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From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The fundamental engineering flaws of the Titan Submersible Last updated: 14/03/26, 20:23 Published: 03/04/25, 07:00 From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design On June 18, 2023, the Titan submersible made headlines when the expedition to visit the wreck of the Titanic ended in tragedy. In the North Atlantic Ocean, 3,346 metres below sea-level, the underwater vessel catastrophically imploded along with its five passengers. Two years on, this article deep dives into the key points of failure in engineering and reflects on what we can learn from the fatal incident. The Titanic and OceanGate’s mission The Titanic wreck lies around 3800 metres below sea level in the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately 370 miles off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. Since the wreckage was finally discovered in September 1985, over seven decades after the boat sank from an iceberg collision on the 15th of April 1912, less than 250 people have personally viewed the wreckage. Despite many discussions to raise the wreckage back to the surface, the complete Titanic structure has become too fragile after over a century underwater and will likely disintegrate completely over the next few decades. Hence, viewing the Titanic in person is only possible with an underwater vessel, a feat which has been achieved successfully since 1998 by a range of companies seating historians, oceanographers, and paying tourists. The Titan submersible is one such vessel developed by OceanGate Expeditions. Titan has been attempting dives to the Titanic wreck since 2017 and was first successful in 2021, when it went on to complete 13 successful dives. According to the passenger liability waiver however, this was only 13 out of 90 attempted dives (a 14% success rate), as a result of communication signal failures, structural concerns, strong currents, poor visibility, or logistical issues. On the many failed attempts, the mission was either cancelled or aborted before the Titan reached the depth of the Titanic wreck. Despite concerns raised by engineers, poor success rates in testing and simulation, as well as previous instances of the Titan spiralling out of control, OceanGate continued with their first planned dive of 2023, leading to its catastrophic implosion that claimed five lives. The Titan is the first fatality of a submersible dive to the Titanic. What went wrong: structural design When designing an underwater vessel to reach a certain depth, the body of the vessel called the hull, would need to be capable of withstanding an immense amount of pressure. For 10 metres of depth, the pressure on the submersible’s hull increases by one atmosphere (1 bar or 101kPa). To reach the wreck of the Titanic 3800 metres underwater, the hull would be required to withstand the pressure of over 38 MPa (see Figure 1 ). For perspective, this is around 380 times the pressure we feel on the surface and about 200 times the pressure of a standard car tyre. Over one square inch, this equates to nearly 2500kg. To withstand such high hydrostatic pressure, a submersible hull is normally constructed with high-strength steel and titanium alloys in a simple spherical, elliptical, or cylindrical shell. At this point we discover some of the key points of failure in the Titan. The Titan’s hull was made from Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), i.e., multiple layers of carbon fibre mixed with polymers. Carbon fibre is a high-tech and extremely desirable material for its tensile strength, strength-to-weight ratio, high chemical resistance, and temperature tolerance. The material has proven itself since the 1960’s in the aerospace, military, and motorsport industries, however the Titan was the first case of using carbon fibre for a crewed submersible. At first glance, the use of a carbon fibre hull suggests the advantage of significantly reducing the vessel's weight (50-75% lighter than titanium) while maintaining tensile strength, which will allow for a greater natural buoyancy. Without the need for added buoyancy systems, the hull would be able to hold space for more passengers at one time. As carbon fibre is cheaper than titanium and passengers pay $250,000 a seat, carbon fibre may appear to be a better business plan. However, although carbon fibre performs extremely well under tension loads, it has no resistance to compression loads (as with any fibre) unless it is infused with a polymer to hold the fibres together (see Figure 2 ). The polymer in the CFRP holding the fibres in alignment is what allows the material to resist compressive loads without bending by distributing the forces to all the fibres in the structure. This means the material is an isotropic: it is much stronger in the direction of the fibres than against (the same way wood is stronger along the grain). Therefore, individual layers of the CFRP must be oriented strategically to ensure the structure can withstand an expected load in all directions. A submersible hull intending to reach the ocean floor must withstand a tremendous compressive load, much higher than carbon fibre is typically optimised for in the aviation and automotive racing industries, and carbon fibre under such high compressive load is currently an under-researched field. Although it is likely possible for carbon fibre to be used in deep-sea vessels in the future, it would require rigorous testing and intensive research which was not done by OceanGate. Despite this, the Titan had apparently attempted 90 dives since 2017 and the repeated cycling of the carbon fibre composite at a high percentage of its yield strength would have made the vessel especially vulnerable to any defects reaching a critical level. Upon simple inspection, the Titan also raises other immediate structural concerns. Submersible hulls are usually spherical or slightly elliptical, which would allow the vessel to receive an equal amount of pressure at every point. The unique tube-shape of the Titan’s hull (see cover image) would not equally distribute pressure, and this issue was ‘addressed’ with the use of separate end-caps. The joints that attach the end-caps to the rest of the hull only introduced further structural weaknesses, which made the vessel especially vulnerable to collapsing from micro-cracks. The Titan’s glass viewpoint was another structurally unsound feature [Figure 3]. David Lochridge, the former director of OceanGate’s marine operations between 2015 and 2018 who was fired for raising concerns about the submersible’s safety features, claimed the company that made the material only certified its use down to 1300m (falling over 2000 metres short of the Titanic’s depth). The immense forces on materials without the properties to withstand the compressive pressure made the Titan’s failure inevitable. Cutting corners in the interest of business The foundation of