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The closest planet to the Sun Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring the solar system: Mercury 09/07/25, 14:08 Last updated: Published: 27/06/23, 15:46 The closest planet to the Sun Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, holds a significant place in our understanding of the solar system and serves as our first stepping stone in the exploration of the cosmos. Its intriguing history dates back to ancient times when it was studied and recorded by the Babylonians in their celestial charts. Around 350 BC the ancient Greeks, recognized that the celestial body known as the evening and morning star was, in fact, a single entity. Impressed by its swift movement, they named it Hermes, after the swift messenger of their mythology. As time passed, the Roman Empire adopted the Greek discovery and bestowed upon it the name of their equivalent messenger god, Mercury, a name by which the planet is known today. This ancient recognition of Mercury's uniqueness paved the way for our continued exploration and study of this fascinating planet. Mercury's evolution As Mercury formed from the primordial cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula, it went through a process called accretion. Small particles collided and gradually merged together, forming larger bodies called planetesimals. Over time, these planetesimals grew in size through further collisions and gravitational attraction, eventually forming the protoplanet that would become Mercury. However, the proximity to the Sun presented unique challenges for Mercury's formation. The Sun emitted intense heat and powerful solar winds that swept away much of the planet's initial atmosphere and surface materials. This process, known as solar stripping or solar ablation, left behind a relatively thin and tenuous atmosphere compared to other planets in the solar system. The intense heat also played a crucial role in shaping Mercury's surface. The planet's surface rocks melted and differentiated, with denser materials sinking towards the core while lighter materials rose to the surface. This process created a large iron-rich core, accounting for about 70% of the planet's radius. Mercury's lack of significant geological activity, such as plate tectonics, has allowed its surface to retain ancient features and provide insights into the early history of our solar system. The planet's surface is dominated by impact craters, much like the Moon. These craters are the result of countless collisions with asteroids and comets over billions of years. The largest and most prominent impact feature on Mercury is the Caloris Basin, a vast impact crater approximately 1,525 kilometres in diameter. The impact of such large celestial bodies created shockwaves and volcanic activity, leaving behind a scarred and rugged terrain. Scientists estimate that the period known as the Late Heavy Bombardment, which occurred around 3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago, was particularly tumultuous for Mercury. During this time, the inner planets of our solar system experienced a high frequency of cosmic collisions. These impacts not only shaped Mercury's surface but also influenced the evolution of other rocky planets like Earth and Mars. Studying Mercury's geology and surface features provides valuable insights into the early stages of planetary formation and the impact history of our solar system. Exploration history Our understanding of Mercury has greatly benefited from a series of pioneering missions that ventured close to the planet and provided valuable insights into its characteristics. Let's delve into the details of these key exploratory endeavours: Mariner 10 (1974-1975): Launched by NASA, Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to conduct a close-up exploration of Mercury. It embarked on a series of three flybys, passing by the planet in 1974 and 1975. Mariner 10 captured images of approximately 45% of Mercury's surface, revealing its heavily cratered terrain. The spacecraft's observations provided crucial information about the planet's rotation period, which was found to be approximately 59 Earth days. Mariner 10 also discovered that Mercury possessed a magnetic field, albeit weaker than Earth's. MESSENGER (2004-2015): The MESSENGER mission, short for Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging, was launched by NASA in 2004. It became the first spacecraft to enter into orbit around Mercury in 2011, marking a significant milestone in the exploration of the planet. Over the course of more than four years, MESSENGER conducted an extensive study of Mercury's surface and environment. It captured detailed images of previously unseen regions, revealing the planet's diverse geological features, including vast volcanic plains and cliffs. MESSENGER's data also indicated the presence of water ice in permanently shadowed craters near Mercury's poles, surprising scientists. Furthermore, the mission discovered that Mercury possessed a global magnetic field, challenging previous assumptions about the planet's magnetism. MESSENGER's observations greatly expanded our knowledge of Mercury's geology, composition, and magnetic properties. BepiColombo (2018-Present): The BepiColombo mission, a joint endeavour between the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), aims to further enhance our understanding of Mercury. The mission consists of two separate orbiters: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) developed by ESA and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO) developed by JAXA. Launched in 2018, BepiColombo is currently on its journey to Mercury, with an expected arrival in 2025. Once there, the mission will study various aspects of the planet, including its magnetic field, interior structure, and surface composition. The comprehensive data collected by BepiColombo's orbiters will contribute significantly to our knowledge of Mercury and help answer remaining questions about its formation and evolution. These missions have played pivotal roles in advancing our understanding of Mercury. They have provided unprecedented insights into the planet's surface features, composition, magnetic field, and geological history. As exploration efforts continue, we can anticipate further revelations and a deeper understanding of this intriguing world. Future exploration While significant advancements have been made in understanding Mercury, there is still much more to learn. Scientists hope to explore areas