory role in mRNA translation and stability. Sequence optimisation is another critical factor that can enhance mRNA levels and protein expression. Increasing the G:C content has been shown to elevate steady-state mRNA levels in vitro and improve protein expression in vivo. Furthermore, modifying the codon composition or introducing modified nucleosides can positively influence protein expression. However, it is important to note that these sequence engineering techniques may impact mRNA secondary structure, translation kinetics, accuracy, protein folding, as well as the expression of alternative reading frames and cryptic T-cell epitopes. Sequence optimisation for protein translation Sequence optimisation plays a crucial role in the development of mRNA vaccines. It involves modifying the mRNA sequence to improve the efficiency of protein translation. By optimising the sequence, researchers can enhance the expression and stability of therapeutic mRNAs. However, the immunogenicity of exogenous mRNA is a concern, as it can trigger a response from various innate immune receptors. In some cases, encoding mRNA in the hypothalamus may even elicit a physiological response. Despite initial promising outcomes, the development of mRNA therapeutics has been hindered by concerns regarding mRNA instability, high innate immunogenicity, and inefficient in vivo delivery. As a result, DNA-based and protein-based therapeutic approaches have been preferred in the past. Modulation of immunogenicity Modulation of immunogenicity is a crucial aspect of mRNA vaccine development. Researchers aim to design mRNA vaccines that elicit a strong immune response while minimising adverse reactions. This involves careful selection of antigens and optimisation of the mRNA sequence to enhance immunogenicity. Self-replicating RNA vaccines and adjuvant strategies, such as TriMix, have shown increased immunogenicity and effectiveness. The immunostimulatory properties of mRNA can be further enhanced by including adjuvants. The size of the mRNA-carrier complex and the level of innate immune sensing in targeted cell types can influence the immunogenicity of mRNA vaccines. Advantages of mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines offer several advantages over conventional vaccine approaches. First, they have high potency, meaning they can induce a strong immune response. Second, they have a capacity for rapid development, allowing for quick vaccine production in response to emerging infectious diseases or new strains. Third, mRNA vaccines have the potential for rapid, inexpensive, and scalable manufacturing, mainly due to the high yields of in vitro transcription reactions. Additionally, mRNA vaccines are minimal genetic vectors, avoiding anti-vector immunity, and can be administered repeatedly. However, recent technological innovations and research investments have made mRNA a promising therapeutic tool in vaccine development and protein replacement therapy. mRNA has several advantages over other vaccine platforms, including safety and efficacy. It is non-infectious and non-integrating, reducing the risk of infection and insertional mutagenesis. mRNA can be regulated in terms of in vivo half-life and immunogenicity through various modifications and delivery methods. Production of mRNA vaccines The production of mRNA vaccines involves in vitro transcription (IVT) of the optimised mRNA sequence. This process allows for the rapid and scalable manufacturing of mRNA vaccines. High yields of IVT mRNA can be obtained, making the production process cost-effective. Making mRNA more stable and highly translatable is achievable through modifications. Efficient in vivo delivery can be achieved by formulating mRNA into carrier molecules. The choice of carrier and the size of the mRNA-carrier complex can also modulate the cytokine profile induced by mRNA delivery. Current mRNA vaccine approaches (Figure 1) There are several current mRNA vaccine approaches being explored. These include the development of mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases and various types of cancer. mRNA vaccines have shown promising results in both animal models and humans. Cancer vaccines Cancer vaccines are a type of immunotherapy that aim to stimulate the body's immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells. These vaccines work by introducing specific antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, into the body. The immune system then recognises these antigens as foreign and mounts an immune response against them, targeting and destroying cancer cells that express these antigens. There are different types of cancer vaccines, including personalised vaccines and predefined shared antigen vaccines. Personalised vaccines are tailored to each patient and are designed to target specific mutations or antigens present in their tumor. These vaccines are created by identifying tumor-specific antigens by sequencing the patient's tumor DNA and predicting which antigens are most likely to elicit an immune response. These antigens are then used to create a vaccine that is specific to that patient's tumor. On the other hand, predefined shared antigen vaccines are designed to target antigens that are commonly expressed in certain types of cancer. These vaccines can be used in multiple patients with the same type of cancer and are not personalised to each individual. The antigens used in these vaccines are selected based on their ability to induce an immune response and their potential to be recognised by T cells. Despite the promising potential of cancer vaccines, their clinical progress is limited, and skepticism surrounds their effectiveness. While there have been some examples of vaccines that have shown systemic regression of tumors and prolonged survival in small clinical trials, many trials have yielded marginal survival benefits. Challenges such as small trial sizes, resource-intensive approaches, and immune escape of heterogeneous tumors have hindered the field's progress. However, it is important to note that other immunotherapies, such as monoclonal antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies, have also faced challenges and setbacks before eventually achieving success. Therefore, cancer vaccines may also have the potential for eventual success, given their clear rationale and compelling preclinical data. To improve the efficacy of cancer vaccines, researchers are exploring various strategies. These include optimising antigen presentation and immune activation by using adjuvants or agonists of pattern-recognition receptors. Additionally, advancements in sequencing technologies and computational algorithms for epitope prediction allow for the identification of more specific tumor mutagens and the production of personalised neo-epitope vaccines. Neo-epitope vaccines are a