the implosion’s cause was OceanGate’s insistence on cutting corners in Titan’s design to save time and money. The Titan was not certified for deep-sea diving by any regulatory boards and instead asked passengers to sign a waiver stating the Titan was ‘experimental’. As underwater vessels operate in international waters, there is no single official organisation to ensure ship safety standards, and it is not essential to have a vessel certified. However, many companies choose to have their ships assessed and certified by one of several organisations. According to The Marine Technology Society submarine committee, there are only 10 marine vessels capable of reaching Titanic level depths, all of which are certified except for the Titan. According to a blog post on the company website, OceanGate claimed the way that the Titan had been designed fell outside the accepted system - but it “does not mean that OceanGate does not meet standards where they apply”. The post continued that classification agencies “slowed down innovation… bringing an outside entity up to speed on every innovation before it is put into real-world testing is anathema to rapid innovation”. According to former engineers and consultants at OceanGate, the Titan’s pressure hull also did not undergo extensive full-depth pressure testing, as is standard for an underwater vessel. Carbon fibre - the primary material of the Titan’s hull - is extremely unpredictable under high compressive loads, and currently has no real way to measure fatigue. This makes it an unreliable and dangerous material to be used for deep-sea dives. OceanGate CEO Stockton Rush, who was a passenger on the Titan during its last fatal dive in 2023, described the glue holding the submersible’s structure together as “pretty simple” in a 2018 video, admitting “if we mess it up, there’s not a lot of room for recovery”. Having attempted 90 dives with a 14% success rate since 2017, it was inevitable that micro-cracks in the Titan from repeated dives, if not for the extremely sudden failure modes of carbon fibre composites, would result in the vessel's instantaneous implosion. On the 15th of July 2022 (dive 80), Titan experienced a "loud acoustic event" likely form the hull’s carbon fibre delaminating, which was heard by the passengers onboard and picked up by Titan's real-time monitoring system (RTM). Data from the RTM later revealed that the hull had permanently shifted following this event. Continued use of the Titan beyond this event without further testing of the carbon fibre - because the hull was ‘too thick’ - prevented micro-cracks and air bubbles in the epoxy resin from being discovered until it was too late. Another fundamental flaw lies in the Titan’s sole means of control being a Bluetooth gaming controller. While this is not an uncommon practice, especially in the case of allowing tourists to try controlling the vessel once it has reached its location, it is essential that there are robust secondary and even tertiary controls that are of a much higher standard. The over-reliance on wireless and touch-screen control, particularly one operating on Bluetooth which is highly sensitive to interference, was a dangerous and risky design choice. Although it was unlikely to have caused the implosion on its own, cutting corners in the electronics and controls of a vessel that needs to be operated in dangerous locations is irresponsible and unsafe. Submersibles operating at extreme depths require robust fail-safes, including emergency flotation systems and locator beacons. Again, OceanGate cut corners in developing Titan’s emergency recovery systems, using very basic methods and off-the-shelf equipment. In the event of catastrophic failure, the absence of autonomous emergency measures is fatal. With the extent of damage and poor design to the vessel’s carbon fibre hull, it was unlikely that even the most advanced emergency systems could prevent the magnitude of the implosion. Still, the carelessness displayed in almost every aspect of the submersible’s design was ultimately the cause of the fatal Titan tragedy. Conclusion In a 2019 interview, OceanGate’s former CEO Stockton Rush said: There hasn’t been an injury in the commercial sub industry in over 35 years. It’s obscenely safe because they have all these regulations. But it also hasn’t innovated or grown — because they have all these regulations. In the world of engineering, shortcuts can be catastrophic. Whilst risk-taking is undeniably essential to support innovation, Titan’s fatal tragedy was entirely preventable and unnecessary if the proper risk management techniques were employed. OceanGate had the potential to revolutionise the use of carbon fibre in deep-sea industries but consistently cutting corners and not investing in the required real-world testing, as well as the arrogance to ignore expert warnings, is what ultimately led to Titan’s story fatefully echoing the overconfidence of Titanic’s “she is unsinkable!”. Whilst regulations on submersibles tighten and research into carbon fibre is increased, it is important to take the fundamental cause of the tragic implosion as a wake-up call. Assumptions are deadly: trust the science, invest in the proper research, test every bolt, and never underestimate the ocean’s relentless power. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Engineering case study- silicon hydrogel / Superconductors / Building Physics Project Gallery

Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and the other sciences. Log In Welcome to Scientia News DELIVERING INFORMATIVE CONTENT Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and other sciences. We hope this platform helps you discover something that inspires your curiosity, and encourages you to learn more about important topics in STEM. Meet the Official Team NAVIGATE AND CLICK THE PHOTOS BELOW TO LEARN MORE ABOUT US! To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. Latest Articles chemistry Molecular blueprints: the synthesis of ibuprofen View More chemistry Looking at the rare earth elements View More biology Ethnic Health Inequalities View More pharmacology The promising effects of magic mushrooms for depression View More CONTACT CONTACT US Scientia News welcomes anyone who wants to share their ideas and write for our platform. If you are interested in realising your writing potential with us AND live in the UK; and/ or would like to give feedback: Email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com or fill in our GET IN TOUCH form below and we'll be in contact... Follow us on our socials for the latest updates. Comment, like and share! Join our mailing list below for latest site content. You can also sign up to become a site member . SUBSCRIPTION Join our mailing list to receive alerts for new articles and other site content. Be sure to check your spam/ junk folders in case emails are sent there. Email Subscribe GET IN TOUCH First Name Last Name Email Message Send Thanks for submitting!