of the planet that have not yet been observed up close, such as the north pole and regions where water ice may be present. They also aim to study Mercury's thin atmosphere, which consists of atoms blasted off the surface by the solar wind. Moreover, the advancement of technology may lead to the development of innovative missions to Mercury. Concepts such as landing missions and even manned exploration have been proposed, although the challenges associated with the planet's extreme environment and proximity to the Sun make such endeavours highly demanding. Nevertheless, the quest to unravel Mercury's mysteries continues, driven by the desire to deepen our knowledge of planetary formation, evolution, and the unique conditions that shaped this enigmatic world. Exploring the uncharted areas of Mercury, particularly the north pole, holds great scientific potential. The presence of water ice in permanently shadowed regions has been suggested by previous observations, and investigating these areas up close could provide valuable insights into the planet's volatile history and the potential for water resources. Additionally, studying Mercury's thin atmosphere is of significant interest. Comprised mostly of atoms blasted off the surface by the intense solar wind, understanding the composition and dynamics of this atmosphere could shed light on the processes that shape Mercury's exosphere. In conclusion, while significant progress has been made in unravelling the mysteries of Mercury, there is still much to explore and discover. Scientists aspire to investigate untouched regions, study the planet's thin atmosphere, and employ innovative mission concepts. The future may hold ambitious missions, including landing missions and potentially even manned exploration. As our knowledge and capabilities expand, Mercury continues to beckon us with its fascinating secrets, urging us to push the boundaries of exploration and expand our understanding of the wonders of the solar system. And with that we finish our journey into the history and exploration of Mercury and will move to Venus in the next article. Written by Zari Syed Related articles: Fuel for the colonisation of Mars / Nuclear fusion Project Gallery

Why chirality is important in developing drugs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Chirality in drugs 04/02/25, 15:50 Last updated: Published: 06/06/23, 16:53 Why chirality is important in developing drugs Nearly 90% of the drugs currently on the market are racemates, which are composed of an equimolar mixture of two enantiomers, and approximately half of all drugs are chiral compounds. Chirality is the quality of an item that prevents it from superimposing on its mirror counterpart, similar to left and right hands. Chirality, a generic characteristic of "handedness,"plays a significant role in the creation of several pharmaceutical drugs. It's interesting to note that 20 of the 35 drugs the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorised in 2020 are chiral drugs. For example, Ibuprofen, a chiral 2-aryl propionic acid derivative, is a common over-the-counter analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory medication. However, Ibuprofen and other medications from similar families can have side effects and risks related to their usage. Drugs of the chiral class have the drawback that only one of the two enantiomers may be active, while the other may be ineffective or have some negative effects. The inactive enantiomer can occasionally interact with the active enantiomer, lowering its potency or producing undesirable side effects. Additionally, Ibuprofen and other members of the chiral family of pharmaceuticals can interact with other drugs, including over-the-counter and prescription ones. To guarantee that only the active enantiomer is present in chiral-class medications, it is crucial for pharmaceutical companies to closely monitor their production and distribution processes. Lessening the toxicity or adverse effects linked to the inactive enantiomer, medical chemistry has recently seen an increase in the use of enantiomerically pure drugs. In any instance, the choice of whether to utilise a single enantiomer or a combination of enantiomers of a certain medicine should be based on clinical trial results and clinical competence. In addition to requests to determine and control the enantiomeric purity of the enantiomers from a racemic mixture, the use of single enantiomer drugs may result in simpler and more selective pharmacological profiles, improved therapeutic indices, simpler pharmacokinetics, and fewer drug interactions. Although, there have been instances where the wrong enantiomer results in unintended side effects, many medications are still used today as racemates with their associated side effects; this issue is probably brought on by both the difficulty of the chiral separation technique and the high cost of production. In conclusion, Ibuprofen and other medications in the chiral family, including those used to treat pain and inflammation, can be useful, but they also include a number of dangers and adverse effects. It's critical to follow a doctor's instructions when using these medications and to be aware of any possible interactions, allergic reactions, and other hazards. To maintain the security and efficacy of medicines in the chiral class, pharma producers also have a duty to closely monitor their creation and distribution. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Project Gallery

Integrins are desirable to target cancer Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Biochemistry of cancer: integrins, the desirable targets 20/03/25, 12:01 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 08:39 Integrins are desirable to target cancer Every year, eight million people worldwide pass away from cancer, and this number is expected to rise. Cancer can damage a wide range of organs in people of various ages. It is quite honest to say that Cancer is the most common and severe problem in clinical medicine. Cancer's fundamental problems shed light on the biochemical and genetic processes underlying the unchecked expansion of cancer cells. The extracellular matrix (ECM)'s biochemical and biomechanical properties affect how sensitive cells are. Cell health depends on different reactions, such as proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and differentiation. The tumour microenvironment also largely influences cancer metastasis, medication resistance, and recurrence. Transmembrane glycoproteins called