type of personalised vaccine that target specific mutations or neo-epitopes present in a patient's tumor. These vaccines exploit the most specific tumor mutagens identified through computational methods and prioritise highly expressed neo-epitopes. They can be given with adjuvants to enhance their immunogenicity. Hence, cancer vaccines hold promise as a potential standard anti-cancer therapy. While their progress has been limited, a clear rationale and compelling preclinical data support their further development. Personalised vaccines targeting specific mutations or antigens present in a patient's tumor, as well as predefined shared antigen vaccines targeting commonly expressed antigens, are being explored. Future of mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional vaccine approaches due to their high potency, rapid development capabilities, and potential for low-cost manufacture and safe administration. Recent technological advancements have addressed the challenges of mRNA instability and inefficient in vivo delivery, leading to encouraging results in the development of mRNA vaccine platforms against infectious diseases and various types of cancer. Looking ahead, the future of mRNA vaccines holds great potential for further advancements and widespread therapeutic use. Efficient in vivo delivery of mRNA remains a critical area of focus for future development. Researchers are working on improving delivery systems to ensure targeted delivery to specific cells or tissues, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of mRNA vaccines. This includes the development of lipid nanoparticles, viral vectors, and other delivery mechanisms to optimize mRNA delivery and cellular uptake. The success of mRNA vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer has opened doors to exploring their potential in other areas of medicine. Future research may involve the development of mRNA vaccines for autoimmune disorders, allergies, and chronic diseases. The versatility of mRNA technology allows for the rapid adaptation of vaccine candidates to address various medical conditions. One exciting prospect for mRNA vaccines is their potential for personalised medicine. The ability to easily modify the genetic sequence of mRNA allows for the development of personalised vaccines tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup or disease profile. This could revolutionise preventive medicine by enabling targeted immunisation strategies. Combining mRNA vaccines with other treatment modalities, such as immunotherapies or traditional therapies, could lead to synergistic effects and improved clinical outcomes. The unique properties of mRNA vaccines, such as their ability to induce potent immune responses and modulate the expression of specific proteins, make them attractive candidates for combination therapies. Continued advancements in manufacturing processes will be crucial for the widespread adoption of mRNA vaccines. Efforts are underway to optimise and scale up the production of mRNA vaccines, making them more accessible and cost-effective. This includes refining in vitro transcription reactions and implementing efficient quality control measures. The regulatory landscape surrounding mRNA vaccines will evolve as the field progresses. Regulatory agencies will need to establish guidelines and frameworks specific to mRNA vaccine development and approval. Ensuring safety, efficacy, and quality control will be essential to gain widespread acceptance and public trust in mRNA vaccines. Conclusion mRNA vaccines have shown great potential in revolutionising the field of medicine, particularly in the areas of personalised medicine and preventive medicine. The ability to easily modify the genetic sequence of mRNA allows for the development of personalised vaccines tailored to an individual's specific genetic makeup or disease profile. Furthermore, the unique properties of mRNA vaccines, such as their ability to induce potent immune responses and modulate the expression of specific proteins, make them attractive candidates for combination therapies. However, there are still challenges to overcome, such as ensuring safety, efficacy, quality control, addressing concerns regarding immunogenicity. Nonetheless, with continued advancements in manufacturing processes and regulatory guidelines, the future of mRNA vaccines holds great promise for further advancements and widespread therapeutic use. Efforts to improve in vivo delivery systems and explore the potential of mRNA vaccines in other areas of medicine, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic diseases, further contribute to the promising outlook for this technology. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Potential malaria vaccine / Bioinformatics in COVID vaccine production / Personalised medicine REFERENCES Lin, M.J., Svensson-Arvelund, J., Lubitz, G.S. et al. Cancer vaccines: the next immunotherapy frontier. Nat Cancer 3, 911–926 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43018-022-00418-6 Pardi, N., Hogan, M., Porter, F. et al. mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology. Nat Rev Drug Discov 17 , 261–279 (2018). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2017.243 Project Gallery

From confusion to career opportunities Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unlocking the power of statistics 14/07/25, 15:09 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 16:23 From confusion to career opportunities During my time studying maths there was always one topic that would trip me up: statistics. Being an A-level physics student, I could understand why calculus is useful in real life, using differentiation to calculate the velocities of projectiles. And I could look and see how geometry is used in buildings and structures. However, statistics often made me feel unrelatable and lost, as I was unable to see real-world applications. But today, I wish to alter my old perspective. First and foremost, you might be pleasantly surprised to learn that statistics opens doors to some of the most lucrative careers available today. We'll delve into roles such as quantitative analysts, who boast a national average salary of £99,000 per year. But if finance is not your cup of tea, there are many other rewarding career paths to explore, from becoming a data scientist to forecasting the weather as a meteorologist. In this article, I wish to unveil the world of statistics, revealing its importance and shedding light on its real-life applications. My hope is to not only inspire those who are already passionate about statistics but also to ignite motivation in individuals who, like me, found themselves in a similar predicament a few years ago. The Actuary Less well known when compared to a banker or engineer, an actuary’s sole purpose is to analyse risk for multiple