Uncovering the role of IGF2BP1 in neuroblastoma and its potential as a therapeutic target Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Novel neuroblastoma driver: a potential target for therapeutics Last updated: 24/06/25, 15:16 Published: 03/07/25, 08:00 Uncovering the role of IGF2BP1 in neuroblastoma and its potential as a therapeutic target Introduction Neuroblastoma is a complicated cancer of the nervous system that primarily affects children, particularly those under the age of five. It is characterised by the development of tumours originating from neural crest cells involved in the formation of the adrenal glands and sympathetic nervous system. As the most common extracranial solid tumour in infancy and childhood, neuroblastoma represents a significant challenge in paediatric oncology due to its complex biology and variable prognosis. Recent advancements have brought hope by identifying a novel genetic driver, IGF2BP1 , implicated in the aggressive progression of the disease. The University Medicine Halle team's breakthrough in pinpointing IGF2BP1 's role is significant. It paves the way for understanding the molecular underpinnings of neuroblastoma. Additionally, it opens the door to potentially transformative targeted therapies. By elucidating the mechanisms through which IGF2BP1 drives tumour growth—specifically through its interaction with oncogenes such as MYCN —researchers are making significant progress. They are closer than ever to devising strategies that could arrest the disease's development. This progress could significantly improve patient outcomes. The importance of this discovery cannot be overblown, as it provides a crucial target for therapeutic intervention, potentially leading to the development of more effective, less toxic treatments. This is a significant step towards not only enhancing survival rates but also the quality of life for affected children worldwide. IGF2BP1: a key player in neuroblastoma and potentially other tumours The IGF2BP1 gene has emerged as a crucial element in neuroblastoma pathogenesis. It functions as an RNA-binding protein that enhances the stability and translation of mRNA transcripts. These transcripts encode oncogenic proteins, significantly impacting tumour behaviour. Oncogenes are genes that have the potential to cause cancer by promoting uncontrolled cell division and tumour growth. The activation of IGF2BP1 leads to the increased expression of several key oncogenes, including BIRC5 and MYCN. These are known to drive the growth and malignancy of neuroblastoma cells. This discovery marks a substantial leap in understanding the molecular dynamics at play within neuroblastoma cells, offering a novel avenue for targeted intervention. By stabilising and enhancing the translation of mRNA transcripts encoding these oncogenic proteins, IGF2BP1 plays a crucial role in promoting tumour growth and malignancy. Understanding this interaction provides a strategic point of intervention, potentially leading to targeted therapies that could inhibit the harmful effects of IGF2BP1 and significantly improve patient outcomes. Moreover, the IGF2BP1 role extends beyond neuroblastoma. Its expression has been detected in various other cancers, where it similarly promotes tumour growth and survival. For example, IGF2BP1 has been implicated in the progression of colorectal, breast, and lung cancers, suggesting a broader oncogenic role. This consistent pattern across different cancers underscores its potential as a universal therapeutic target. The broad impact of IGF2BP1 on multiple tumour types also highlights the potential for developing cross-cancer therapeutic strategies. By targeting IGF2BP1 , it may be possible to design treatments that are effective against multiple forms of cancer, thus maximising the impact of research and development efforts in oncology. This could lead to the creation of a new class of anticancer drugs that inhibit IGF2BP1 , offering hope to patients with various malignancies. However, targeting this gene presents challenges. IGF2BP1 is involved in beneficial processes such as normal cell growth and repair. For instance, it plays a role in stabilising mRNA during cell division, which is crucial for tissue regeneration. Inhibiting IGF2BP1 might impair these processes, leading to issues such as poor wound healing or reduced immune function. Additionally, its inhibition could potentially affect other normal cellular functions, posing a risk of unintended side effects. Thus, while targeting IGF2BP1 holds promise, understanding its role in healthy cells is essential to developing therapies that are both effective and safe. Research into IGF2BP1’s mechanisms has also revealed that it might be instrumental in initiating an “oncogene storm”. This is a rapid and intense expression of oncogenes that drives aggressive tumour growth. It also leads to resistance to conventional therapies. Conventional therapies typically refer to standard cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery. For example, chemotherapy drugs like doxorubicin and cisplatin are designed to kill rapidly dividing cells, but the oncogene storm can enable tumour cells to become resistant to these drugs by enhancing their survival mechanisms. Similarly, radiation therapy aims to damage the DNA of cancer cells, but the increased expression of oncogenes can repair this damage more effectively, allowing the tumour to persist. This understanding provides a crucial insight into how cancer cells exploit molecular mechanisms to thrive and evade treatment, thereby pointing to strategic points of intervention. Current research is exploring how targeted therapies can be developed to specifically inhibit the effects of the oncogene storm, potentially overcoming resistance to these conventional treatments. This understanding provides a crucial insight into how cancer cells exploit molecular mechanisms to thrive and evade treatment, thereby pointing to strategic points of intervention. MYCN’s role in neuroblastoma: a pivotal transcriptional driver MYCN is a member of the MYC family of transcription factors, which play critical roles in cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and cellular transformation. In neuroblastoma, MYCN is particularly notorious for its strong association with high-risk disease and poor clinical outcomes, making it a main point of cancer research. High-risk disease in neuroblastoma is characterised by factors such as advanced stage at diagnosis, unfavourable histology, and the presence of MYCN amplification. For example, Stage 4 neuroblastoma, where the cancer has spread to distant lymph nodes, bone, bone marrow, liver, skin, or other organs, is considered high-risk. Poor clinical outcomes in these cases often include a lower survival rate and a higher likelihood of relapse after treatment. Studies have shown that children with MYCN -amplified neuroblastoma have a significantly lower 5-year survival rate compared to those without MYCN amplification. This is because MYCN amplification drives rapid tumour growth and metastasis, making the cancer more aggressive and difficult to treat. Additionally, these patients often exhibit resistance to conventional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation, which further complicates treatment and negatively impacts prognosis. Specific examples of poor clinical outcomes include frequent relapses and the development of resistance to multiple lines of therapy. Despite intensive treatment regimens, including high-dose chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant and radiation therapy, the overall survival rate for high-risk neuroblastoma remains below 50%. This bare reality underscores the critical need for novel therapeutic strategies that can effectively target MYCN and improve outcomes for patients with high-risk neuroblastoma. In general, MYCN amplifies in approximately 20% to 25% of neuroblastoma cases, leading to a dramatic increase in its protein expression. This overexpression is a known marker for aggressive disease and has been linked to rapid tumour progression and resistance to standard therapies. Standard therapies for neuroblastoma typically include a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. For instance, chemotherapy drugs such as cyclophosphamide and vincristine are commonly used to shrink tumours before surgical removal. However, the overexpression of MYCN can enhance the tumour’s ability to repair DNA damage caused by these treatments, making them less effective. Radiation therapy, which uses high-energy particles to destroy cancer cells, also becomes less effective as MYCN overexpression promotes survival pathways within the cells. The interaction between MYCN and IGF2BP1 creates a formidable axis that drives the malignant characteristics of neuroblastoma cells. Functionally, MYCN amplifies the effects of IGF2BP1 by synergising its activity. This synergy is evident in their mutual enhancement of oncogenic signalling pathways. MYCN enhances the transcription of numerous genes involved in cellular proliferation and survival. While IGF2BP1 stabilises the mRNAs of these genes, ensuring their sustained expression and activity within the cell. This interaction not only accelerates tumour growth but also contributes to the genomic instability that is characteristic of high-risk neuroblastoma. Besides, the role of MYCN extends beyond merely amplifying gene expression. It fundamentally alters the cellular landscape by modulating the expression of genes involved in metabolism, differentiation, and angiogenesis, thus shaping the tumour microenvironment to favour cancer growth and metastasis. Recent studies have also uncovered MYCN ’s role in repressing the transcription of genes involved in cellular differentiation, thereby maintaining the cells in a more primitive, stem-like state that is conducive to cancer progression. The discovery of the “oncogene storm”, a phenomenon triggered by the cooperative action of MYCN and IGF2BP1 , highlights the critical need for targeted therapeutic strategies that can disrupt this deleterious synergy. By focusing on this interaction, researchers aim to develop novel treatments that can more effectively curb the