integrins mediate connections between cells and the ECM and connect it to the cytoskeleton. They relay the information from the ECM through downstream signalling pathways and can hence control the properties of the cell. Mammals have so far been found to contain 24 different integrin heterodimers, formed by combining 18 α- and 8 β-subunits. A cell's ability to bind to specific ECM elements depends on the pattern of integrin expression, which also affects how a cell recognises and reacts to its surroundings. These same integrin-mediated pathways are used by tumour cells in the context of cancer to boost invasiveness and oncogenic survival as well as to create a host milieu that supports tumour development and metastatic dissemination ( Figure 1 ). Hence, Integrins are interesting targets for cancer therapy due to their role in tumour progression, and several integrin antagonists, including antibodies and synthetic peptides, have been successfully used in clinics for cancer therapy. Unligated integrins may have a detrimental effect on tumour survival. They are generally unligated in adherent cells, which leads to the cleavage of caspase 8, which in turn causes tumour cells to undergo apoptosis through a process known as integrin-mediated death (IMD) ( Figure 2 ). Integrins' precise chemical signals and the mechanical environment of the ECM control how cancer cells behave. A key role is also played by the ECM's physicochemical environment. Chemically altered substrate surfaces have been used to study this interaction, but topology and functionality control are still difficult to achieve. Modifying a cell's local chemical environment does offer a viable method for selectively controlling the behaviour of cancer cells. Together, targeted external cue presentation has the potential to enhance existing intracellular cancer therapy approaches. When combined with other targeted therapies (tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-growth factor antibodies) for anticancer treatment, integrin inhibition may be used as a potential target for drug development. However, it needs to be thoroughly evaluated in the pre-clinical phase, possibly taking into account all of the plausible escape mechanisms by which tumour cells can develop. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Why whales don't get cancer / Breast cancer and asbestos / MOFs in cancer drug delivery / Anti-cancer metal compounds REFERENCES Hamidi, H., Pietilä, M., & Ivaska, J. (2016). The complexity of integrins in cancer and new scopes for therapeutic targeting. British Journal of Cancer, 115(9), 1017–1023. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2016.312 Jacob, M., Varghese, J., Murray, R. K., & Weil, P. A. (2016). Cancer: An Overview (V. W. Rodwell, D. A. Bender, K. M. Botham, P. J. Kennelly, & P. A. Weil, Eds.). Access Medicine; McGraw-Hill Education. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=1366§ionid=73247495 Li, M., Wang, Y., Li, M., Wu, X., Setrerrahmane, S., & Xu, H. (2021). Integrins as attractive targets for cancer therapeutics. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2021.01.004 Yoshii, T., Geng, Y., Peyton, S., Mercurio, A. M., & Rotello, V. M. (2016). Biochemical and biomechanical drivers of cancer cell metastasis, drug response and nanomedicine. Drug Discovery Today, 21(9), 1489–1494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2016.05.011 Zhao, H., F. Patrick Ross, & Teitelbaum, S. L. (2005). Unoccupied αvβ3Integrin Regulates Osteoclast Apoptosis by Transmitting a Positive Death Signal. Molecular Endocrinology, 19(3), 771–780. https://doi.org/10.1210/me.2004-0161 Project Gallery

Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Latent space transformations 21/08/25, 15:53 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 16:42 Their hidden power in AI and machine learning Getting machines to understand the information we want to give it is quite the task. Especially, given the level of complexity of the information we give it. For example, when trying to process an image for classification algorithms, how does the algorithm recognise the paws of a dog or the curvature of a boat? We need to simplify the information for simpler processing and manipulation. Similar to how you would take summarised notes in a lecture instead of copying everything. While information is lost, the key features are kept. That is where the term “ latent space ” comes in. What are latent spaces? In the realm of mathematics, various types of spaces play crucial roles. One such space is the linear space, which encompasses the number line—a fundamental construct. Then there's Euclidean space, a broader category that encompasses 2D, 3D, and higher-dimensional spaces. However, as the number of dimensions increases, the mathematical intricacies become exceedingly complex, often pushing the limits of computational feasibility. In a latent space transformation, we essentially reduce the dimensions of the space in which the data exists and create an abstract representation of the key features in a lower dimension space. This has a host of benefits with the main one being a reduction in the compute power needed to process the data. It’s an example of data compression and a direct instance of dimension reduction with neither being new concepts. Example: auto-encoders Auto-encoders are a type of neural network. They consist of an encoder-to-decoder architecture (see image with caption). The transformation allows us to process and store the input data more efficiently. In addition, once trained, auto-encoders can sample data from the latent space to generate new data points also called data generation of a synthetic nature. Other applications of latent space Now that we can store our information more effectively for computers to understand, there are a host of applications for the technique you might want to be aware of: - Natural Language Processing: Latent space models have been used in natural language processing for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. - Audio Processing: Latent space models have been used for music analysis, speech recognition, and audio processing. - Computer Vision: This we have partially discussed already. - Anomaly Detection: Latent space models can be used to recognise security failures in cybersecurity, or potentially fraud in the financial system. The applications of data reduction would be endless but those are just few applications in technology right now. Written by Temi Abbass Related articles: Markov chains / Evolution of AI / Study on brain metastasis Project Gallery