different scenarios. It may sound simple on first inspection, but being an actuary is a very well-established career requiring many years of learning followed by some of the most challenging exams in the job market. An actuary attempts to quantify the risk of an event happening so that financial decisions can be made with an objective view. A good and close-to-home example of this is being either accepted or rejected from a credit card. As a younger person below the age of 21, the chances of you getting accepted for a credit card are extremely and quite painfully low. This is because banks, and more specifically, credit score providers, deem you to be a high-risk person to lend to. They think this because you have a very short credit history, are unaware of how responsible you are with money, and are more afraid to lend you their cash. In other words, they don’t want you to spend their money on going out and drinking booze. The insurance industry is, however, the biggest industry when it comes to actuaries. Both life and non-life actuaries work in teams with insurance providers to establish whether a client, company, or investment is worthwhile. Actuaries apply both statistics and actuarial science (similar to applied statistics) to real-life situations, evaluate whether to offer a premium to a customer, and then establish what that premium is. You may see in advertisements that life insurance costs as little as £10 a month for a 20-year-old compared to someone who is 65. This is because the younger you are, the less likely you are to claim against your policy. Actuaries put together vast amounts of information about people, lifestyle choices, and other factors to help determine the probability that someone may claim, suggesting a ‘fair’ premium that an insurance company may offer. Without the help of an actuary, insurance companies would either charge too much, making people disadvantaged, or charge too little, in which case they would have to default on their policy and be unable to pay out any claims. Although this seems very specific, the role of an actuary is becoming increasingly important as people live longer lives and insurance companies become more fearful of defaulting.To put it into perspective, actuaries on average earn £80,000 working in London, putting you well in the top 10% of earners in the UK. The Quantitative Analyst Similar to an actuary, quantitative analysts do exactly what is said on the tin. They use quantitative methods to analyse data. Often, companies like investment banks, hedge funds, and pension funds will hire front-office ‘quants’. The aim of the game is to send out trades as quickly as possible before all the other trading offices do. These big companies have links directly to the trading floor, so every millisecond counts, and it’s a quant's job to devise a trading strategy that beats the rest and operates in the least amount of time. Quants are masters of statistics and mathematics, and for this reason, high-frequency trading firms like Hudson River Trading offer salaries to top mathematical minds in excess of $500,000. The role of quantitative researchers is to explore the latest statistical articles being published by top universities and generate strategies that can be implemented in the stock market. This job is not one to be taken lightly, as salary is often based on performance, but someone who is motivated to explore the ins and outs of statistics may find themselves loving the life of a quant. The Meteorologist Meteorologists are the people that we incorrectly blame for the bad weather that we have. And they are also the people we blame when we forget to take a coat and get soaked on the long walk back home. But what do meteorologists actually do? And is it any more than just an educated guess? Meteorologists, along with climatologists, collect millions of pieces of information every hour of every day across their 195,000 weather stations spread all around the globe. These stations collect key pieces of information, including atmospheric pressure, temperature, speed, rain, humidity, and many other components of current weather conditions. With this information, meteorologists begin to paint a picture of what the current weather climate is like and then use forecasting methods and statistical models to estimate how the weather is going to change. The probability that it might rain is much more than an educated guess; it is the probability that if this situation happened 100 times, it would rain the estimated number of times (i.e., if there was an 80% chance of rain, it would rain 80 times out of the hundred over a large enough sample). As a forecaster, you will collect this information and input it into very advanced systems to analyse and give an outcome, but as a researcher, you will help derive these statistical forecasting models and improve them so that our apps and news channels are even more precise. Not only that, but you may also find yourself researching the effects of climate change from the data that you analyse, and maybe even how the weather affects the spread of pollution and disease. Meteorologists get paid a modest salary of around £32,000 per year, which may seem small when compared to that of a quant, but the quality of life is far more generous than some careers in finance. To conclude In conclusion, statistics, once a perplexing subject for many, can offer an exciting and rewarding career. From the meticulous work of actuaries, assessing risks and financial decisions, to the world of quantitative analysts, where every millisecond counts, and even to the indispensable role of meteorologists, who help us navigate the weather and climate change, statistics holds the power to transform lives and industries. As we've explored, statistics is not just about numbers and formulas; it's about making sense of the world, predicting outcomes, and creating informed decisions. So, whether you're a seasoned statistician or someone who, like me, once felt lost in its complexities, remember that statistics isn't merely a subject to conquer—it's a key that unlocks doors to some of the most intriguing and well-compensated careers out there. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