From confusion to career opportunities Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unlocking the power of statistics 14/03/26, 19:56 Last updated: Published: 19/09/23, 16:23 From confusion to career opportunities During my time studying maths there was always one topic that would trip me up: statistics. Being an A-level physics student, I could understand why calculus is useful in real life, using differentiation to calculate the velocities of projectiles. And I could look and see how geometry is used in buildings and structures. However, statistics often made me feel unrelatable and lost, as I was unable to see real-world applications. But today, I wish to alter my old perspective. First and foremost, you might be pleasantly surprised to learn that statistics opens doors to some of the most lucrative careers available today. We'll delve into roles such as quantitative analysts, who boast a national average salary of £130,000 per year. But if finance is not your cup of tea, there are many other rewarding career paths to explore, from becoming a data scientist to forecasting the weather as a meteorologist. In this article, I wish to unveil the world of statistics, revealing its importance and shedding light on its real-life applications. My hope is to not only inspire those who are already passionate about statistics but also to ignite motivation in individuals who, like me, found themselves in a similar predicament a few years ago. The Actuary Less well known when compared to a banker or engineer, an actuary’s sole purpose is to analyse risk for multiple different scenarios. It may sound simple on first inspection, but being an actuary is a very well-established career requiring many years of learning followed by some of the most challenging exams in the job market. An actuary attempts to quantify the risk of an event happening so that financial decisions can be made with an objective view. A good and close-to-home example of this is being either accepted or rejected from a credit card. As a younger person below the age of 21, the chances of you getting accepted for a credit card are extremely and quite painfully low. This is because banks, and more specifically, credit score providers, deem you to be a high-risk person to lend to. They think this because you have a very short credit history, are unaware of how responsible you are with money, and are more afraid to lend you their cash. In other words, they don’t want you to spend their money on going out and drinking booze. The insurance industry is, however, the biggest industry when it comes to actuaries. Both life and non-life actuaries work in teams with insurance providers to establish whether a client, company, or investment is worthwhile. Actuaries apply both statistics and actuarial science (similar to applied statistics) to real-life situations, evaluate whether to offer a premium to a customer, and then establish what that premium is. You may see in advertisements that life insurance costs as little as £10 a month for a 20-year-old compared to someone who is 65. This is because the younger you are, the less likely you are to claim against your policy. Actuaries put together vast amounts of information about people, lifestyle choices, and other factors to help determine the probability that someone may claim, suggesting a ‘fair’ premium that an insurance company may offer. Without the help of an actuary, insurance companies would either charge too much, making people disadvantaged, or charge too little, in which case they would have to default on their policy and be unable to pay out any claims. Although this seems very specific, the role of an actuary is becoming increasingly important as people live longer lives and insurance companies become more fearful of defaulting.To put it into perspective, actuaries on average earn £85,000 working in London, putting you well in the top 10% of earners in the UK. The Quantitative Analyst Similar to an actuary, quantitative analysts do exactly what is said on the tin. They use quantitative methods to analyse data. Often, companies like investment banks, hedge funds, and pension funds will hire front-office ‘quants’. The aim of the game is to send out trades as quickly as possible before all the other trading offices do. These big companies have links directly to the trading floor, so every millisecond counts, and it’s a quant's job to devise a trading strategy that beats the rest and operates in the least amount of time. Quants are masters of statistics and mathematics, and for this reason, high-frequency trading firms like Hudson River Trading offer salaries to top mathematical minds in excess of $500,000. The role of quantitative researchers is to explore the latest statistical articles being published by top universities and generate strategies that can be implemented in the stock market. This job is not one to be taken lightly, as salary is often based on performance, but someone who is motivated to explore the ins and outs of statistics may find themselves loving the life of a quant. The Meteorologist Meteorologists are the people that we incorrectly blame for the bad weather that we have. And they are also the people we blame when we forget to take a coat and get soaked on the long walk back home. But what do meteorologists actually do? And is it any more than just an educated guess? Meteorologists, along with climatologists, collect millions of pieces of information every hour of every day across their 195,000 weather stations spread all around the globe. These stations collect key pieces of information, including atmospheric pressure, temperature, speed, rain, humidity, and many other components of current weather conditions. With this information, meteorologists begin to paint a picture of what the current weather climate is like and then use forecasting methods and statistical models to estimate how the weather is going to change. The probability that it might rain is much more than an educated guess; it is the probability that if this situation happened 100 times, it would rain the estimated number of times (i.e., if there was an 80% chance of rain, it would rain 80 times out of the hundred over a large enough sample). As a forecaster, you will collect this information and input it into very advanced systems to analyse and give an outcome, but as a researcher, you will help derive these statistical forecasting