A hereditary neurodegenerative disorder Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Huntington's disease 27/09/25, 11:04 Last updated: Published: 18/10/23, 16:12 A hereditary neurodegenerative disorder Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder causing cognitive decline, behavioural difficulties, and uncontrollable movements. It is a hereditary disease that has a devastating effect on the individual’s life and unfortunately is incurable. Genetic component What may come as a surprise, is that in everyone’s genetics there are two copies (one from each parent) of the Huntingtin’s gene coding for the Huntingtin protein. This gene is coded by CAG repeats. In healthy genes, the CAG sequence is repeated between 10 and 26 times. However, if the gene is faulty, CAG repeats over 40 times resulting in a dysfunctional Huntingtin protein. The disease is autosomal dominant meaning regardless of gender, if either parent is a carrier, their child has a 50% chance of inheriting the faulty gene. REMINDER: because the gene is dominant, it means those who inherit even one copy will develop the disease Effect on the brain The faulty Huntingtin protein accumulates in cells, leading to cell death and damage to the brain. If you were to look at the brains of individuals with Huntington’s Disease, you would see a reduction in volume of the caudate and putamen. These areas are part of the striatum, which is a subdivision of the basal ganglia, involved in fine tuning our voluntary movements, i.e., reaching out to grab a cup. As the disease progresses, this atrophy can extend to other areas of the brain including the thalamus, frontal lobe, and cerebellum. Symptoms The symptoms normally manifest in three categories: motor, cognitive and psychiatric. We know that the basal ganglia is involved in our voluntary movement, so the damage causes one of the most visible symptoms in HD- uncontrollable and jerky movements. Cognitive symptoms include personality changes, difficulties with planning and attention. There can also be impairments to how those with HD recognise emotions- all these symptoms can interact to make social interaction more difficult. Finally, the psychiatric symptoms often seen include irritability and aggression, depression, anxiety, and apathy. Impact on life and family At the age when diagnosis usually occurs (around 30 years old), patients are often buying houses, getting married and either having children or deciding to start a family. The diagnosis may change peoples outlook on having children and can put a great psychological burden on them if they have unknowingly passed it along to those already born. Diagnosis also brings consequences to seemingly mundane, but incredibly important issues such as gaining life insurance, with some companies not covering individuals with an official diagnosis. Subsequently this makes life harder for their families, as the patient will eventually be unable to work and there could be associated costs with the need for care facilities as the disease progresses. Unfortunately, this is a progressive neurodegenerative condition with no cure. The only treatment options available at present, are interventions which aim to alleviate the patients’ symptoms. Whilst these treatments will reduce the motor and psychiatric symptoms, they cannot stop the progression of Huntington’s disease. We have only scratched the surface on the impact Huntington’s disease has on a patient and their families. It is so important to understand ways in which everyone that is affected can be best supported during the disease progression, to give all those involved a better quality of life. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Related articles: A potential gene therapy for HD / Epilepsy Project Gallery

Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Foremothers of Gynaecology 10/07/25, 10:18 Last updated: Published: 05/03/24, 12:15 Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha In collaboration with Dr Aakila Sammy from Publett for International Women's Month We have honoured remarkable women in science across the centuries. From Marie Curie's pioneering research on radioactivity in the 1800s to Henrietta Lacks's unintentional contribution to immortalised human cell lines in the 1900s and Rosalind Franklin's crucial work on the structure of DNA. Yet, even as their achievements shine, the names of their male counterparts, like Watson and Crick, often dominate the narrative. Let's journey back a century or two. Were the experiences of Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha, the foremothers of gynaecology, similar? In the 19th century, Dr. James Marion Sims was celebrated as a surgical hero and the father of gynaecology. His fame stemmed from pioneering the first reliable surgery to treat vesicovaginal fistula, a severe childbirth complication causing a hole between a woman's bladder and vagina, leading to continuous urinary leakage and sometimes palliative care. Sims conducted his initial attempts at a small hospital behind his home in Montgomery, Alabama, focusing on enslaved African American women whom he housed. Over several years, he performed numerous operations on these women. Historical records indicate that 12 enslaved women underwent experimentation, with only three identified by name: Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha. While Sims did treat white women, indicating a universal need for treatment, he probably began experimenting with black women first. Unfortunately, many records were destroyed after slavery ended, obscuring our understanding of these events. Consequently, many who suffered or displayed bravery may not receive proper historical recognition. But we're about to change that here! Slave owners often viewed enslaved women as valuable assets due to their potential to increase the slave population and, thus, the owner's wealth through labour. However, when complications arose during childbirth, rendering these women unable to work, slave owners sought alternative means to cover medical expenses and maintain profitability. This often involved leasing them to physicians like Sims for medical experimentation and treatment. Additionally, enslaved women who experienced complications during childbirth were often ostracised by their communities and left with no choice but to comply with the demands of their owners. While on lease, these teenage girls aged 17 to 19 worked for the Sims family and were subjected to experimentation, naked