aggressive nature of MYCN -amplified neuroblastoma. The potential for therapeutic intervention The discovery of the IGF2BP1 and MYCN interaction not only deepens our understanding of neuroblastoma pathogenesis but also marks a significant step towards developing targeted therapeutic interventions. The small molecule BTYNB , which disrupts this interaction, has shown promising results in preclinical studies. By inhibiting the oncogene-enhancing effect of IGF2BP1 on MYCN , BTYNB effectively reduces tumour growth and could potentially improve the efficacy of existing treatment protocols. Current research is exploring the application of BTYNB in combination with other therapeutic agents. Combining BTYNB with existing chemotherapy drugs or novel targeted therapies may enhance treatment efficacy and prevent the onset of resistance. This combinatorial approach could be particularly effective in high-risk neuroblastoma cases, where conventional treatments often fall short. Additionally, understanding the pharmacodynamics and optimising the dosing schedule of BTYNB are critical areas of ongoing research to maximise its therapeutic potential and minimise side effects. This includes studying how the drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolised, and excreted in the body to ensure optimal efficacy. For instance, researchers are investigating the timing and dosage that maximise tumour reduction while minimising toxicity. Examples include adjusting the frequency of administration to maintain therapeutic levels and combining BTYNB with other agents to enhance its effects. These efforts aim to maximise its therapeutic potential and minimise side effects. Furthermore, the ability of BTYNB to impair tumour growth without the severe side effects associated with conventional chemotherapy presents an opportunity to reduce the treatment burden on patients. This aspect is crucial, especially in paediatric oncology, where the long-term health of young patients is a significant concern. Future therapeutic strategies could see BTYNB becoming part of a first-line treatment for neuroblastoma, either as a standalone therapy or in combination with other treatments. Future directions The ground-breaking discovery of the IGF2BP1 - MYCN interaction in neuroblastoma provides solid initial results with BTYNB , and the identification of IGF2BP1 as a key driver in neuroblastoma opens several avenues for future research. One critical area involves further elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying IGF2BP1 ’s influence on neuroblastoma progression. Continued research is necessary to dissect the finer details of the molecular pathways modulated by IGF2BP1 and MYCN . This includes understanding the downstream effects of their interaction and identifying other molecular players involved in the signalling cascade. Insights from such studies could reveal novel personalised therapeutic targets and help in designing drugs that can more precisely disrupt these pathways. Additionally, given the role of IGF2BP1 in various cancers, research should also explore its potential as a universal cancer target. Comparative studies across different cancer types could identify shared patterns of IGF2BP1 activity, offering opportunities to develop broad-spectrum anticancer strategies. Developing targeted delivery mechanisms that can direct BTYNB or other similar drugs specifically to neuroblastoma cells could significantly enhance therapeutic outcomes and reduce side effects. Research into nanoparticle-based delivery systems or conjugated molecules that seek out cancer-specific markers could be particularly fruitful. Additionally, investigating other compounds that can target IGF2BP1 or MYCN could provide alternative therapeutic options or complementary strategies to overcome resistance. Strategic integration of new therapies into existing treatment protocols needs careful planning. This includes determining the optimal sequencing of therapies and identifying which combinations are most effective for various subtypes of neuroblastoma based on genetic characteristics. Clinical trials are essential to transitioning laboratory findings to clinical applications. Designing and implementing rigorous clinical trials to test the efficacy and safety of BTYNB , both as a monotherapy and in combination with other therapies, is crucial. These trials should incorporate robust biomarker studies to tailor therapies based on genetic profiles and monitor patient responses more effectively. Lastly, addressing the challenge of drug delivery remains paramount. Developing drug delivery systems that can effectively target tumour sites with minimal off-target effects could improve the therapeutic index of treatments like BTYNB . Research in this area will not only benefit neuroblastoma patients but also advance the field of targeted cancer therapy in general. Importantly, given the young age of neuroblastoma patients, it is imperative to consider long-term outcomes and quality of life in therapeutic development. Efforts must be made to ensure that new treatments are not only effective but also minimise the long-term health impacts often associated with aggressive cancer therapies. Conclusion The identification of IGF2BP1 as a pivotal driver in the pathogenesis of neuroblastoma, particularly in concert with MYCN , marks a significant milestone in paediatric oncology. This discovery not only enhances our molecular understanding of one of the most challenging childhood cancers but also sets the stage for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies that could revolutionise treatment paradigms. The potential of BTYNB , a small molecule inhibitor that disrupts the IGF2BP1 - MYCN interaction, underscores the power of targeted therapy. In preclinical models, BTYNB has demonstrated a promising ability to inhibit tumour growth effectively and with fewer side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy. Such advancements herald a new era in treatment where therapy is not only about fighting the disease but also preserving the quality of life for the youngest patients. However, the journey from laboratory to clinic is filled with challenges that require innovative solutions and collaborative efforts. These challenges include ensuring the safety and efficacy of new treatments, overcoming drug resistance, and achieving precise delivery to tumour sites. The future of neuroblastoma treatment lies in the ability to refine these emerging therapies through rigorous research, optimise their delivery, and integrate them seamlessly into existing treatment protocols. Additionally, the exploration of IGF2BP1 's role across various cancer types may provide insights that transcend paediatric oncology, offering new hope for comprehensive cancer treatment strategies. As the research advances, it will be crucial to maintain a multidisciplinary approach, combining the expertise of molecular biologists, clinical researchers, and pharmacologists to ensure that these new discoveries translate into safe and effective treatments. The engagement of global health communities in these efforts will be essential to address the diverse and complex nature of cancer treatment across different populations. All in all, the path forward is marked by significant potential and profound responsibility—to continue the search for knowledge and to translate that knowledge into therapies that not only extend life but also enhance the lived experiences of patients during and after treatment. With continued dedication and innovation, the future for children battling neuroblastoma looks increasingly hopeful. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Cancer on the move (metastasis) REFERENCES Hagemann, S., Misiak, D., Bell, J. L., Fuchs, T., Lederer, M. I., Bley, N., Hämmerle, M., Ghazy, E., Sippl, W., Schulte, J. H., & Hüttelmaier, S. (2023). IGF2BP1 induces neuroblastoma via a druggable feedforward loop with MYCN promoting 17q oncogene expression. Molecular cancer , 22 (1), 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12943-023-01792-0 Liu, Y., Guo, Q., Yang, H., Zhang, X. W., Feng, N., Wang, J. K., Liu, T. T., Zeng, K. W., & Tu, P. F. (2022). Allosteric Regulation of IGF2BP1 as a Novel Strategy for the Activation of Tumor Immune Microenvironment. ACS central science , 8 (8), 1102–1115. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.2c00107 Project Gallery

The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Plastics and their environmental impact: a double-edged sword 10/07/25, 11:29 Last updated: Published: 06/11/24, 12:25 The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Plastics have become an indispensable part of modern life. They are found in everything from electronics and packaging to construction materials and medical equipment. These multipurpose materials, mostly derived from petrochemicals, are successful because they are inexpensive, lightweight, and long-lasting. However, one of the biggest environmental problems of our time is their resilience, which makes them so beneficial. The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration, which causes environmental damage and widespread contamination. The chemistry behind plastics Most plastics are composed of polymers, which are lengthy chains of monomers—repeating molecular units. Depending on how the molecules are arranged and the chemical additives added during synthesis, these polymers can be made to have a variety of characteristics, including stiffness or flexibility. Hydrocarbons from natural gas or crude oil are polymerised to create common plastics like polypropylene, which is used in food containers, and polyethene, which is used in plastic bags. While these plastics are ideal for their intended purposes —protecting products, storing food, and more, they are extremely resistant to degradation. This is due to their stable carbon-carbon bonds, which natural organisms and processes find difficult to break down. As a result, plastics can remain in the environment for hundreds of years, breaking down into tiny bits rather than entirely dissolving. See Figure 1 . The problem of micro-plastics Plastics in the environment degrade over time into tiny fragments known