Role and function in the body Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Vitamins 14/07/25, 15:11 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 12:59 Role and function in the body Vitamins are organic compounds which are not snythesised by organisms. They play a vital role in optimal health to allow for normal cell function, growth and development. There are thirteen essential vitamins: ● Vitamin A - important for eyesight and also strengthens immune systems. ● Vitamin C - important for the health of the immune system and helps produce collagen and helps with wound healing. ● Vitamin D - important for bone health and maintaining immune system functionality. ● Vitamin E - is an antioxidant that helps prevent cell damage and has a preventative role in cancer. Makes red blood cells. ● Vitamin K - allows for blood to clot and plays a role in bone health. ● Vitamin B1 (thiamine) - used to keep muscle tissue and nerves healthy. ● Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) - important for body growth and red blood production. ● Vitamin B3 (niacin/ nicotinic acid) - important for digestion and the digestive system health. ● Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid/ pantothenate)- important for producing red blood cells and maintaining a healthy digestive system. ● Vitamin B6 (pyridoxin) - helps make brain chemicals and for normal brain function. ● Vitamin B7 (biotin) - needed for metabolism. ● Vitamin B9 (folate/ folic acid) - important for brain function and mental health. ● Vitamin B12 (cobolamine) - important for the nervous system and helps in production of DNA and RNA. They are mostly obtained from the foods we eat but some vitamins like K and biotin are produced by microorganisms in the intestine commonly known as ‘gut flora’. Vitamins are needed in very small quantities. They are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. They can also contain nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. Vitamin deficiencies Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamins in its food such as metabolic causes. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder e.g due to lifestyle choices like smoking, excess alcohol consumption or medication that interacts with vitamins. There can be times where one experiences deficiencies and thus it is important to acquire the necessary vitamins through foods, supplements or medication. Sources of vitamins There are many good food sources which provide your body with all the vitamins needed to work properly: ● Oily fish such as salmon, herring and mackerel ● Red meat ● Egg yolk ● Milk and yoghurt ● Cheese ● Nuts and seeds ● Plant-based oils such as olive and rapeseed ● Green leafy vegetables such as broccoli and spinach and a lot more…. This article does not provide any medical advice so please do seek advice from your doctor if you have any further queries. Further information can be found here . Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: Probiotics / Food at the molecular level / Rising food prices Project Gallery

Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Latent space transformations 21/08/25, 15:53 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 16:42 Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Getting machines to understand the information we want to give it is quite the task. Especially, given the level of complexity of the information we give it. For example, when trying to process an image for classification algorithms, how does the algorithm recognise the paws of a dog or the curvature of a boat? We need to simplify the information for simpler processing and manipulation. Similar to how you would take summarised notes in a lecture instead of copying everything. While information is lost, the key features are kept. That is where the term “ latent space ” comes in. What are latent spaces? In the realm of mathematics, various types of spaces play crucial roles. One such space is the linear space, which encompasses the number line—a fundamental construct. Then there's Euclidean space, a broader category that encompasses 2D, 3D, and higher-dimensional spaces. However, as the number of dimensions increases, the mathematical intricacies become exceedingly complex, often pushing the limits of computational feasibility. In a latent space transformation, we essentially reduce the dimensions of the space in which the data exists and create an abstract representation of the key features in a lower dimension space. This has a host of benefits with the main one being a reduction in the compute power needed to process the data. It’s an example of data compression and a direct instance of dimension reduction with neither being new concepts. Example: auto-encoders Auto-encoders are a type of neural network. They consist of an encoder-to-decoder architecture (see image with caption). The transformation allows us to process and store the input data more efficiently. In addition, once trained, auto-encoders can sample data from the latent space to generate new data points also called data generation of a synthetic nature. Other applications of latent space Now that we can store our information more effectively for computers to understand, there are a host of applications for the technique you might want to be aware of: - Natural Language Processing: Latent space models have been used in natural language processing for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. - Audio Processing: Latent space models have been used for music analysis, speech recognition, and audio processing. - Computer Vision: This we have partially discussed already. - Anomaly Detection: Latent space models can be used to recognise security failures in cybersecurity, or potentially fraud in the financial system. The applications of data reduction would be endless but those are just few applications in technology right now. Written by Temi Abbass Related articles: Markov chains / Evolution of AI / Study on brain metastasis Project Gallery

Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Animal ethics: the good, the bad, and the ugly? 23/10/25, 10:20 Last updated: Published: 09/06/24, 11:07 Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide Many research trials involve using animals, specifically those labelled as ‘model organisms’. This refers to species of animals that are desirable for scientific research as they are usually cost-effective, easily manipulated, and well understood in terms of their genetic background. Good knowledge of their genetic background allows for these experiments to be applied with the intention of human benefit. Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide, albeit with various degrees of severity. One of the strictest regions when it comes to animal legislation is the United Kingdom. The Animal Scientific Procedures Act 1986 protects the use of animals in the UK; they, do this by only licensing trusted individuals and experiments that follow the principle of the ‘3Rs’. This principle aims to; r educe the number of animals used r efine procedures to reduce pain r eplace experiments on animals with artificial systems such as cell cultures. Research by Byron Blagburn and coworkers had some controversy as they tested four commercially available heartworm preventatives in dogs, as they first had to infect them. This parasitic worm that was infected in the dogs is extremely severe and life-threatening. The point of the experiment was to see which was the most effective treatment, and they did find that the combination of imidacloprid and moxidectin was 100% effective at eradicating the infection. Despite this research being approved by the Auburn University, Alabama USA Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, many ethical principles were breached. As the dogs had no choice but to participate in the experiment which completely disregards the autonomy of the dogs. However, Byron and his colleagues would counteract that argument by saying they acted with beneficence as the study’s intention was to find out what was the best treatment for the dogs to improve their health. But for this beneficence to be achieved, non-maleficence was broken as the dogs were given parasitic infections that inflicted pain. Unfortunately, according to the DxE investigators (Direct Action Everywhere), after 5 months the dogs were euthanised. Although the researchers defended the morality of their study by pointing out that all treatments were already in commerce, some have argued that the infection of a previously healthy dog with a parasite is morally wrong. Many religions and groups oppose the use of animals in research as they value animal life as much as human life. Buddhists, for example, believe that animals have moral significance, as the Buddha condemns occupations that involve harming animals and encourages his followers to help animals where they can. While many groups stand against this research, most of our findings and medicine today would not be available without the contribution of animals. According to the American Medical Association: Virtually every advance in medical science in the 20th century, from antibiotics and vaccines to antidepressant drugs and organ transplants, has been achieved either directly or indirectly through the use of animals in laboratory experiments. Thus, showing how important the use of animals is in terms of medical advancements and improvement of human life. One of the most vocal groups is People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA): PETA is an organisation advocating for animal rights and strongly opposing many of the current research studies. For example, the research of sepsis is undertaken at many universities like Pittsburgh and California involves puncturing of mice intestines while awake and then stitching multiple of these punctured mice together. This then leads to the excruciating death of these animals. Now, this has aided in the knowledge of sepsis and potential treatment. However, the autonomy of the animals is disregarded whilst the researchers act with maleficence. Therefore in 2024 we are at a vital stage with animal experimentation as the intention is for improving health and can be argued to be necessary for the advancing medicine for humans and animals. Nevertheless, religious groups and animal rights groups believe that justice is not being served as the animals are subject to harm without a choice. Despite the advancements of artificial systems such as organ-on-a-chip (OOC) - multi-channel 3-D microfluidic cell culture that simulates the activities, mechanics and physiological response of an entire organ or an organ system, the findings of animal studies are required before trialling within humans. When artificial systems improve and become more available there could be a world where animal studies are limited or non-existent to please animal rights activists and still aid the enhancements of modern-day medicine. Written by Harvey Wilkes Related articles: Regulation and policy of stem cell research / Miniature organs in biomedicine REFERENCES Blagburn, B.L., Arther, R.G., Dillon, A.R., Butler, J.M., Bowles, J.V., von Simson, C. and Zolynas, R., 2016. Efficacy of four commercially available heartworm preventive products against the JYD-34 laboratory strain of Dirofilaria immitis. Parasites & vectors, 9, pp.1-10. Mice stitched together, injected with bacteria-take action! (no date) PETA. Available at: https://support.peta.org/page/6980/action/1?locale=en-US (Accessed: 29 May 2024). Project Gallery

Insight into the different stages Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A deep dive into ovarian cancer 03/07/25, 10:24 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 14:41 Insight into the different stages Introduction Ovarian cancer occurs when abnormal cells in the ovary begin to grow and divide uncontrollably ; this may lead to tumour formation. According to Cancer Research UK , there are around 7,500 new cases of ovarian cancer each year - that is around 21 a day. This makes ovarian cancer the 6th most common cancer in females in the UK, as it makes up around 4% of all cancer cases. Nevertheless, a total of around 11% of all ovarian cancer cases are thought to be preventable. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of ovarian cancer including the risk factors, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Diagnostics At present, there is no screening test specific for ovarian cancer. Hence, this often leads to late-stage diagnosis, which results in death or high rates of recurrence within ten years of initial diagnosis, should remission be reached. Initial diagnostic testing includes transvaginal ultrasonography and serum cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) level testing. Transvaginal Ultrasonography This type of imaging is used to assess the overall architecture and vascularity of the ovaries as well as to differentiate cystic from solid masses and detect ascites (a collection of fluid within abdominal spaces). The sensitivity (a tests ability to correctly identify if an individual has a disease) and specificity (a tests ability to correct identify individuals who do not have a disease) for distinguishing malignant lesions using this type of imaging is 86% - 94%. Blood Testing Complete blood count, as well as liver function tests, calcium, and serum biomarkers, are often obtained if ovarian cancer is suspected. CA 125 is the most commonly tested biomarker. However, its usefulness in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer depends on the stage of the disease at the time of testing. CA 125 is elevated in around 80% of epithelial ovarian cancers overall. However, it is only elevated in around 50% of early-stage epithelial ovarian cancers. This biomarker may also rise in conditions such as fibroids and endometriosis. Other biomarkers involved include human epididymis protein 4 (HE4), a glycoprotein expressed in about 1/3rd of ovarian cancers that lack elevated CA125. Biomarkers for non-epithelial cancers include inhibin A/B for sex-cord stromal tumours and serum α-fetoprotein and quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin for germ cell tumours. Staging Ovarian cancer is often categorised using the FIGO (1 – 4 staging) system, named after the International Federation of Gynaecological Oncologists. Stage 1 Stage one ovarian cancer means that the cancer is only located in the ovaries and is further divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 1A : the cancer is entirely confined within a singular ovary Stage 1B : the cancer is entirely confined within both ovaries Stage 1C is split into 3 subgroups: Stage 1C1 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures during a surgical procedure Stage 1C2 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and the ovary ruptures before a surgical procedure or there is evidence of cancer on the surface of the ovary Stage 1C3 : the cancer is present in one or both ovaries and cancer cells are detected in the fluid collected from the abdominal cavity during surgery These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 1 at the end of the text. Stage 2 Stage 2 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the ovaries and is growing within the pelvis. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website the two groups are. Stage 2A : the cancer has extended its growth into either the fallopian tubes or the womb Stage 2B : the cancer has infiltrated surrounding tissues within the pelvic region such as the bladder or the bowel These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 2 at the end of the text. Stage 3 Stage 3 ovarian cancer means the cancer has grown outside the pelvis into the abdominal cavity or lymph nodes. It is divided into three groups. According to the CRUK website the three groups are: Stage 3A is divided into two subgroups: Stage 3A1 : the cancer has infiltrated lymph nodes in the rear of the abdomen Stage 3A2 : there are cancer cells detected in tissue samples taken from the peritoneum, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3B : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure up to 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes Stage 3C : Cancerous growths are present on the peritoneum that measure over 2 cm in size, cancer may also be present within the lymph nodes These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 at the end of the text. Stage 4 Stage 4 ovarian cancer means the cancer has metastatic and has spread to organs some distance away from the ovaries. It is divided into two groups. According to the CRUK website, the two groups are: Stage 4A : the cancer has induced a build-up of fluid in the pleura Stage 4B : the cancer has infiltrated various locations throughout the body including the interior of the liver or spleen, lymph nodes outside the abdominal region and any other organ within the body These groups can be further illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6 at the end of the text. Types of Ovarian Cancers There are three known types of ovarian cancer: epithelial, germ cell ovarian tumours and sex cord-stromal tumours. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common type of cancer. According to Cancer Research UK , about 90% of all ovarian tumours are epithelial. In this type of ovarian cancer, cancer starts in the surface layer covering the ovary. There are four stages of epithelial ovarian cancer - stages 1 to 4. Type Summary High-grade serous tumours ● 90% of all tumour tumours ● 10-year mortality rate of roughly 70% Low-grade serous tumours ● 10% of all tumour types ● Diagnosed at a younger age; better prognosis than high-grade serous tumours Endometrioid carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● Good prognosis; mostly diagnosed at an early stage and are low-grade Clear cell carcinomas ● Origins linked to endometriosis ● 10% of epithelial ovarian cancers; rare form ● Often diagnosed in early stages. Late diagnosis has a poor prognosis. Mucinous carcinoma ● Least common form of epithelial ovarian cancer ● Origins linked with metastasis from gastrointestinal tract Table 1. Types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Germ Cell Ovarian Cancers Germ cell ovarian tumours are rare as they make up only 3% of ovarian cancer cases. They have a younger age of diagnosis with the average age being between 10 and 30 years old. Germ cell ovarian tumours can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous) Sex Cord-Stromal Tumours Sex cord-stromal tumours (SCSTs) are rare tumours of the ovary that originate in tissues that support the ovaries, known as the stroma or the sex cords. SCSTs account for around 5% of all ovarian cancer cases and are often diagnosed early. There are three main groups of SCSTs: Pure stromal tumours such as fibromas and thecomas. These are mainly benign. Pure sex cord tumours such as adult and juvenile granulosa cell tumours. These are the most common types of SCSTs and are malignant. Mixed sex cord-stromal tumours such as Sertoli-Leydig cell tumours. These can be either malignant or benign. Symptoms Historically, the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer are non-specific and vague. The most common presenting symptoms in women are: Swelling or bloating of the abdomen Feel full quickly when eating Unexplained weight loss Pelvic and or abdominal pain or discomfort Unexplained fatigue A frequent need to urinate Changes in bowel habits or IBS symptoms The most common presenting symptom in children and adolescents is persistent abdominal pain. However, precocious puberty, irregular periods or hirsutism (excessive hair growth) may also be present. Due to the non-specific nature of these symptoms, many women will not get them checked by a doctor. It is still vitally important for a person to get any non-typical symptoms checked out by a doctor. Early diagnosis will lead to better outcomes. Treatment There are a variety of different treatment options for ovarian cancer. The treatment an individual undergoes is dependent on the size and location of the cancer as well as if it is metastatic. Debulking Surgery Debulking is a type of cytoreductive surgery that aims to remove as much cancer as possible if it has spread to areas within the pelvis and abdomen. This type of surgery is a mainstay of ovarian cancer treatment as most cases are more advanced in staging when initially diagnosed. Generally, debulking surgery is used on cancer that has spread widely throughout the abdomen and its goal is to do ‘optimal cytoreduction’, meaning no visible cancer is left behind or, if removing all visible disease is not possible, lesions less than 1cm in size are left. Hysterectomy For most women, a hysterectomy is the first-line treatment for ovarian cancer. The surgery removes the womb (including the cervix) as well as both ovaries and fallopian tubes and is known as a total abdominal hysterectomy (TAH) and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO) . This procedure is further illustrated by Figure 7 at the end of the text. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer drugs to destroy cancer. These drugs circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream. In the treatment of ovarian cancer, chemotherapy can be given before, during or after surgery. The most commonly used drugs are carboplatin and paclitaxel. However, these are not the only options. Chemotherapy is typically used in the treatment of ovarian cancer if the cancer is: ● Stage 1C or above ● Stage 1A or 1B but is high grade ● Has come back (recurrence) Medication Route of administration Stage treated Duration Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous I 21 days Paclitaxel and cisplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous or intraperitoneal II, III, IV 21 days Dose-dense paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 7 days Docetaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Carboplatin and liposomal doxorubicin Intravenous II, III, IV 28 days Bevacizumab with paclitaxel and carboplatin Intravenous II, III, IV 21 days Table 2. Commonly used chemotherapy drugs for ovarian cancer Radiotherapy Radiotherapy involves the use of high-energy X-rays to destroy ovarian cancer cells. It is not the main treatment of ovarian cancer and is often used to try and shrink the size of tumours or to reduce the symptoms of advanced ovarian cancer. This is known as palliative radiotherapy . Targeted Therapies Cancer-targeting drugs change how a cell works by acting on cellular processes or by modifying cell signalling. They stimulate the body to attack or control cancer cell growth. These drugs are a form of palliative treatment. The two most common drugs are olaparib and bevacizumab. Olparib Olaparib (Lynparza) belongs to a drug type known as cancer growth blockers. It acts on PARP (poly ADP-ribose polymerase); a protein that helps damaged cells repair and regenerate themselves. Olaparib inhibits PARP from working. Bevacizumab Bevacizumab (Avastin) belongs to a drug type known as anti-angiogenesis treatments. It targets VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) proteins. VEGFs aid in cancer cell growth as they help cancers develop their blood supplies, meaning they can become self-sufficient. Bevacizumab blocks VEGF proteins from working, which cuts off the blood supply that feeds the cancer, ultimately starving it and preventing its growth. Risk Factors Modifiable Nonmodifiable Smoking BRCA1 and/ord BRCA2 mutation carrier Hormone Replacement Therapy (particularly for more than five years) Family predisposition/history Obesity Lynch syndrome Endometriosis Uninterrupted ovulation cycles Ethnicity/race Table 3. Ovarian cancer risk factors Genetic Syndromes Familial genetic syndromes are the strongest known risk factor for the development of ovarian cancers, as they account for around 10% - 12% of all cases. Table 4 which is taken from the paper ‘Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer’ by Doubeni et al (2016) illustrates genetic syndromes known to have an increased risk of ovarian cancer. Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome (HBOC) Mutations of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are primarily associated with a genetic risk of developing ovarian cancer and can increase the risk from 1.6% to 40% ( BRCA1 ) and 1.6% to 18% ( BRCA2 ). This syndrome should be considered if a woman has close blood relative with a diagnosis of ovarian or breast cancer by the age of 50. Lynch Syndrome Although less common, Lynch syndrome is also linked to the development of ovarian cancer as it is involved in 2% - 3% of cases. Lynch syndrome is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder in which there is a mutation that increases the risk for certain cancers, specifically colorectal cancer, as well as increases the risk for other malignancies. Ovulation Ovulation is directly linked to the risk of ovarian cancer. Studies have shown that the more ovulatory cycles a woman has, the higher her risk of developing ovarian cancer. This may be due to the pro-inflammatory response from the distal fallopian tube during ovulation, which is known to promote malignant ovarian tendencies. Assuming this is true, factors that interrupt or prevent ovulation, such as contraception, early onset menses, pregnancy, breastfeeding and early menopause, could decrease a woman’s risk of developing ovarian cancer. Endometriosis Endometriosis, a disease in which tissue similar to the uterine lining grows outside the uterus, is known to be linked to some types of epithelial ovarian cancers. Endometriosis-associated epithelial ovarian cancers tend to develop in younger women and have an overall better prognosis. -- Where to seek help if affected by this article... F or support and more information regarding ovarian cancer: Macmillan Cancer Research If you or somebody you know have been affected by this article, help is always available: Mind and Samaritans -- Written by Lily Manns Related articles: A breakthrough drug discovery process in cancer treatment / Immune signals and metastasis / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Reference guide Cancer Research. Ovarian Cancer Statistics: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/statistics-by-cancer-type/ovarian-c ancer Cancer Research. Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: https://about-cancer.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/types/epithelial-ovarian-cancers/ep ithelial Cancer Research. Stages and grades of ovarian cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/stages-grades Elsevier. Ovarian Cancer: An integrated review: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749208119300129?via%3Dihub American Family Physician. Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Cancer: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2016/0601/p937.html Cancer Research. Treatment for Ovarian Cancer: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/ovarian-cancer/treatment Project Gallery