and restrained in front of an audience of male doctors. Lucy was the first of the three women to undergo Sims's experimental operation and remained conscious throughout the entire hour-long surgery. Post-surgery, Lucy developed an infection, and even though Sims was able to cure her infection, her injuries did not heal, which rendered the operation a failure. Betsy was operated on next with the same outcome minus the infection. Anarcha, operated on last, had the same results, but this did not stop Sims. Sims persisted in his experiments, even when his male assistants quit. He eventually trained the women to assist each other during surgeries, and over time, they became proficient enough to be considered medical practitioners in their own right. The turning point came after Anarcha's 30th surgery, where success was finally achieved. However, shortly afterwards, Sims closed his hospital and relocated north. The fate of the women after this point is noted as being returned to their masters, indicating the continued exploitation and oppression they faced despite their contributions to medical science. While Sims's legacy indeed sparks ethical concerns about consent, anaesthesia, and racism, it's vital to recognise the dire circumstances faced by the women he treated and their significant contributions to his work. Despite the troubling context of slavery, characterised by ambiguous consent, potential underuse of anaesthesia, and the enduring belief that black women could endure more pain (a misconception that persists in healthcare today), these women sought relief from their suffering. Or was it their slave owners who sought to protect their investment? In addition to recognising the systemic exploitation and dehumanisation suffered by enslaved individuals, it is important to celebrate the resilience and bravery of these women, who played a crucial role in advancing gynaecological understanding and techniques. Now, just a mile from the remaining Sims statue stands another monument honouring the true mothers of gynaecology: Lucy, Betsy, and Anarcha (by the artist and activist Michelle Browder). These teenagers played a profound role in shaping the field. It's imperative that we shift the narrative to acknowledge them as our foremothers in gynaecology when recounting this history. Their names deserve a place in the textbooks as well. -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Aakila Sammy , co-founder and CEO of Publett , for this interesting article on the pioneering individuals in the field of gynaecology. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Follow them @Dr.Publett on Instagram and @Publett Limited on Linkedin for more information. -- Our last collaboration: Micro-chimerism and George Floyd's death Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics and in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research / Women leading the charge in biomedical engineering / Endometriosis and PCOS / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES National Library of Medicine. "Vesicovaginal fistula was a catastrophic complication of childbirth for many enslaved women between 1845 and 1849." Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563360/#:~:text=Vesicovaginal%20fistula%20was%20a%20catastrophic,women%20between%201845%20and%201849 . ProQuest. "Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy: The Mothers of Modern Gynecology."Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.proquest.com/openview/a02db7be4c84ed0066ed13e79513b6ad/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=41361 . Smithsonian Magazine. "A monument honouring enslaved women, known as the 'Mothers of Gynecology' has been erected."Accessed 28th February 2024. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/mothers-of-gynecology-monument-honors-enslaved-women-180980064/ New York Historical Society. "To learn more about Anarcha, Betsey, and Lucy, visit the New York Historical Society's online exhibit, 'A Nation Divided: The Civil War Era"'.Accessed 28th February 2024. https://wams.nyhistory.org/a-nation-divided/antebellum/anarcha-betsy-lucy/ . Project Gallery

The role of honesty Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Behavioural Economics I 31/10/25, 12:46 Last updated: Published: 24/01/24, 21:37 The role of honesty This is article no. 1 in a series on behavioural economics. Next article: The endowment effect . In the classical realm of economic theory, consumers are said to be utility maximisers. These economic agents will always prefer a situation where they can increase their utility (a measure of well-being or happiness) and will achieve this by any means necessary. Given the opportunity, economic agents will take advantage of others and abuse their power, and although this can be true in many aspects of life, in this article we will explore why people are intrinsically honest, defying classical economic theory, giving a brief insight into how we can explain economic behaviour through the power of behavioural economics. ‘Lost Wallets’ In an effort to measure civic honesty around the globe, Cohn et al. devised a comprehensive study to measure whether people's own material incentives were able to overpower their innate sense of honesty and altruism all together. By distributing over 17,000 ‘lost wallets’ in over 40 countries, Cohn et al. were able to surprisingly prove that people are more honest than we take each other to be. The experiment was simple but comprehensive. A group of people in many different countries would hand in a ‘lost’ wallet to a desk in public areas, for example at a hotel desk or at a library. The wallet contained three business cards - a way to contact the owner, a grocery list, and a key to make it seem more legitimate. Another important detail was that the wallets were transparent, so the receiver did not have to open the wallet to see its contents. The reason why this is important is because some wallets contained money in them, and we wanted to see if this impacted the decision to hand the wallets in or not. In classic economic theory, we would expect that wallets with money in them would not be returned, but instead the receiver would take the money freely. They may be more inclined to return the wallet without money as there would be little benefit in keeping them. However, in real life, this could not be any further from the truth. In 38/40 of the countries, lost wallets were handed back more often when they contained money. Civic honesty was found to be statistically higher when