as microplastics, which are defined as particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter. These microplastics originate from a variety of sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris, microbeads used in personal care products, synthetic fibres shed from textiles and industrial processes. They are now widespread in every corner of the globe, from the deepest parts of the oceans to remote mountain ranges, the air we breathe, and even drinking water and food. Microplastics are particularly problematic in marine environments. Marine animals such as fish, birds, and invertebrates often mistake microplastics for food. Once ingested, these particles can accumulate in the animals' digestive systems, leading to malnutrition, physical damage, or even death. More concerning is the potential for these plastics to work their way up the food chain. Predators, including humans, may consume prey that has ingested microplastics, raising concerns about the potential effects on human health. Recent studies have detected microplastics in various human-consumed products, including seafood, table salt, honey, and drinking water. Alarmingly, microplastics have also been found in human organs, blood, and even placentas, highlighting the pervasive nature of this contamination. While the long-term environmental and health effects of microplastics are still not fully understood, research raises significant concerns. Microplastics can carry toxic substances such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, posing risks to the respiratory, immune, reproductive, and digestive systems. Exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact has been linked to DNA damage, inflammation, and other serious health issues. Biodegradable plastics: a possible solution? One possible solution to plastic pollution is the development of biodegradable plastics, which are engineered to degrade more easily in the environment. These plastics can be created from natural sources such as maize starch or sugarcane, which are turned into polylactic acid (PLA), or from petroleum-based compounds designed to disintegrate more quickly. However, biodegradable polymers do not provide a perfect answer. Many of these materials require certain circumstances, such as high heat and moisture, to degrade effectively. These conditions are more commonly encountered in industrial composting plants than in landfills or natural ecosystems. As a result, many biodegradable plastics can remain in the environment if not properly disposed of. Furthermore, their production frequently necessitates significant quantities of energy and resources, raising questions about whether they are actually more sustainable than traditional plastics. Innovations in plastic recycling Given the limitations of biodegradable polymers, improving recycling technology has become the main issue in the battle against plastic waste. Traditional recycling methods, like mechanical recycling, involve breaking down plastics and remoulding them into new products. However, this process can degrade the material's quality over time. However, this may compromise the material's quality over time. Furthermore, many types of plastics are difficult or impossible to recycle due to variances in chemical structure, contamination, or a lack of adequate machinery. Recent advances have been made to address these issues. Chemical recycling, for example, converts plastics back into their original monomers, allowing them to be re-polymerised into high-quality plastic. This technique has the ability to recycle materials indefinitely without compromising functionality. Another intriguing technique is enzymatic recycling, in which specially built-enzymes break down plastics into their constituent parts at lower temperatures, reducing the amount of energy required for the process. While these technologies provide hope, they are still in their early phases of development and face significant economic and logistical challenges. Expanding recycling infrastructure and developing more effective ways are critical to reduce the amount of plastic waste entering the environment. The way forward The environmental impact of plastics has inspired a global campaign to reduce plastic waste. Governments, industry, and consumers are taking action by prohibiting single-use plastics, increasing recycling efforts, and developing alternatives. However, addressing the plastic problem necessitates a multifaceted strategy. This includes advances in material science, improved waste management systems, and, perhaps most crucially, a transformation in how we perceive and utilise plastics in our daily lives. The chemistry of plastics is both fascinating and dangerous. While they have transformed businesses and increased quality of life, their long-term presence in the environment poses a substantial risk to ecosystems and human health. Rethinking how we make, use, and discard plastics in order to have a more sustainable relationship with these intricate polymers may be more important for the future of plastics than just developing new materials. Written by Laura K Related articles: Genetically-engineered bacteria break down plastic / The environmental impact of EVs Project Gallery

Resources such as: other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help! Aiding university students studying STEM subjects. Extra Resources A masterlist of other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help with your studies, research and revision. You may also like: A-level resources, IB resources, Entrance exam preparation, FREE CV and PS checks!, STEM book reviews Representation in STEM Sisterhood in STEM GENERAL INFORMATION Referencing guide: Cite Them Right Cite this for me ZoteroBib (fast, free reference generator) Phrasebank to help with essays Free notes and textbooks: Studocu Grammar checker: Grammarly (available as a browser extension) Money financing for students: Save the Student Others: New Scientist (print and online magazine) BBC iPlayer science and nature documentaries WEBSITES TO AID STUDIES Science and maths: MME Revise Cognito Resources Access Tuition Maths Genie LibreTexts: biology , chemistry , physics , maths , engineering , and medicine HELP WITH RESEARCH Databases: - PubMed - MEDLINE (by National Library of Medicine) - ScienceDirect - Web of Science - Literature search: Google Scholar - Participate in actual research: Zooniverse - citizen science - Top multi-disciplinary journal in the field: Nature PHARMACOLOGY AND RELATED Reference sites: - Pharmgkb - Drug Bank - Check which drugs are in trial Textbooks: - Katzung's Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, 16th edition by Todd Vanderah, PhD - The Top 100 Drugs: Clinical Pharmacology and Practical Prescribing by Andrew Hitchings, Daniel Burrage, Dagan Lonsdale and Emma Baker BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES TEXTBOOKS Biology: - Campbell & Reece - Molecular biology and genetics: Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition - Molecular Cell Biology by Lodish et al - Anatomy and physiology: Marieb - Principles of Animal Physiology by Moyes and Schulte - Animal Physiology by Hill, Wyse, and Anderson - Developmental Biology by Barresi and Gilbert - Cancer: The Biology of Cancer by Robert A. Weinberg Biochemistry: - Medical Biochemistry b y N. Mallikarjuna Rao Neuroscience: - Purves et. al - Kandel Immunology: - Immunobiology, 5th edition The Immune System in Health and Disease Genetics: - Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics and Genomics by Turnpenny & Ellard - Lewin’s Genes by Krebs, Goldstein, and Kilpatrick - Human Molecular Genetics by Strachan and Read CHEMISTRY TEXTBOOKS Physical chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Solid State Chemistry (Fourth Edition) by Lesley Smart and Elaine Moore Organic chemistry: - Jonathan Clayden Organic Chemistry (latest edition) Inorganic chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Housecroft Inorganic Chemistry (latest edition) - Electronic Structure (Basic Theory and Practical Methods) by Richard M. Martin PSYCHOLOGY Resources: - QMUL resource guides - Psychology Today - Royal Holloway activities and research - Verywell Mind - Two-minute Neuroscience - Amoeba Sisters (biology related) - Khan Academy (all STEM based) - TEDx Talk - Royal Society (range of science videos) - NumberPhile - patrickJMT (maths) - Tyler DeWitt (general chemistry) - Crash Course - Stanford Medicine (wellness) PHYSICS Resources: - Astronomy Picture of the Day - NASA STEM activities Textbooks- Foundational: - University Physics by Young and Freedman - Space, Time, and Geometry by Sean M. Classical electromagnetism: - Introduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths - Electricity and Magnetism by Morin and Purcell - ' SQUIDs, the Josephson Effects and Superconducting Electronics' by J.C Gallop Thermal physics & classical mechanics: - Introductory Statistical Mechanics by Bowley & Sanchez - Statistical Mechanics: A Survival Guide by Glazer & Wark - Concepts in Thermal Physics by Blundell and Blundell Quantum mechanics: - Introduction to Quantum Mechanics by Griffiths - Modern Quantum Mechanics (Third Edition) by J. J. Sakurai and Jim Napolitano Quantum field theory: - Quantam Field Theory for the Gifted Amateur by Tom Lancaster & Stephen J. Blundell - Condensed Matter Field Theory (Second Edition) by Alexander Altland and Ben Simons Particle physics: - Introduction to Elementary Particles by Griffiths Condensed matter physics: - Introduction to Solid State Physics by Mittel & McEuen - Solid State Physics by Ashcroft and Mermin - Condensed Matter Physics by Michael P. Marder - The Physics of Semiconductors: An Introduction Including Nanophysics and Applications by Marius Grundmann - Density Functional Theory by David S. Sholl and Janice A. Steckel MATHS Textbooks: - Mathematical Methods for Physicists and Engineers by Riley Benson and Hobson - Mathematics for Natural Scientists 1 and 2 by Lev Kantorovich - Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig - Thomas's Calculus by George B. Thomas - Mathematical Methods for Science students by G Stephenson - Contemporary Abstract Algebra by Joseph A. Gallian Read this article on how to excel in maths COMPUTER SCIENCE AND RELATED Resources: - Codeacademy - W3Schools ( has tutorials for HTML/ CSS/ Javascript, Python, Java, and many other languages) - Adacomputerscience - TeachComputing - Codewars (practise coding with your friends) - freeCodeCamp ENGINEERING Resources: - eFunda- formulae - Engineering statistics handbook - The Engineering Toolbox - free tools, calculators, and more - Engineers Edge - Online Ethics - ethics in engineering and science INFORMATIVE YOUTUBE CHANNELS