models and improve them so that our apps and news channels are even more precise. Not only that, but you may also find yourself researching the effects of climate change from the data that you analyse, and maybe even how the weather affects the spread of pollution and disease. Meteorologists get paid a modest salary of around £33,000 per year, which may seem small when compared to that of a quant, but the quality of life is far more generous than some careers in finance. To conclude In conclusion, statistics, once a perplexing subject for many, can offer an exciting and rewarding career. From the meticulous work of actuaries, assessing risks and financial decisions, to the world of quantitative analysts, where every millisecond counts, and even to the indispensable role of meteorologists, who help us navigate the weather and climate change, statistics holds the power to transform lives and industries. As we've explored, statistics is not just about numbers and formulas; it's about making sense of the world, predicting outcomes, and creating informed decisions. So, whether you're a seasoned statistician or someone who, like me, once felt lost in its complexities, remember that statistics isn't merely a subject to conquer—it's a key that unlocks doors to some of the most intriguing and well-compensated careers out there. Written by George Chant Project Gallery

An extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you.  Discover Your Next Great Read Deep Dive into STEM Books Here you can explore an extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid or complement your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you. Our Curated Selections: Intern Blues by Robert Marion, M.D. The Emperor of All Maladies by Siddhartha Mukherjee The Molecule by Dr Rick Sax and Marta New

Life's origins Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The genesis of life 09/03/26, 14:46 Last updated: Published: 23/11/23, 11:22 Life's origins Did the egg or the chicken come first? This question is often pondered regarding life’s origin and how biological systems came into play. How did chemistry move to biology to support life? And how have we evolved into such complex organisms? The ingredients, conditions and thermodynamically favoured reactions hold the answer, but understanding the inner workings of life’s beginnings poses a challenge for us scientists. Under an empirical approach, how can we address these questions if these events occurred 3.7 billion years ago? The early atmosphere of the Earth To approach these questions, it is relevant to understand the atmospheric contents of the primordial Earth. With a lack of oxygen, the predominant make-up included CO2, NH3 and H2, creating a reducing environment for the drive of chemical reactions. When the earth cooled, and the atmosphere underwent condensation, pools of chemicals were made - this is known as “primordial soup”. It is thought that reactants could collide from this “soup” to synthesise nucleotides by forming nitrogenous bases and bonds, such as glycosidic or hydrogen bonds. Such nucleotide monomers were perhaps polymerised to create long chains for nucleic acid synthesis, that is, RNA, via this abiotic synthesis. Thus, if we have nucleic acids, genetic information could have been stored and passed later down the line, allowing for our eventual evolution. Note: there has now been a c hange in terminology from primordial soup, to focus on protocellular systems and the geochemically driven origin of life hypothesis. Conditions for nucleic acid synthesis The environment supported the formation of monomers for said polymerisation. For example, hydrothermal vents could have provided the reducing power via protons, allowing for the protonation of structures and providing the free energy for bond formation. Biology, of course, relies on protons for the proton gradient in ATP synthesis at the mitochondrial membrane and, in general, acid-base catalysis in enzymatic reactions. Therefore, it is safe to say protons played a vital role in life’s emergence. The eventual formation of structures by protonation and deprotonation provides the enzymatic theory of life’s origins. That is, some self-catalytic ability for replication in a closed system and the evolution of complex biological units. This is the “RNA World” theory, which will be discussed later. Another theory is wet and dry cycling at the edge of hydrothermal pools. This theory Is provided by David Deamer, who suggests that nucleic acid monomers placed in acidic (pH 3) and hot (70-90 degrees Celsius) pools could undergo condensation reactions for ester bond formation. It highlights the need for low water activity and a “kinetic trap” in which the condensation reaction rate exceeds the hydrolysation rate. The heat of the pool provides a high activation energy for the localised generation of polymers without the need for a membrane-like compartment. But even if this was possible and nucleic acids could be synthesised, how could we “keep them safe”? This issue is addressed by the theory of "protocells" formed from fatty acid vesicles. Jack Szostak suggests phase transition (that is pH decrease) allowed for the construction of bilayer membranes from fatty acid monomers, which is homologous to what we see now in modern cells. The fatty acids in these vesicles have the ability to “flip-flop” to allow for the exchange of nutrients or nucleotides in and out of the vesicles. It is suggested that clay encapsulated nucleotide monomers were brought into the protocell by this flip-flop action. Vesicles could grow by competing with surrounding smaller vesicles. Larger vesicles are thought to be those harbouring long polyanionic molecules - that is RNA - which creates immense osmotic pressure pushing outward on the protocell for absorption of smaller vesicles. This represents the Darwinian “survival of the fittest” theory in which cells with more RNA are favoured for survival. The RNA World Hypothesis DNA is often seen as the “Saint” of all things biology, given its ability to store and pass genetic information to mRNA and then mRNA can use this information to synthesise polypeptides. This is the central dogma, of course. However, the RNA world hypothesis suggests that RNA arose first due to its ability to form catalytic 3D structures and store genetic information that could have allowed for further synthesis of DNA. This makes sense when