the wallets were not empty. So why are people more likely to hand back their wallets when they contain money? Surely that’s counterintuitive? Well, in fact, one strong explanation is that people value honesty due to their own self-image. If we take the money, our own view of our perfect self becomes threatened, so that the psychological effect of taking the money is greater than the money’s value itself. Similarly, when the wallet contains only business cards, the receiver cannot see any intrinsic value in the wallet. The psychological value of handing the wallet back is now far less worth the effort of making contact with the owner. We disregard the wallet before we even know its contents. Another interesting fact is that when there is a big money condition (7x what was used initially), we find that people are even more likely to report the missing wallet. One explanation may be that with a greater stake, there is also a greater psychological reward for handing the wallet back. When doing an act of kindness as simple as this, people often feel good about themselves, boosting their own ego, and this could be perceived to be greater than the value of their wallet. If the combination of threatened self-image with the positive psychological value of returning the item is much greater than the monetary value of the ‘lost wallet’, then people are likely to return the wallet. In fact, the study showed that over 70% of the wallets were returned when it contained a substantial sum of money. ‘Dice in a Cup’ The second study that I wish to use to describe the effect honesty has on society, is one that involves an extremely simple setup. There is a benefit to having simple experiments in a lab setting. When people volunteer to participate in a lab-controlled experiment, they realise they are being watched (unlike with the previous experiment, which was performed on unsuspecting subjects). This often means that people put in fake answers—the answers they think we wish to hear—which aren’t useful to us. The way we get around this is by putting incentives in place and encouraging people to act the way they would in real life and by ensuring that the experiment is simple, there is no chance that a subject could misinterpret the rules of the experiment. The die-in-the cup experiment run by Gachter and Schulz did just that. Subjects were told to enter a room, and in the middle of the room sat a table with a die placed on top. The subjects were instructed before they entered the room to roll the die twice and then report the first roll of the die only. The number they reported then corresponded to a payout of the following: 1 = £1, 2 = £2... 5 = £5, and 6 = £0. (The pay-out for different countries were in their corresponding currency of equivalent value.) The aim of this experiment is to examine the amount of honesty in a society, and in this paper, they compared this with the presence of rule violations across different societies and looked for a relationship. They discovered that the inhabitants of wealthier countries are more honest on average. In classical economics, if everyone was ‘rational’, they would lie to get the maximum payout every time. This would give an average payout of £5. On the other hand, if everyone was completely honest, the average payout would be £2.50. In the experiment, the mean payout across all countries was around £3 (around £2.90 for the richer nations and up to as high as £4 for the poorer nations). What this tells us is that people are dishonest, but not fully dishonest. One possible explanation is that people would ‘justify dishonesty’. By choosing the higher of the two rolls, people feel less bad about lying completely and bend the rules in their favour. Another explanation is that people take the second-best outcome. In the fear of people being suspicious of them, subjects may decide to say 3 or 4 instead of 5 if, for example, they rolled a 1. But why don’t people lie and say they get a 5 every time? One theory is that people’s desires conflict with their perception of an honest self-image. Like with the lost wallets experiment, people feel guilty by lying completely, but by changing the rules slightly or not taking the highest payout, the benefit of lying is greater than any negative self-perception as in their eyes, they are not lying completely. People are only as dishonest as they can be whilst maintaining a ‘honest’ self-image. So, as we have shown, the foundation of economics can indeed fall short. The basis that people are utility maximisers is not necessarily true in all circumstances, such as when maximising utility violates self-perception. However, this is not to say that we have disproved all of economics. Economics provides an insight into how people and systems in society interact in an ideal setting, which is still beneficial for understanding what a policy is needed to achieve, but behavioural economics can be used to develop the policy further so that its implementation is more seamless. To learn even more about the developments in this ongoing discipline, be sure to follow Scientia News on social media and don’t forget to look out for Part 2 in this new 4-part series discussing the realm of behavioural economics! Written by George Chant Related article: Mathematical models in cognitive decision-making REFERENCES Alain Cohn et al., Civic honesty around the globe. Science 365,70-73(2019) Gächter , S., Schulz, J. Intrinsic honesty and the prevalence of rule violations across societies. Nature 531 , 496–499 (2016) Project Gallery

The Design Argument vs science Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Anthropic Principle: Science or God? 20/11/25, 15:34 Last updated: Published: 08/11/24, 11:25 The Design Argument vs science One of the most common points of tension between science and religion is the Design Argument – an argument for the existence of an intelligent designer/creator of the universe or God. Individuals who tend to identify with one of the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) often also believe in a God who created the universe, although it is important to note that not every person agrees here. On the other hand, public opinion often says that scientists do not support the Design Argument because they are studying how the universe was ‘actually’ created, which leads to some tension between the two groups. However, there is some logical support for the Design Argument originating from scientific data: the Anthropic Principle, also known as the Observation-Selection Hypothesis. While there