An exposé to the undisclosed condition Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast cancer in males 03/07/25, 11:26 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 16:51 An exposé to the undisclosed condition This is article no. 2 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Herpes vs devastating skin disease . Previous article: Rare zoonotic diseases . Following the breakthroughs and increasingly successful screening programmes in most recent years, breast cancer in women has become increasingly talked about. Throughout October, social media is filled with information on breast cancer in women, what to do if diagnosed, memorable fundraising events that will generate thousands of pounds, and the heartwarming stories of survivors and patients fighting against this horrible disease. In the UK, 1 in 7 females will be diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in their lifetime. If we look at other areas in the world, this statistic shifts significantly: in the USA 1 in 8 females will develop the condition, whilst in Japan, it is 1 in 38 females. Although the percentages of breast cancer incidence differ around the globe, they all underline one common characteristic: many women and their families throughout the globe will suffer because of breast cancer ( Figure 1 ). Interestingly, though, with how prevalent breast cancer is in women, breast cancer in men is hardly ever mentioned. Whilst breast cancer is much more common in women, with around 55 thousand diagnoses every year, only 400 males a are diagnosed annually, which is equivalent to 1% of breast cancer diagnoses in the UK. However, the unlikelihood of a disease does not mean that it is any less significant. Conditions like epilepsy, strangulated inguinal hernias, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and Paget’s disease are all conditions with an incidence of around 1% or less. Nevertheless, they all may severely change the lifestyle of patients and even cause death - the fact that they have a low presence makes them no less important. This makes one wonder, what causes breast cancer in men and women to differ so extensively in numbers, and why is breast cancer in men so undisclosed? To answer this question, we must first understand what breast cancer is. Cancers are cells that grow uncontrollably, often forming tumours in the tissue or organs of the body and usually caused by a mutation or environmental factors, such as carcinogens. Cancers can be classified as benign and malignant, the difference being that benign cancers will stay in the original location, whilst malignant cancers are invasive. In other words, the tumour may spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes or metastasise, spreading to other locations in the body. Breast cancer can be divided further into several types – this is one of the reasons finding a “cure” for breast cancer is so complicated. In men, the two most common types of breast cancer are invasive ductal carcinoma, which can spread through the ducts to the body, and ductal carcinoma in situ, which arises in the ductal lining of the breast tissue. But what causes these cancers to develop in men? There are multiple risk factors to consider when it comes to breast cancer in men, one of the most common being genetic mutations. Genetic mutations are when a copy of the DNA sequence in a gene has a change, and it can cause a different function or phenotype of the gene. In breast cancer, two critical and potentially inheritable mutations are in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, which increase the risk of breast cancer in both men and women. Furthermore, this is why taking the family history of breast cancer is essential: an individual with a positive family history for breast cancer may wish to take a genetic test to confirm whether they have the mutated genes. After all, genes are inherited. Hence, if one parent has the mutated gene, they could pass it on to their children. In addition, it is important to understand how breast cancer can only occur in breast tissue. Therefore, even if a male has the mutated gene, they could only have said cancer if there is breast tissue where the hormones oestrogen and progesterone can bind to and lead to mutation, causing the cancer to further multiply and spread – this is not always the case. Another genetic risk for breast cancer is a diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome. This syndrome, which affects less than 1% of newborn males, involves having an extra X chromosome, leading to the body producing higher levels of oestrogen and lower levels of androgen. Androgens are a group of sex hormones, usually found at higher levels in men, one example being testosterone. Meanwhile, oestrogen appears to be another risk factor. This natural hormone has been shown to correlate with breast cancer. A study in the Nature Journal found that the inhibition of oestrogen has decreased the incidence of cancer in patients considered high-risk. But how are men exposed to the hormone? Aside from being diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome, men can be exposed to hormone therapy treatments, which include drugs that could contain oestrogen. Likewise, another treatment that’s considered a risk factor is chest radiation therapy. Radiation is one of the known carcinogens of cancer, causing cells to mutate. Therefore, elevated levels of radiation could increase the risk for a patient. Other factors such as obesity, age and liver disease should also be carefully considered. As you can see, the list of risk factors for men is abundant, so why is it that breast cancer is still more present in women? And why is the general male public less aware of these risks, as they are for women? The answer to the first question is easy enough. Although the list of risk factors for breast cancer in men seems extensive, it is even longer for women. Furthermore, women are considered at higher risk as certain risk factors that both men and women share are more prevalent in women. For instance, oestrogen is produced in larger quantities by women. Additionally, a higher proportion of women are taking hormone replacement therapy drugs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) drugs are usually given to post-menopausal women to supplement more hormones, such as oestrogen. In the 90s alone, one study found that 22% of post-menopausal women took HRT whilst another study found that 51% of women have discussed taking the drug with their doctors. Meanwhile, the number of men taking HRT is much smaller, and usually these have a lower quantity of oestrogen, focusing more on testosterone. Although it is important to consider that within this time, incidences of individuals taking the hormones could change as the culture, awareness and research into hormone therapy changes. The second question, on the other hand, is slightly more complicated to answer. Of course, regardless of the rarity and prevalence of a condition in the population, the aim would be to treat and cure all. However, despite the significant impact and importance the NHS has on British healthcare, its limited resources meant that the most pressing and widespread issues were given priority. For instance, concentrating resources towards the C-19 virus during the last few years. Similarly, all healthcare systems globally are under constant pressure of this public health issue, managing its resources. Nevertheless, this does not mean that treating and raising awareness towards male breast cancer is less urgent and necessary. Another issue is the misinformation towards male breast cancer. In March 2023, a study in the American Journal of Men’s Health found that 61.1% of the participants (a total of 270 women and 141 men) were unaware that men could, in theory, have breast cancer. If we think about breast cancer, it is in many incorrect ways associated with femininity, perhaps from the organ it is found it arises on and to the colour (pink) used to represent breast cancer. Therefore, it all boils down to a convenient misconception, often following illogical stereotypes, that “large, strong, macho men” would never have this “women-only condition”. But how do we diagnose men with a condition they may not even know they could have? Following the process for diagnoses, specialists may recommend men with a strong family history to do regular screenings from the age of 35. Whilst screening is found to be an effective method when diagnosing women, its success in men is limited. For a majority of men, their process for diagnosis will start by noticing symptoms. Symptoms can be as obscure as a “different feel” to the breast tissue, or something more visible like a lump or hard mass. In theory, this would encourage men to approach their GPs which can then lead to the next steps of screening. However, many go seek experts late, often when seriously ill. This can both be explained culturally (such as Hispanics) and generationally, where older generations avoid medical consultations. This is very dangerous, as men often only received an official diagnosis of breast cancer six months after noticing symptoms, allowing the cancer to significantly grow within this time. On the other hand, an early diagnosis can allow for a swifter start to treatment, greater possibilities in treatment options, and could be less brutal for the patient. Hence, a better chance of treatment success and recovery. In summary, the procedures for the treatment of breast cancer in men do exist. However, for this treatment to be effective, healthcare professionals could consider increasing the awareness of the importance of regular screenings and appointments for early treatment. Overall, breast cancer in men is indeed rare. However, one must not overlook its consequences or its significance solely due to statistics. Breast cancer in men impacts many lives of both the patient and their families. Understanding the risks and the process for diagnosis could be essential in the early treatment of male patients. However, a further understanding of the astigmatisms and culture around breast cancer could be useful when educating the public on this condition. This article used “men” and “women” when describing breast cancer in patients. However, note that many individuals may not identify within these categories but could still be diagnosed and affected by breast cancer. Written by Inês Isabel Couto André ------------------ Learn more about this disease with Against Breast Cancer Take action and donate to Breast Cancer UK , and Cancer Research UK ------------------ Related articles: New radiation therapy to treat cancer / Apocrine carcinoma (a rare form of breast cancer) / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Project Gallery