you think about how the primer for DNA replication is formed out of RNA. If RNA did not come first, how could DNA replication be possible? Many other scenarios suggest RNA evolution preceded that of DNA. So, if RNA arose as a simple polymer, its ability to form 3D structures could have allowed ribozymes (RNA with enzymatic function) within these protocells. Ribozymes, such as RNA ligase and polymerase, could have allowed for self-replication, and then mutation in primary structure could have allowed evolution to occur. If we have a catalyst, in a closed system, with nutrient exchange, then why would life’s formation not be possible? But how can we show that RNA can arise in this way? The answer to this is SELEX - selective evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (5). This system was developed by Jack Szostak, who wanted to show the evolution of complex RNA, ribozymes in a test tube was possible. A pool of random, fragmented RNA molecules can be added to a chamber and run through a column with beads. These beads harbour some sequence or attraction to the RNA molecules the column is selecting for. Those that attach can be eluted, and those that do not can be disregarded. The bound RNA can be rerun through SELEX, and the conditions in the column can be more specific in that only the most complementary RNAs bind. This allowed for the development of RNA ligase and RNA polymerase - thus, self-replication of RNA is possible. SELEX helps us understand how the evolution of RNA in the primordial Earth could have been possible. This is also established by meteorites, such as carbon chondrites that burnt up in the earth’s atmosphere encapsulating the organic material in the centre. Chondrites found in Antarctica have been found to contain 80+ amino acids (some of which are not compatible with life). These chondrites also included nucleobases. So, if such monomers can be synthesised in a hostile environment in outer space/in our atmosphere, then the theory of abiotic synthesis is supported. Furthermore, it is relevant to address the abiotic synthesis of amino acids since the evolution of catalytic RNA could have some complementarity for polypeptide synthesis. Miller and Urey (1953) set up a simple experiment containing gas representing the early primordial earth (Methane, hydrogen, ammonia, water). They used a conduction rod to provide the electrical discharge (meant to simulate lightning or volcanic eruption) to the gases and then condensed them. The water in the other chamber turned pink/ brown. Following chromatography, they identified amino acids in the mixture. These simple manipulations could have been homologous to early life. There has lately been a new concept introduced of the thioester-RNA link, which unites the RNA world theory with the thioester world theory (which states that thioesters played a powerful role in the earliest stages of life). Recent findings suggest that the beginnings of life likely formed from both thioesters and RNA. Conclusion The abiotic synthesis of nucleotides and amino acids for their later polymerisation would support the theories that address chemistry moving toward biological life. Protocells containing such polymers could have been selected based on their “fitness” and these could have mutated to allow for the evolution of catalytic RNA. The experiments mentioned represent a small fragment of those carried out to answer the questions of life’s origins. The evidence provides a firm ground for the emergence of life to the complexity of what we know today. Written by Holly Kitley Project Gallery

Navigating the silence Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unveiling the underreported challenges of endometriosis 09/03/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 25/11/23, 11:22 Navigating the silence What is endometriosis? Endometriosis is a chronic, neuro-inflammatory disease that affects 1 in 10 women in the UK. It is associated with debilitating chronic pelvic pain caused by tissue alike the lining of the womb (uterus) grows outside the uterus in other places like the ovaries and fallopian tubes. Endometriosis can affect any woman of reproductive age with a lifelong impact and can even lead to infertility. During a normal menstrual cycle, the body undergoes monthly hormonal changes. Natural hormonal release causes the uterus lining to thicken in preparation of a fertilised egg. If there is no pregnancy, the uterus lining will break down and bleed and is then released from the body in the form of a period. In endometriosis, tissue alike to the uterus lining tissue behaves in the same way the uterus tissue behaves every month during the menstrual period: building up, breaking down then bleeding. Unlike the womb tissue broken down blood, this blood has no way to leave. The internal bleeding causes inflammation, debilitating pain, and scar tissue formation. The symptoms are: · Painful, heavy, long periods · Infertility · Pain during or after sex · Painful bowel movements · Mood disorders like anxiety or depression · Chronic fatigue · Chronic pelvic pain The challenges of endometriosis Contrary to popular belief, period pain is not normal and can be experienced by those without endometriosis. The main point is if your period pain is interfering with your daily life, please consult your doctor. There are many challenges behind endometriosis from the hard time a patient has to get a diagnosis, to the severely under-research of the condition. Unfortunately, since endometriosis shares symptoms with many other conditions, diagnosis can be delayed and strenuous with recent research showing the average time to get a firm diagnosis being 7.5 years. A 2021 focus group in the Netherlands also shows the many issues with diagnosing endometriosis. Many of the focus group reported having a hard time finding a doctor who does not dismiss their concerns, undermine their pain, or dismiss them with paracetamol or ibuprofen which patients have reported as not strong for the pain endometriosis causes. Little research has been done on how effective paracetamol or ibuprofen is with endometriosis pain, but anecdotal evidence suggests it is not effective. Many of them reported their concerns being unheard, told to come back when they want to have a child and that their pain is normal, so they don’t need to see a doctor. Research for endometriosis is heavily underfunded; women reproductive