are different takes on the hypothesis, this article will briefly cover how it relates to physics and the Design Argument. In general, the Anthropic Principle states that the parameters of the universe are exactly what they are so that life (intelligent, conscious life) would ultimately be produced. The following are examples of factors that happen to be just right for life to be possible: The electromagnetic force is 39 times stronger than gravity, but if they were more evenly matched, stars would not survive long enough for life to develop on an orbiting planet. If gravity were 1 part in 1040 stronger, the universe would have utterly collapsed long ago. If the combined mass of a proton and electron were slightly more than the mass of a neutron (rather than slightly less as it currently is), then the hydrogen atom would become unstable, which would collapse stars like the Sun. If the mass of neutrinos (the most abundant particles with mass in the universe) was 5 x 10-34 kg instead of 5 x 10-35 kg, the universe would be contracting rather than expanding. There are many more examples, but isn’t it strange how absolutely exact the strengths of these kinds of fundamental forces are? This is the line of reasoning that leads to the Design Argument. How could the universe be so incredibly exact to produce life, unless it was specifically created that way? Such questions are asked by Science and Religion scholars, and while there are no answers yet, it opens the conversation up to explore what information different fields have to offer. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: Creatio ex Nihilo REFERENCES Davis, John Jefferson. “The Design Argument, Cosmic ‘Fine Tuning,’ and the Anthropic Principle.” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion 22, no. 3 (1987): 139–50. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40018832 . Gale, George. “The Anthropic Principle.” Scientific American 245, no. 6 (1981): 154–71. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24964627 . Project Gallery

Celebrating trailblazers in skin cancer, chemotherapy and cervical cancer cells Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link African-American women in cancer research 08/07/25, 16:23 Last updated: Published: 20/04/24, 11:05 Celebrating trailblazers in skin cancer, chemotherapy and cervical cancer cells We are going to be spotlighting the incredible contributions of three African-American women who have carved paths for future scientists while significantly advancing our knowledge in the relentless global battle against cancer. Jewel Plummer Cobb (1924-2017) As a distinguished cancer researcher, Jewel is known for her extensive work on melanoma, a serious form of skin cancer. Alongside her frequent collaborator, Jane Cooke Wright, Jewel evidenced the anticancer effects of the drug methotrexate in addressing skin and lung cancer, as well as childhood leukaemia. She is also recognised for her distinctive research examining the varying responses to chemotherapy drugs among cells from different racial and ethnic groups. This research led to the pivotal finding that melanin, a skin pigment, could serve as a protective shield against the damaging effects of sunlight associated with skin cancer. Her 1979 article titled Filters for Women in Science recognised the low percentage of women working in scientific research and engineering, including the barriers that female scientists face in their professional journey. As a result, throughout her career, she often wrote about the experiences of black women in higher education. She also passionately championed for the advancement of black people and women working in the fields of science and medicine. In an interview, she stated that she would like to be remembered as “a black woman scientist who cared very much about what happens to young folks, particularly women, going into science”. Jane Cooke Wright (1919-2013) As the daughter of Harvard Medical School graduate, Louis Tompkins Wright, one of the first African American surgeons in the United States, Jane followed in her father’s footsteps and became a physician. Working together, they explored and compared the activity of possible anticancer compounds in both tissue cultures and in patients. This was revolutionary at the time, considering that chemotherapy guidelines were barely established. In collaboration with her father and six male doctors, the team established the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) to address the clinical needs of cancer patients. Later on, Jane led ASCO at just 33 years old, following her father’s death. Throughout her career, she conducted research in chemotherapy, publishing over 100 articles on the topic, aiming to fine-tune and tailor chemotherapeutic treatments for patients to ensure better survival outcomes. Like Jewel, she also played a key role in investigating and demonstrating how different racial and ethnic backgrounds respond to drugs used in chemotherapy. This has now become a field of its own, pharmacoethnicity, which studies the anticancer drug responses across people of different ethnicities and is advancing our knowledge on personalised chemotherapy treatment for patients. During an interview, her daughter, Alison Jones, described Jane as: A very ambitious person... she never let anything stand in the way of doing what she wanted to do. Henrietta Lacks (1920-1951) Although not a scientist herself, Henrietta has made a significant contribution to cancer research and medicine through her cervical cancer cells. Although, tragically, she did not know it. Henrietta was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1951 and sadly passed away the same year. The cervical cancer cells obtained from her biopsy were found to have a unique ability to continuously grow and divide in vitro. Therefore, they could be grown into cell cultures and used in further research. As a result of this trait, researchers have investigated their behaviour, including mutation, division, and carcinogenesis, allowing them to study the effects of drugs and other treatments on these cells. The “immortal” cell line, termed HeLa, has played a pivotal role in the creation of the polio vaccine in the 1950s and medicines for conditions such as leukaemia, influenza, and Parkinson's disease. The HeLa cells also identified the Human papillomavirus (HPV), which later led to the finding that the virus can cause different types of cervical cancer, leading to the significant development of the HPV vaccine used today. It is estimated