Book review Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link 'Intern Blues' by Robert Marion, M.D. 08/01/26, 18:59 Last updated: Published: 01/09/24, 13:30 Book review The public's glimpse of a doctor’s life varies depending on the doctor. Popular TV shows like Grey’s Anatomy , New Amsterdam , and Private Practice allow keen viewers to follow the romanticised lives of doctors, from their heroic moments to the romances and tragedies that take place in their hospital shifts. Similarly, social media platforms have been filled with doctors and medical students glamourising their experience with hashtags and filters, focusing on the positive but hardly ever commenting on their negative experiences. Additionally, flashy news articles celebrate a doctor’s innovative and ground-breaking methods and attempts to save a lucky patient’s life. In particular, doctors were placed in the spotlight during the COVID-19 pandemic, being seen as the real-life superheroes of the pandemic. On the other hand, in 2023, the televised NHS doctors’ protests presented the struggles and hardships endured by the professionals. Furthermore, a report by the General Medical Council in 2022 found that 50% of doctors were unhappy in their workplace. Simply put, the public’s perspective towards medicine and a doctor’s life will differ depending on their source and possibly their personal experiences. Therefore, how can one understand the world through the eyes of a doctor without studying and working within the profession? This question may never have a perfect answer, but the book Intern Blues by Robert Marion could be considered a step in the right direction. This book explores the life of three first-year interns (Amy, Adam, and Mark) in New York paediatric hospitals during the mid-1980s. After meeting his new interns and learning about the fear and outsider syndrome they felt toward the coming year, Dr. Robert Marion encouraged them to document their experiences during their year as interns to reflect and possibly learn through their achievements and struggles. Unknowingly, Dr Marion’s advice created the concept behind this inspiring book. The book explains treatment methods, their reasoning, and the medical abbreviations, making any reader feel like a doctor. This is emphasised by the vividly descriptive writing and the constant log of emotions, allowing anyone to experience the vibrant rush of a hospital from the comfort of their home. One of the best things about this book is each intern’s contrasting perspectives on such supposedly similar experiences. The first intern, Andy Baron, explored his struggles of living far from his family and girlfriend due to his awkward working hours and his feelings that his loved ones do not understand what he is going through. On the other hand, Amy Horowitz has an intriguing perspective of being a mother of a young child, presenting to the reader the struggles with viewing her own child in her patients' eyes and how she surpassed this challenge to succeed in her work. In contrast, Mark Greenberg has an interesting and almost humoristic negative perspective towards his experience – one should note that, at times, some of his entries are quite shocking with their abruptness and pessimistic view. On the other hand, one of the few limitations to note in this book would be the timing. Having taken place in the 1980s, the reader should note that some elements have changed and evolved over the years. However, one could argue that this difference in 40 years gives a uniqueness to the book as it allows for a comparison and reflection on how medicine has changed. For instance, there is a brief exploration of the struggle that Amy faced as a doctor: struggles that in some way stem from how being a woman made others view her differently from her male colleagues. Although these same struggles may not apply to female doctors in the present, the Amys of 2024 encounter their own challenges. Moreover, the book provides an interesting reflection on how the HIV pandemic changed medicine and forced the medical community to adapt – which, for many readers, can resonate with the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Intern Blues is an entertaining read that will make its readers want to hug their siblings and appreciate their lives differently. This book will elicit laughs, tears, and moments of profound contemplation - a rollercoaster of emotions filled to the brim with intriguing medical cases. Presenting the hardships these three doctors faced, one has the opportunity to reflect and decide for themselves: does the good outweigh the bad? What causes the balance to tip? Is a doctor’s life made for them? Nevertheless, one conclusion is constant: the newfound admiration for the healthcare community. Check out this book on Amazon Written by Inês Couto André Related article and book reviews: Healthcare serial killers / The Emperor of All Maladies / The Molecule REFERENCES Marion R. The Intern Blues: The Timeless Classic about the Making of a Doctor. Reprint edition. William Marrow & Company; 2001. General Medical Council. The State of Medical Education and Practice in the UK, Workplace Experiences 2023 [Internet]. General Medical Council. 2023 June. Available from: gmc-uk.org/stateofmed . Project Gallery

The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir Last updated: 18/09/25, 09:41 Published: 17/07/25, 08:00 The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people This is article no. 5 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Syria and Lebanon ’s diverging yet connected struggles . Next article: Health inequalities in Bangladesh . Introduction Welcome to the fifth article of the Global Health Injustices Series. The previous article was a collaborative endeavour focused on the populations in Syria and Lebanon. Now, I will focus on the people living in Kashmir, who are currently experiencing a lot of health and wellbeing challenges, primarily attributed to conflict. For example, on top of the enduring conflict in Kashmir, the COVID-19 pandemic had worsened the mental health of the Kashmiri population, where 1.8 million adults were living with any type of mental distress. Despite these concerns, the Kashmiri people have not had their voices heard as clearly in mainstream discourse compared to other vulnerable populations discussed in previous articles. Kashmir: a rich history to current conflict Kashmir (also known as Jammu & Kashmir) is a region within the Northern Indian subcontinent, bordered mainly by Pakistan and China. Kashmir is a disputed territory between the militaries of India and Pakistan since the Indian subcontinent was divided up by the British Empire in 1947. Even before that, conflicts were driven by issues with local governments and tensions between cultural and ethnic groups within the region. These issues, among others, have contributed to the instability and health challenges encountered by the Kashmiri people. In recent years, tensions and violence have accelerated, particularly in 2024, due to the Indian government wanting to maintain control of the Kashmiri region. This has led to vast protests and friction between civilians and armed forces. In turn, this has weakened ties within the region, particularly between India and neighbouring nations. Another overlooked impact (which I will be discussing further) of this current conflict is on Kashmiri women, who encounter certain challenges, which include loss of family members, displacement and Gender-Based Violence. Considering this background of Kashmir is crucial because it will help with understanding the current geopolitical climate and how it detrimentally affects the health of the Kashmiri people. Geopolitics and health in Kashmir Similar to the populations discussed in previous articles, the Kashmiri people are encountering a lot of mental distress attributed to the ongoing conflict. One study from 2009 found that the prevalence of depression was 55.72%. Meanwhile, another study from 2017 uncovered that approximately 45% of adults experienced mental distress, with specific rates of 41% for depression, 26% for anxiety, and 19% for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This difference presumably came from wider geopolitical factors, as measuring mental health is challenging during conflict. As such, the healthcare system in Kashmir needs urgent improvement to better support mental health. Even though it does better in some areas compared to the national average, the demand for services, especially in conflict-affected areas, is overwhelming. There are not enough mental health professionals, and many healthcare providers lack the training to handle trauma-related issues properly. Investing in training, community mental health initiatives, and integrating mental health services with regular healthcare could help improve the overall mental health of the Kashmiri people. Focusing on mental health just as much as physical health to build resilience in Kashmir is essential. As for the health infrastructure in Kashmir, noted in one review, they have 4433 government health institutions and a doctor-patient