health disorders are generally underfunded. There is a huge gender disparity with disorders that mostly affect men being over-funded while disorders affecting mostly women being underfunded. A 2018 analysis by the UK Clinical Research Collaboration reported findings of only 2.1% of public funded medical research going towards childbirth and reproductive health which is down from 2.5% in 2014. A 16% funding decrease over a 4-year period. The UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) has funded just over 40 endometriosis-related projects since 2003. However, diabetes which has the same incident rate but affecting both sexes instead of one like endometriosis has been funded 1891 projects in the same time. Just over 1m was funded to 6 of the endometriosis projects compared almost 250 diabetes projected with more than 10 receiving funding greater than £10 million. In 2020 the UK’s All-Part Parliament Group (APPG) report on endometriosis calls the attention of the cause of the disorder being unclear: Historically, with limited investment in research into women’s health in general, there’s been so little investment in research into endometriosis that we don’t even know what causes it, and without knowing the cause, a cure cannot be found. The APPG called for more investment into the cause, diagnosis, treatment, and management options of endometriosis. Without investment in research, this condition will rob the next generation of women [of] the education, care, and support they deserve. With more awareness being brought up by endometriosis charities, researchers and the affected group, the hard work and motivation may pay off soon. That being said, relugolix combination therapy for this disease was approved in March 2025, with linzagolix being approved a few months later in May 2025- both under the NHS. Written by Blessing O. Related articles: Breakthrough in endometriosis treatment / Gynaecology Project Gallery

The tireless challenge Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Childhood stunting in developing countries 09/03/26, 15:17 Last updated: Published: 09/03/24, 17:53 The tireless challenge Introduction Certain countries worldwide face numerous challenges that decrease their populations' quality of life; some include hunger, poverty and rising harmful emissions, which are complicated to resolve. This is because international cooperation is needed to tackle them effectively. Another significant challenge faced is stunting, defined as diminished growth and development that children experience, because of undernutrition or lack of sufficient nutrients, frequent infections and deficient psychosocial interventions, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). As of 2025, the latest findings reveal that an estimated 127 million children in the globe are affected by stunting. WHO's target of stunting reduction by 2030 has not yet been met (the target was originally for 2025, but was forced to be pushed back due to slow progress). With this definition in mind, this article will delve into stunting and malnutrition before discussing how stunting is linked to infectious diseases and harmful emissions, and steps forward to reduce this condition in developing countries, as shown in Figure 2 . Undernutrition and stunting Stunting is one of the consequences of undernutrition, possibly due to reduced synthesis of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the body, leading to amplified growth hormone (6). As for the determinants of undernutrition, a paper from Brazil found socioeconomic characteristics like family income and biological ones such as age notably linked to undernutrition. Another result of undernutrition is being underweight. A systematic review from Ethiopia focusing on nutrition in 5-year-old children amalgamated 18 studies. It estimated that stunting and being underweight had 42% and 33% prevalence, respectively; it could be inferred that undernutrition is linked to stunting. Additionally, a paper that used data from 32 Sub-Saharan African countries discovered that providing maternal health insurance (MHI) reduces stunting and being underweight, which explains that boys are more likely to be affected by stunting than girls in all UN regions and sub-regions. In turn, MHI is necessary for supporting children’s health. Non-nutritional factors and stunting As for infections and stunting, an article highlighted that children with stunted growth are vulnerable to diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases besides malaria. Moreover, conditions worsen undernutrition, causing a vicious cycle between them, manifesting into growth defects. Furthermore, a systematic review of 80 studies found a connection between helminth infections and stunting, but insufficient evidence supported this hypothesis. With this said, there may need to be additional studies to investigate this further. With undernutrition’s impact on the immune system, newborns and small children with extreme protein deficiency have smaller thymuses and underdeveloped peripheral lymphoid organs, leading to immunological cell defects such as reduced T-cell count. Before concluding this article, exposure to harmful emissions is a recurring problem that affects everyone, including children. Different observational studies proposed that inhaling nitrogen oxide and particulate matter in utero could modify DNA methylation, possibly influencing foetal growth. Conclusion Reflecting on all the evidence in this article, stunting in developing countries is heading in a direction where it could become problematic. However, according to findings from UNICEF, stunting has gradually reduced between 2000 and 2020 in children under 5 years old. Nevertheless, awareness of stunting in developing countries is critical because it is the first step to tackling this health issue, and ultimately meet the WHO target by 2030. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Childhood obesity / Depression in children / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES Jamali D, Leigh J, Samara G, Barkemeyer R. Grand challenges in developing countries: Context, relationships, and logics. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility. 2021 Sep;30(S1):1–4. Maleta K. Undernutrition. Malawi medical journal: the journal of Medical Association of Malawi. 2006 Dec;18(4):189–205. World Health Organization. Stunting in a nutshell. www.who.int . 