Nuclear medicine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Physics in healthcare 10/07/25, 10:28 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:47 Nuclear medicine When thinking about a career or what to study in university, many students interested in science think that they have to decide between a more academic route or something more vocational, such as medicine. Whilst both paths are highly rewarding, it is possible to mix the two. An example of this is nuclear medicine, allowing physics students to become healthcare professionals. Nuclear medicine is an area of healthcare that involves introducing a radioactive isotope into the system of a patient in order to image their body. A radioactive isotope is an unstable nucleus that decays and emits radiation. This radiation can then be detected, usually by a tool known as a gamma camera. It sounds dangerous, however it is a fantastic tool that allows us to identify abnormalities, view organs in motion and even prevent further spreading of tumours. So, how does the patient receive the isotope? It depends on the scan they are having! The most common route is injection but it is also possible for the patient to inhale or swallow the isotope. Some hospitals give radioactive scrambled eggs or porridge to the patient in gastric emptying imaging. The radioisotope needs to obey some conditions: ● It must have a reasonable half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for the isotope to decay to half of the original activity. If the half-life is too short, the scan will be useless as nothing will be seen. If it is too long, the patient will be radioactive and spread radiation into their immediate surroundings for a long period of time. ● The isotope must be non-toxic. It cannot harm the patient! ● It must be able to biologically attach to the area of the body that is being investigated. If we want to look at bones, there is no point in giving the patient an isotope that goes straight to the stomach. ● It must have radiation of suitable energy. The radiation must be picked up by the cameras and they will be designed to be most efficient over a specific energy range. For gamma cameras, this is around 100-200 keV. Physicists are absolutely essential in nuclear medicine. They have to understand the properties of radiation, run daily quality checks to ensure the scanners are working, they must calibrate devices so that the correct activity of radiation is being given to patients and so much more. It is essential that the safety of patients and healthcare professionals is the first priority when it comes to radiation. With the right people on the job, safety and understanding is the priority of daily tasks. Nuclear medicine is indeed effective and is implemented into standard medicine thanks to the work of physicists. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Nuclear fusion / The silent protectors / Radiotherapy Project Gallery

Diving deep Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The science and controversy of water fluoridation 14/07/25, 15:02 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 17:00 Diving deep In the pursuit of national strategies to improve oral health, few interventions have sparked as much debate and divided opinions as water fluoridation. Whilst some have voiced concerns about water fluoridation in recent years, viewing it as mass medicalisation and an intrusion into personal choice, researchers and dental professionals continue to champion its benefits as a cost-effective, population-wide approach that can significantly reduce tooth decay and enhance the oral health of communities across the country. The statistics from 2021-2022 paint a concerning picture, with a staggering 26,741 extractions performed on 0-19-year-olds under the NHS due to preventable tooth decay, amounting to an estimated cost of £50 million. With the NHS bearing the responsibility of providing dental care to millions of people nationwide, the introduction of water fluoridation stands out as a promising ally in the quest for more efficient healthcare and the alleviation of the burden on our already-strained healthcare system, all while improving dental health in a cost-effective manner. Fluoride is a naturally occurring chemical element found in soil, plants and groundwater, which can reduce dental decay through a dual mechanism; fluoridating water reduces dental decay by both impeding demineralisation of enamel and enhancing remineralisation of teeth following acid attacks in the mouth. When sugars from food or drinks enter the mouth, the bacteria present in plaque act to convert these sugars to acid, demineralising the outer surface of teeth and leading to the formation of cavities. The incorporation of fluoride into the structure of tooth enamel during remineralisation strengthens and hardens the outer layer of teeth, rendering teeth less susceptible to damage and more resistant to acid-induced demineralisation. Moreover, fluoride has also been proven to reverse early tooth decay by repairing and remineralising weakened enamel, thus averting the need for restorative dental procedures such as fillings. The inhibition of demineralisation and encouragement of remineralisation overall prevents cavities forming and preserves the vitality of our smiles. The main adverse effect of fluoridating water is the risk of dental fluorosis, which affects the appearance of teeth. Dental fluorosis is a cosmetic dental condition caused by excessive fluoride exposure, resulting in changes in tooth colour and texture. It presents as small opaque white spots or streaks on the tooth surface. It is important to note that these conditions generally occur at fluoride levels significantly higher than those recommended for water fluoridation. Opponents of water fluoridation also argue on ethical grounds, citing concerns about mass medication infringing on personal choice and the right to decide whether to use fluoride or dental products containing fluoride. In some cases, opposition is rooted in conspiracy theories and scepticism about government motives. Findings from the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities and the UK Health Security Agency highlight the benefits of water fluoridation. The data collected illustrates young populations in areas of England with higher fluoride concentrations are up to 63% less likely to be admitted to hospital for tooth extractions due to decay compared to their counterparts in areas of lower fluoridation levels. This disparity is most pronounced in the most deprived areas, where children and young adults benefit the most from the addition of fluoride to the water supply. These findings strongly support the evidence for the advantages of water fluoridation and highlight how this simple method can substantially improve health outcomes for our population. While fluoridation has proven beneficial for communities, especially those from deprived backgrounds, it has demonstrated successful outcomes for individuals across all demographics, irrespective of age, education, employment, or oral hygiene habits. It's essential to emphasize that water fluoridation should not replace other essential oral health practices such as regular tooth brushing, prudent sugar intake, and dental appointments. Instead, it should complement these practices, working in synergy to optimize oral health. As of now, approximately 10% of the population in England receives water from a fluoridation scheme. While the protective and beneficial effects of fluoridation are well-established, the decision to move towards a nationwide water fluoridation scheme ultimately rests with the Secretary of State for Health in the coming years. Written by Isha Parmar Project Gallery