ratio of 1:1880, which is lower than the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of 1:1000, yet higher than the national level of 1:2000. Moreover, the state of Kashmir was shown to have better health indices compared to the national average, including life expectancy, infant mortality rate, and crude birth and death rates. Despite these improvements, challenges persist, such as the inadequate health infrastructure and a shortage of financial resources and technical staff, despite relatively stable trends ( Table 1 ). In one study, the authors noted that among the Schedule tribes in Kashmir, they encounter significant health challenges attributed to illiteracy, poverty, and inadequate healthcare facilities and infrastructure, leading to increased non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There is a high prevalence of poor nutrition and undernutrition, which contributes to the susceptibility of these populations to NCDs (7). Moreover, a lack of access to clean water and sanitation worsens health issues, which increases their risk of infectious diseases. Social taboos and beliefs hinder healthcare service utilisation among the population, which impacts health outcomes and even awareness of NCDs ( Figure 1 ). Focusing on violence exposure in Kashmir, another study among households found that respondents documented high levels of violence, which include: exposure to crossfire (85.7%), round-up raids (82.7%), witnessing torture (66.9%), experiences of rape (13.3%) and forced labor (33.7%). What this study also found was that males noted more violent confrontations and had higher odds of experiencing different forms of maltreatment compared to females. Given that this study was conducted in 2008, these figures are likely to be either higher or lower now, depending on the magnitude of violence and warfare. Nonetheless, the high frequency of violence has led to substantial health issues, specifically mental health problems among the affected Kashmiri population. A severely overlooked impact of conflict in Kashmir is on the women, who encounter specific tragedies, including loss of family members and displacement. Moreover, the use of rape as a weapon in conflict stresses the convergence of gender and political power, particularly in Kashmir. Unfortunately, there have been some researchers who usually depict Kashmiri women as solely victims, which can undermine their autonomy and political involvement. Therefore, addressing the plight of Kashmiri women by allowing them to discuss their experiences openly and actively involving them in key decisions regarding Kashmir can be a vital stepping stone towards supporting their health and well-being. To truly understand all of the various health challenges illustrated above impacting the Kashmiri population, it is vital to cite the various geopolitical factors I discussed in previous articles on Yemen, Sudan and Palestine. The most notable factor is the continuous international weapons/ arms trade, which I firmly believe must be thwarted because of how much damage it has caused, particularly through the sale of bombs and other explosives used to target the most vulnerable populations. However, stopping this trade requires actual political will and legislation, which is unlikely to happen anytime soon because our leaders make a lot of profit from selling weapons. NGOs: their role in supporting Kashmir International non-governmental organisations (INGOs), notably Aakar Patel, chair of board at Amnesty International India, shared this statement in 2024 regarding Kashmir: The Indian authorities are using arbitrary restrictions and punitive actions to create a climate of fear in Jammu and Kashmir. Anyone daring to speak out – whether to criticize the government or to stand up for human rights – faces a clampdown on their rights to freedom of expression and association and cannot move freely within and outside the country. Amnesty International also shared testimonies from a few Kashmiri people: I feel a deep responsibility to be the voice of my people, who are currently voiceless. There are no stories coming out of Kashmir anymore. - Masrat Zahra, an award-winning Kashmiri photojournalist. My freedom of movement is a right enshrined in the Indian Constitution, but I had to really struggle to exercise this right. - Iltija Mufti, daughter and media advisor to ex-chief minister of Jammu & Kashmir. To address the complex health and social issues previously discussed, international organisations and local communities need to come together for solutions. Programs focusing on building mental health support, improving healthcare availability, and creating safe spaces for women and young people can make a difference. The Kashmiri people need to have their voices heard in discussions about their health and wellbeing. Otherwise, their challenges will continue to affect their lives. Conclusion Overall, the health and well-being issues in Kashmir are closely linked to the long-standing conflict and warfare. Although this region has a rich cultural history and shows a lot of resilience, the current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people. The rise in mental health issues and the inadequate healthcare infrastructure illustrate that reforms are urgently needed. There is a real shortage of support for mental health, particularly when dealing with the trauma from ongoing violence. Moreover, marginalised groups face tremendous health challenges because of various factors ranging from poverty to a lack of education to limited access to basic needs. Living in violence and conflict not only affects physical health, but also leads to ongoing psychological trauma that is often ignored. Tackling these health inequalities and inequities requires a comprehensive approach incorporating mental health care into the standard healthcare system, improving access to clean water and food, and building communities. Listening to the Kashmiri people and focusing on their health needs is key to achieving peace and better living standards in the region. Therefore, national and international players must recognise these issues and take real action to ensure they receive the support they need and deserve. Only with continued efforts can we expect a healthier future for Kashmir. The following article in the Global Health Injustices series will focus on Bangladesh and the plight of the Rohingya population, which will also be a collaborative endeavour. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Understanding health through different stances / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health REFERENCES Sheikh Shoib, Arafat SMY. Mental health in Kashmir: conflict to COVID-19. Public Health. 2020 Sep 1;187:65–6. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7484691/ Center for Preventive Action. Conflict Between India and Pakistan. Global Conflict Tracker. 2015. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan Zeeshan S, Hanife Aliefendioğlu. Kashmiri women in conflict: a feminist perspective. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 2024 Feb 12;11(1). Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-02742-x Amin S, Khan A. Life in conflict: Characteristics of Depression in Kashmir. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2009 Jul;3(2):213. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3068807/ Housen T, Lenglet A, Ariti C, Shah S, Shah H, Ara S, et al. Prevalence of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in the Kashmir Valley. BMJ Global Health. 2017 Oct;2(4):e000419. Available from: https://gh.bmj.com/content/2/4/e000419 Mir A, Bhat S. Health Status and Access to Health Care Services in Jammu and Kashmir State. Asian Review of Social Sciences [Internet]. 2018;7(3):52–7. Available from: https://www.trp.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ARSS-Vol.7-No.3-October-December-2018-pp.52-57.pdf Habib A, Iqbal A, Rafiq H, Shah A, Amin S, Suheena, et al. Trends in the Magnitude of NCDs among Schedule Tribe Population of Kashmir with Special Reference to Health and Nutritional [Internet]. Journal of Community Medicine & Public Health. Gavin Publishers; 2023 [cited 2025 May 5]. Available from: https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/trends-in-the-magnitude-of-ncds-among-schedule-tribe-population-of-kashmir-with-special-reference-to-health-and-nutritional Jong K de, Ford N, van, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley I: exposure to violence. Conflict and Health [Internet]. 2008 Oct 14 [cited 2025 May 5];2(1). Available from: https://conflictandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1505-2-10 Authorities must end repression of dissent in Jammu and Kashmir [Internet]. Amnesty International. 2024 [cited 2025 Jun 11]. Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/09/india-authorities-must-end-repression-of-dissent-in-jammu-and-kashmir/ Project Gallery