2015 Nov;19. Beal T, Tumilowicz A, Sutrisna A, Izwardy D, Neufeld LM. A review of child stunting determinants in Indonesia. Maternal & Child Nutrition. 2018 May 17;14(4):e12617. Vaivada T, Akseer N, Akseer S, Somaskandan A, Stefopulos M, Bhutta ZA. Stunting in childhood: an overview of global burden, trends, determinants, and drivers of decline. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2020 Aug 29;112. Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Alaaraj N, Ahmed S, Alyafei F, Hamed N, et al. Early and Long-term Consequences of Nutritional Stunting: From Childhood to Adulthood. Acta Bio Medica : Atenei Parmensis. 2021;92(1) Correia LL, Silva AC e, Campos JS, Andrade FM de O, Machado MMT, Lindsay AC, et al. Prevalence and determinants of child undernutrition and stunting in semiarid region of Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública. 2014 Feb 1;48:19–28. Abdulahi A, Shab-Bidar S, Rezaei S, Djafarian K. Nutritional status of under five children in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 2017 Mar 15;27(2):175. Kofinti RE, Koomson I, Paintsil JA, Ameyaw EK. Reducing children’s malnutrition by increasing mothers’ health insurance coverage: A focus on stunting and underweight across 32 sub-Saharan African countries. Economic Modelling. 2022 Dec 1;117:106049. Vonaesch P, Tondeur L, Breurec S, Bata P, Nguyen LBL, Frank T, et al. Factors associated with stunting in healthy children aged 5 years and less living in Bangui (RCA). Wieringa F, editor. PLOS ONE. 2017 Aug 10;12(8):e0182363. Raj E, Calvo-Urbano B, Heffernan C, Halder J, Webster JP. Systematic review to evaluate a potential association between helminth infection and physical stunting in children. Parasites & Vectors. 2022 Apr 20;15(1). Schaible UE, Kaufmann SHE. Malnutrition and Infection: Complex Mechanisms and Global Impacts. PLoS Medicine. 2007 May 1;4(5):e115. Sinharoy SS, Clasen T, Martorell R. Air pollution and stunting: a missing link? The Lancet Global Health. 2020 Apr;8(4):e472–5. UNICEF. Malnutrition in Children. UNICEF DATA. 2023. Project Gallery

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 09/03/26, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs We are in the era of innovation and cutting-edge technology in biosciences and health. This article goes through some of the most remarkable technologies slowly conquering the world of biosciences. Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Gene editing is based on the idea that correcting the genetic mistake that causes a disease offers a permanent result than curing the symptoms. This technique allows scientists to alter the DNA of cells by deleting, adding or modifying genes. There are numerous ways to edit a gene. The most widely used and revolutionary method for gene editing is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR- associated protein 9. The process begins with the design of a synthetic RNA molecule, known as guide RNA (gRNA) that matches the target gene sequence. The gRNA, combined with the Cas9 protein, forms a complex that is then introduced into the target cells. Cas9 acts like scissors, guided by the gRNA, to locate the precise location on the DNA where the genetic modification is intended. Once the target site is identified, Cas9 induces a break in the DNA strand. The cell's natural DNA repair mechanisms then come into play. The non- homologous end joining pathway introduces insertions and deletions at the site, resulting in gene knockout or inactivation. On the other hand, once a DNA template with homology to the sequences is present, the homology-directed repair pathway allows the incorporation of a desired genetic sequence, facilitating gene insertion or replacement. Several other gene-editing techniques have been developed, each with unique approaches. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) are two examples. These methods also use proteins that act as molecular scissors to cut the DNA at specific locations. ZFNs use zinc finger proteins to bind to target DNA sequences, while TALENs use transcription activator-like effector proteins. As the field of gene editing rapidly advances, these diverse methods contribute to the expanding toolkit available for researchers and hold promise for addressing a wide array of applications, from medical treatments to agricultural improvements. CAR T-cells Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a new type of immunotherapy, considered to be the new fighters in the war on cancer. In general, immunotherapies use the patient’s immune system to fight the cancer. This therapy promises more specificity than traditional therapies and more permanent results. T-cells naturally exist in the human organism, supporting the adaptive immune system. They are a group of lymphocytes in the blood or lymph tissue that target or kill specific pathogens. Each type of T-cell recognises specific pathogens. T-cells have proteins on their outer surface, called receptors and these receptors recognize specific proteins on the outer surface of the pathogen. Depending on the type of T-cell, after recognizing the specific pathogen, they are either killing the pathogen (killer T-cells) or signaling to other elements of immune system to attack the pathogen (helper T-cells). CAR T-cell therapy involves modifying a patient’s own T-cells to express a specific CAR on their surface. The receptor is designed to recognise antigens commonly found on the surface of cancer cells. To introduce CARs on the outer surface of T-cells, the patient’s T-cells are genetically modified in the lab. A viral vector is often used to knock out the original T-cell receptors and express the CAR construct. The newly created CAR-T-cells are introduced into the patients, where they target and destroy cancer cells expressing the specific antigen for which the CAR is designed. Incretins The scientific journal “Science” proclaimed glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists The Breakthrough of 2023. These medications, originally approved for type 2 diabetes, demonstrated remarkable weight-loss benefits. GLP-1 is a natural hormone produced in the intestines that plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we eat a meal, incretins, GLP-1 and Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), are released into the bloodstream. They bind to specific receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas, triggering