that over 110,000 research publications have used HeLa cells, emphasising their demand in research. Were it not for Henrietta Lacks, the HeLa cell line would not have been discovered, which has revolutionised our understanding of cancer and medical advancements. In conclusion, the remarkable journey of these pioneering African American women in cancer research serves not only as an inspiration but also a testament to their perseverance, courage, and dedication. They have championed diversity within science, pushed boundaries, and shaped the field of cancer research, allowing for the progress of scientific research in curing cancer and beyond. Written by Meera Solanki Related articles: Women leading the charge in biomedical engineering / The foremothers of gynaecology / Sisterhood in STEM REFERENCES American Society of Clinical Oncology (2016). Society History. [online] ASCO. Available at: https://old-prod.asco.org/about-asco/overview/society-history . Blood Cancer UK (2023). Blood Cancer UK | The story of Dr Jane C Wright, pioneer of blood cancer research. [online] Blood Cancer UK. Available at: https://bloodcancer.org.uk/news/the-story-of-jane-c-wright-pioneer-of-blood-cancer- research/. Boshart, M., Gissmann, L., Ikenberg, H., Kleinheinz, A., Scheurlen, W. and zur Hausen, H. (1984). A new type of papillomavirus DNA, its presence in genital cancer biopsies and in cell lines derived from cervical cancer. The EMBO Journal, 3(5), pp.1151–1157. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1460-2075.1984.tb01944.x . Cobb, J.P. (1956). Effect of in Vitro X Irradiation on Pigmented and Pale Slices of Cloudman S91 Mouse Melanoma as Measured by Subsequent Proliferation in Vivo234. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, [online] 17(5). doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/17.5.657 . Cobb, J.P. (1979). Filters for Women in Science. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 323(1 Expanding the), pp.236–248. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749- 6632.1979.tb16857.x. Ferry, G. (2022). Jane Cooke Wright: innovative oncologist and leader in medicine. The Lancet, [online] 400(10360). doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01940-7 . Hyeraci, M., Papanikolau, E.S., Grimaldi, M., Ricci, F., Pallotta, S., Monetta, R., Minafò, Y.A., Di Lella, G., Galdo, G., Abeni, D., Fania, L. and Dellambra, E. (2023). Systemic Photoprotection in Melanoma and Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer. Biomolecules, [online] 13(7), p.1067. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13071067 . King, T., Fukishima, L., Donlon, T., Hieber, D. and Shimabukuro, K. (2000). Correlation between growth control, neoplastic potential and endogenous connexin43 expression in HeLa cell lines: implications for tumor progression. Carcinogenesis, [online] 21(2), pp.311–315. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/21.2.311 . National Institutes of Health (2022). Significant Research Advances Enabled by HeLa Cells - Office of Science Policy. [online] Office of Science Policy. Available at: https://osp.od.nih.gov/hela-cells/significant-research-advances-enabled-by-hela- cells/. Pathak, S., Zajac, K.K., Manjusha Annaji, Manoj Govindarajulu, Nadar, R.M., Bowen, D., R. Jayachandra Babu and Muralikrishnan Dhanasekaran (2023). Clinical outcomes of chemotherapy in cancer patients with different ethnicities. Cancer Reports, 6(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/cnr2.1830 . Project Gallery

Completing the human genome puzzle with the missing piece Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Y chromosome unveiled 04/07/25, 13:00 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 13:23 Completing the human genome puzzle with the missing piece A brief history of the Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project is one of the most important biomedical research projects of the 20th Century. It aimed to sequence all the human genome and DNA, and by 2003, the Human Genome Project had generated the first sequence of the human genome, accounting for over 90% of the information. By 2022, the sequence was finalised, but it only contained information about the female genome, with two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome was missing as it contains many repetitive sequences that are not transcribed to messenger RNA, making it difficult to assemble it fully. However, due to advancements in sequencing technology, a new study in 2023 published in Nature aimed to, for the first time, assemble complete sequences of multiple human Y chromosomes from 43 unrelated males around the world. Sanger DNA sequencing method DNA sequencing is a method used to determine the exact order of DNA bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) within a DNA molecule. Due to the aim of the Human Genome Project (to sequence all of the DNA), many methods were experimented with, leading to scientists ultimately refining, improving and using the Sanger DNA sequencing method. This method is the most accurate method for sequencing small fragments of DNA. It involves using patient DNA in a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A mix of normal bases and chain-terminating bases is added. Chain-terminating bases stop DNA growth, creating fragments of different lengths, each ending in a terminator. The DNA fragments are separated by size through capillary gel electrophoresis. Each terminator base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) has a different fluorescent tag. The fragments appear in order of length, and their fluorescent tags are recorded. This information is used to create a chromatograph, which is compared to a reference to identify variants, allowing DNA analysis. Analysis of the Y chromosome In 2023, a study published in Nature assembled complete sequences of multiple human Y chromosomes from 43 unrelated males around the world. The study discovered a high level of structural variation across the Y chromosomes, which was unexpected. The analysis showed a high level of diversity of the Y chromosome, and it is the beginning of the exploration of male genetic diversity. The study highlights that the information gained can be used in various fields of biomedicine, such as to gain more insight into the function and evolution of the human genome and to understand more about Y chromosome variants. This discovery can also lead to improved genetic testing accuracy and targeted treatments for personalised medicine. Written by Naoshin Haque Project Gallery