Book review Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link 'The Emperor of All Maladies' by Siddhartha Mukherjee 08/01/26, 18:58 Last updated: Published: 28/11/24, 14:55 Book review Stretching nearly 4,000 years of history, Pulitzer Prize winner Siddhartha Mukherjee sets on a journey to document the biography of cancer in The Emperor of All Maladies. Drawing from a vast array of books, studies, interviews, and case studies, Mukherjee crafts a narrative that is as comprehensive as it is compelling. Driven by curiosity and a desire to understand the origins of cancer, Mukherjee sets the tone by reflecting on his experiences as an oncology trainee, drawing insightful parallels to contemporary perspectives on the fight against this relentless disease. Mukherjee also pays homage to Ancient Egyptian and Greek physicians for their early observations on cancer, from the work on Imhotep to Claudius Galen. He then introduces Sidney Farber, whose monumental contributions to modern chemotherapy are brought to life through Mukherjee's exceptional storytelling—tracing Farber's journey from his initial observations to his unprecedented success in treating children with leukaemia. As you progress through each chapter of this six-part book, your appreciation deepens for how far cancer treatments have advanced - and how much further they can go. Mukherjee’s unparalleled skill as a science communicator shines through, seamlessly weaving together groundbreaking scientific discoveries with the historical contexts in which they emerged contributing to an immersive reading experience. Siddhartha Mukherjee, The Emperor of All Maladies : In 2005, a man diagnosed with multiple myeloma asked me if he would be alive to watch his daughter graduate from high school in a few months. In 2009, bound to a wheelchair, he watched his daughter graduate from college. The wheelchair had nothing to do with his cancer. The man had fallen down while coaching his youngest son's baseball team. Mukherjee also makes an effort to highlight the critical role of raising awareness in shaping public health outcomes. ‘Jimmy’ was a cancer patient that represented children with cancer, his real name was Einar Gustafson, but his individual story was able to galvanise large-scale support. As the face of the ‘Jimmy Fund’, he was able to assist in raising $231,485.51 for the Dana-Farber Institute subsequently becoming the official charity for the Boston Red Sox. Mukherjee underscores how storytelling can serve as a catalyst for change, not just in raising money, but also in enacting larger societal and governmental shifts. In 1971, President Richard Nixon signed the National Cancer Act, the first of its kind where federal funding went directly into advancing cancer research. What struck me most was how Mukherjee connects this historical event to the broader need for advocacy, as science doesn’t just happen in the lab. It is a collective effort, driven by awareness, to push funding and influence policy. The ability to link individual stories to broader missions, as Mukherjee illustrates, continues to be one of the most effective strategies in keeping cancer research in the public eye. Mukherjee delves into the pivotal role of genetics in cancer research, tracing its evolution from the discovery of DNA's structure by Francis Crick, James Watson, and Rosalind Franklin to Robert Weinberg's ground-breaking work on how proto-oncogenes and tumour suppressors drive cancer progression. These discoveries ushered in a new era in cancer drug development. Mukherjee also emphasises the importance of collaboration and the rise of the internet, which gave birth to The Cancer Genome Atlas, a landmark program, that unites various research disciplines to diagnose, treat, and prevent cancer. In concluding the book, Mukherjee looks ahead to the future of cancer treatment, seamlessly connecting this discussion to his second book, The Gene . This book takes readers on a remarkable journey through the history of cancer, from the earliest recorded cases to groundbreaking discoveries in genetics. It weaves together compelling personal stories as well as pivotal moments in governmental policy. The storytelling is rich and immersive, drawing you in with its detail and depth. By the time you finish, you'll find yourself returning to its pages, eager to revisit the knowledge and insights it offers. Written by Saharla Wasarme Related book reviews: Intern Blues / The Molecule Project Gallery

Restoring cardiac tissue and reducing heart failure Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why is there a need for cardiac regeneration? Last updated: 13/03/25, 11:37 Published: 06/03/25, 08:00 Restoring cardiac tissue and reducing heart failure Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a predominant cause of morbidity and mortality on a global scale. Among its various manifestations, heart failure (HF) stands out as a significant public health concern, with a prevalence exceeding 23 million individuals worldwide. Heart failure, especially after a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or ischemic heart disease, is a major challenge. The five-year survival rate is less than 50%. In these patients, functional cardiomyocytes are substantially lost (cardiomyocytes refer to cardiac muscle cells). The remaining cardiomyocytes often attempt to compensate for this loss; however, this compensatory mechanism can lead to scar tissue formation, subsequently compromising the overall functionality of the cardiac muscle. Despite numerous advancements in medical science and therapeutic interventions, restoring lost cardiomyocytes in the adult mammalian heart remains a significant obstacle due to its poor regenerative capacity. Consequently, there exists an urgent need for novel therapeutic approaches. Cardiac regeneration has emerged as a promising field of research focused on restoring cardiac tissue and reducing heart failure, offering hope for improved clinical outcomes in affected patients. Approaches for cardiac regeneration Cardiac regeneration has emerged as a pivotal area of research, and various innovative strategies, including stem cell therapies and gene therapy, are being explored. Stem cell therapies: Stem cell therapies utilise the ability of stem cells to differentiate into cardiomyocytes or release factors that promote tissue repair. Preclinical studies involving animal models and early-phase clinical trials have demonstrated that stem cell interventions can enhance cardiac function. However, significant challenges remain concerning the efficacy and safety of these therapies in human subjects, necessitating further investigation. Gene therapy: Gene therapy delivers specific genes that directly support cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival to damaged cardiac tissue. Introducing these genes can activate specific intracellular signalling pathways, resulting in the replication and maturation of cardiac muscle cells. Ultimately, this strategy aims to restore normal heart function and improve cardiac health. Benefits of cardiac regeneration Cardiac regeneration has the potential to significantly enhance survival rates and improve the quality of life for patients with heart conditions. Compared to heart transplantation, cardiac regeneration offers a less invasive alternative with fewer complications related to immune rejection and lifelong immunosuppressive therapy. Some of the potential benefits of cardiac regeneration are: Replacing the scar formation and improving heart function Reduce the dependency on medications Alternative to heart transplantation Reducing the healthcare costs Challenges to cardiac regeneration Cardiac regeneration remains a complex field marked by ethical considerations and scientific challenges that require thorough exploration. Stem cell therapy limitations include low engraftment rates, potential tumorigenesis, and difficulty effectively integrating host cardiac tissue. Additionally, immune rejection poses a substantial risk, affecting safety and efficacy. Beyond biological hurdles, the high cost of research, treatment development, and patient care presents a significant challenge to widespread adoption. Regulatory approval processes add another layer of complexity, as therapies must meet stringent safety and efficacy standards before clinical use. Furthermore, scalability remains an issue, as translating experimental techniques into large-scale, cost-effective treatments is a major obstacle in making cardiac regeneration accessible to a broader population. Moreover, it is imperative to deepen our understanding of the roles played by non-cardiomyocyte cell types such as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells in cardiac regeneration. Conclusion Cardiac regeneration is a ray of hope for heart patients, significantly enhancing their chances of survival and quality of life. Therefore, cardiac regeneration demands thorough exploration, as it has the potential to transform the treatment and management of cardiovascular disease. Written by Prabha Rana Related article: Hypertension REFERENCES Baccouche, B. M., Elde, S., Wang, H., & Woo, Y. J. (2024). Structural, angiogenic, and immune responses influencing myocardial regeneration: a glimpse into the crucible. Npj Regenerative Medicine, 9(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41536-024-00357-z Pezhouman, A., Nguyen, N. B., Kay, M., Kanjilal, B., Noshadi, I., & Ardehali, R. (2023). Cardiac regeneration - Past advancements, current challenges, and future directions. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, 182, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2023.07.009 Sacco, A. M., Castaldo, C., di Meglio, F. di, Nurzynska, D., Palermi, S., Spera, R., Gnasso, R., Zinno, G., Romano, V., & Belviso, I. (2023). The Long and Winding Road to Cardiac Regeneration. Applied Sciences, 13(16), 9432. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169432 van der Pol, A., & Bouten, C. V. C. (2021). A Brief History in Cardiac Regeneration, and How the Extra Cellular Matrix May Turn the Tide. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2021.682342 Wang, J., An, M., Haubner, B. J., & Penninger, J. M. (2023). Cardiac regeneration: Options for repairing the injured heart. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.981982 Project Gallery

The size-advantage hypothesis, protogyny and protandry Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why some fish change sex during their lifetimes Last updated: 11/09/25, 15:28 Published: 09/10/25, 08:00 The size-advantage hypothesis, protogyny and protandry Transphobes claim that in nature, there are only two sexes which are fixed from birth. There are many reasons why they are wrong, such as how some fish and invertebrates change sex over their lifetimes. There are 305 species of sex-changing fish, but this article will only describe four: two where individuals transition from female to male, and two which do the opposite. Though ‘transgender’ is not the technical word to describe these fish, they prove that not only is changing sex a normal phenomenon, but natural selection has chosen it many times. Why would natural selection favour sex changes? Sex change usually evolves when it is beneficial for an animal to be one sex when smaller and younger, and the opposite sex when larger and older ( Figure 1 ). This is called the size-advantage hypothesis. In harems, where one male mates with many females, bigger males get the best harems, so they are the most successful. Female-to-male transitions, called protogyny, are expected in this situation – the biggest female changes sex to replace the dominant male in a harem. Bigger females have higher reproductive success in monogamous species, favouring male-to-female transitions called protandry. However, different sexes may have different growth and mortality rates. Sex change evolves in fish if the reproductive benefit of changing sex outweighs any survival costs. Protogynous sex change in wrasses Some fish in the wrasse family start off female and later change to male, which is called protogyny. A 1972 study on Labroides dimidatus wrasses found that when the dominant male in their harem died, the biggest female changed sex to replace it. This transitioning fish could perform the male aggressive display within 2 hours of the previous male dying. It took a few days for the reproductive organs of the new dominant fish to change from female to male completely. If a neighbouring dominant male took over the harem before the dominant female could fully transition, she would de-transition back into a female. According to a 1996 study, Thalassoma bifasciatum wrasses do something similar. Within 2 days of artificially removing the male from the harem, the dominant female was coloured like a male and doing courtship behaviours like a male would. After 4-5 days, these behaviours were at the same frequency as control males. The ovaries of the dominant females in this study were surgically removed, so those behavioural sex changes happened without hormonal influence from the ovaries. Therefore, wrasses can both biologically and socially transition from female to male. Protandrous sex change in anemonefish In contrast, anemonefish transition from male to female. As the size-advantage hypothesis predicts, societies of the Amphiprion bicinctus fish consist of a monogamous breeding pair and many juveniles. If the breeding female dies, the breeding male changes sex to replace her, and a juvenile develops into the new breeding male. Male reproductive tissue shrinks during the protandrous transition, and the ovary proliferates, although the egg cells do not mature ( Figure 2 ). Gene expression in the ovaries of transitioned fish had an intermediate profile between the reproductive organs of control male and female fish. In 2022, researchers investigated the timing of sex change in a different anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris . In this species, two male fish fight when paired and whoever wins changes to a female. Winners had higher testosterone levels than losers, and intermediate levels of sex hormones between control males and females. Sex-changing winners were behaviourally and hormonally more similar to males, even after their reproductive organs had completely switched to females. This means the almost instant changes in wrasses take much longer in anemonefish. Conclusion Sex-changing fish make the most of an opportunity to advance in society – changing their behaviours, organs, and hormone levels to become the dominant breeding fish. Anemonefish and wrasses change sex in opposite directions and at different rates following a disturbance in the social order. With sex changes in fish being social and biological processes, perhaps we should view human sex changes similarly. If anyone thinks transgender people go against biology, not only are they wrong, but changing sex is beneficial and selected for in nature. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Munday, P., Buston, P. and Warner, R. (2006) Diversity and flexibility of sex-change strategies in animals. Trends in Ecology & Evolution . 21(2), 89–95. Casas, L. and Saborido-Rey, F. (2021) Environmental Cues and Mechanisms Underpinning Sex Change in Fish. Sex Dev . 15(1–3), 108–121. Casas, L., Saborido-Rey, F., Ryu, T., Michell, C., et al. (2016) Sex Change in Clownfish: Molecular Insights from Transcriptome Analysis. Sci Rep . 6(1), 35461. Godwin, J., Crews, D. and Warner, R. R. (1996) Behavioural sex change in the absence of gonads in a coral reef fish. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B . 263(1377), 1683–1688. Parker, C. G., Lee, J. S., Histed, A. R., Craig, S. E., et al. (2022) Stable and persistent male-like behavior during male-to-female sex change in the common clownfish Amphiprion ocellaris. Hormones and Behavior . 145, 105239. Pla, S., Maynou, F. and Piferrer, F. (2021) Hermaphroditism in fish: incidence, distribution and associations with abiotic environmental factors. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries . 31(4), 935–955. Robertson, D. R. (1972) Social Control of Sex Reversal in a Coral-Reef Fish. Science . 177(4053), 1007–1009. Project Gallery

How physical appearance shapes judgement Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Psychology of the Halo Effect Last updated: 29/06/26, 12:09 Published: 29/06/26, 11:51 How physical appearance shapes judgement Physical attractiveness often shapes how we perceive traits like intelligence, success, and kindness. This common tendency is explained by a psychological bias known as the halo effect. The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias where a single positive trait, such as attractiveness, influences how we judge an individual’s other characteristics. This occurs unconsciously, serving as an automatic mental shortcut. Our brains process large amounts of information daily, hence they rely on shortcuts to make quick judgements, with physical attractiveness serving as one such shortcut, leading to the generalisation from one positive trait to form a broader judgement. Gulati et al. (2024) investigated the halo effect using artificial intelligence-based beauty filters. In this online study, participants rated facial images in two conditions: original and attractive after applying a filter. A 7-point Likert scale was provided for seven attributes: attractiveness, intelligence, trustworthiness, sociability, happiness, femininity and unusualness. Findings illustrated that the same individuals receive significantly higher ratings of attractiveness and other traits, like intelligence, in the attractive condition. This illustrates that people perceive attractive individuals as more sociable and trustworthy, even when there is no evidence of such traits, illustrating the halo effect in place. Similarly, findings from Lenoir & Stocks (2020) illustrated that attractive individuals are judged to behave more positively and to exhibit fewer negative behaviours. Together, these studies highlight how one characteristic can form general perceptions of personality. However, Gulati et al. (2024) also concluded that although faces with the filter received higher ratings, the strength of the link between attractiveness and trait judgements became weaker in the filter condition – attractiveness still influenced trait judgements, but had a weaker influence on participants’ judgments of personality traits. This may be because when people use beauty filters, attractiveness becomes artificial, and therefore, people place less weight on physical attractiveness when forming trait judgments. All in all, ratings increased in the filter condition, but the predictive power of attractiveness on trait judgments slightly weakened. In social settings, this becomes evident, as attractive individuals may be treated more favourably or receive greater opportunities and trust from others. As a result, this reinforces the bias over time, as others respond more positively to them, supporting the idea that they possess desirable traits. The halo effect not only shapes opinions but also influences outcomes too, as attractive people may receive more job opportunities or less harsh punishments in court, as outlined by Yang et al. (2019). The researchers concluded that attractive and trustworthy-looking defendants were judged more favourably, while unattractive or untrustworthy defendants received harsher punishments, such as longer prison sentences and greater fines. In contrast, what is less discussed is the opposite of the halo effect: the horn effect. The horn effect occurs when a single negative trait leads us to form a general negative impression of an individual. Research by Nisbett & Wilson (1977) suggests that negative first impressions can form evaluations, as global judgements influence how certain traits are perceived. This cognitive bias means that a negative trait, such as untidiness, can lead individuals to judge a person as less trustworthy or capable. All in all, both the halo and horn effects illustrate how first impressions can influence our thinking and, through a psychological lens, highlight how our judgements are not solely rational but are influenced by mental shortcuts that simplify social information. Delving into these cognitive biases can help us become aware of how we evaluate and perceive others, consider our assumptions carefully, and thus make more accurate and fair judgements. Written by Shreya Dhaliwal Related articles: The endowment and nudge effects REFERENCES Gulati, A., Martínez-Garcia, M., Fernández, D., Lozano, M. A., Lepri, B., & Oliver, N. (2024). What is beautiful is still good: The attractiveness halo effect in the era of beauty filters. Royal Society Open Science, 11 (11). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.240882 . Gupta, P. (2020, September 21). Falling in love at first sight easily? The halo and horn effect. Medium. https://parulgupta-40907.medium.com/falling-in-love-at-first-sight-easily-heres-what-you-should-know-about-halo-and-horn-effect-16c7236aeaf6 . Lasky, J. (2024). Halo Effect . EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/halo-effect . Lenoir, K., & Stocks, E. (2019). Attractiveness norm violations and the halo effect. Undergraduate Journal of Psychology, 31 (1). Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35 (4), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.4.250 . Yang, Q., Zhu, B., Zhang, Q., Wang, Y., Hu, R., Liu, S., & Sun, D. (2019). Effects of male defendants’ attractiveness and trustworthiness on simulated judicial decisions in two different swindles. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02160 . Project Gallery