insulin release. Incretins also suppress the release of glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of stored glucose. GLP-1 receptor agonists are medications that mimic the effects of GLP-1. They bind to the GLP-1 receptors on pancreatic beta cells, promoting insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon release. By mimicking the actions of GLP-1, these medications help to lower sugar levels, improve glucose control, and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia. At the same time, they seem to regulate the appetite and delay gastric emptying. New GLP-1 medicines have been produced to combat weight loss with high efficacies; some are available on the NHS while others can be purchased privately. iPSCs Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are becoming a new powerful weapon in lab research. They are a type of stem cell that can be generated from adult cells, such as skin or blood cells, through reprogramming. The process of creating iPSCs involves introducing a set of specific genes into the adult cells. These reprogramming factors reset the adult cells' developmental clock, turning them back into a pluripotent state, similar to embryonic stem cells. Once iPSCs are generated, they can be expanded indefinitely in the laboratory and induced to differentiate into various cell types. iPSCs are a valuable tool for studying human development and disease, as well as for drug discovery and regenerative medicine. iPSCs can be derived from patients with genetic diseases or other conditions, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms in a dish. By differentiating iPSCs into the relevant cell types affected by the disease, researchers can observe how the disease develops and test potential treatments. Moreover, iPSC-derived cells can screen potential drugs for safety and efficacy. Because iPSCs can differentiate into many different cell types, they provide a more accurate model of human biology than traditional cell culture methods. Finally, because iPSCs can be derived from individual patients, they offer the potential for personalised therapies. iPSCs could be used to generate patient-specific cells for transplantation or to test drugs for individual patients. Conclusion These cutting-edge technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for targeted interventions in the treatment of genetic disorders, cancer, diabetes, and a myriad of other diseases. However alongside their immense promise, these biotechnological techniques and therapies also raise important ethical, social and regulatory considerations. The implications of gene editing on human germline cells, the accessibility of advanced therapies, and the long-term safety of these interventions are critical areas that warrant careful attention and thoughtful deliberation. Embracing these innovative techniques with diligence holds the key to unlocking a future where previously incurable conditions become manageable, and where the boundaries of medical possibility are continually expanded. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Medical biotechnology / Mesenchymal stem cells Project Gallery

Linking a country's HDI with its COVID-19 mortality rate Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Correlation between wealthy countries and COVID-19 mortality rate 09/03/26, 08:30 Last updated: Published: 24/08/23, 16:20 Linking a country's HDI with its COVID-19 mortality rate Investigation title: Could there have been a correlation between very rich countries and COVID-19 mortality rate? Investigation period: December 2019- November 2020 (Approx. 1 year) Background The World Health Organisation (WHO) were first alerted about coronavirus on the 31st December 2019, by a lot of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China that has a population of 11 million. Furthermore, by 15th January 2020 there were precisely 289 cases recorded in countries such as: Thailand, Japan, S.Korea, and other places in China. And of the original cases there were 6 deaths, 51 severe cases - 12 of which were in critical condition. Meanwhile, the virus responsible for the cases was isolated and had its genome mapped, and was shared on 12th January. HDI represents the measurement of development. This is a composite of Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, mean years of education and life expectancy at birth, to measure the development of a country. It is calculated between a scale of 0 (least developed) to 1 (most developed) and all its values are to 3 significant figures. HDI values of 2019 and countries of HDI greater than 0.800 were used, as these are all regarded as very high HDI-countries so were in the scope of this investigation. Therefore, this research aimed to determine the impact of human development on the number of mortalities caused by SARS-CoV-2; where human development is measured by HDI, and the number of mortalities per hundred thousand from December 2019 to November 2020. Method Stratified sampling produced 12 countries, in descending order of HDI value: - Australia, Netherlands, UK, Austria, Spain, Estonia, UAE, Portugal, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Romania, Malaysia See Table 4 . Results See Chart 2 . r= 0.321 (3 s.f.) – Pearson’s test ∴ There is a moderate positive linear correlation between HDI and mortality rate due to SARS-CoV-2 per 100,000. Further stats testing- Spearman’s Rank ∑D^2 = 216 n = 12 Rs = 1 - (6 ∑D^2 )/ n(n^2 – n) = 1 - (6 x 216) 1584 = 0.182 (3 d.p.) Rs = 0.245 ＜ Critical Value (0.0.587591) ∴ There is no correlation between HDI and mortality rate due to coronavirus per 100,000. Conclusion The null hypothesis was accepted: there is no correlation between a country’s HDI and its mortality rate due to SARS-CoV-2. A biogeographical reason for this is that the more developed countries (such as those in my investigation- for example, the UK) have a higher level of immigration from latitudes closer to the equator, therefore there is a section of their society with increased susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 due to vitamin D deficiency. It is known that low vitamin D levels have a negative impact on immune function and that low vitamin D levels are common in the immigrant population. Therefore, it is likely that there is a link between vitamin D deficiency and mortality rate per 100,000, however this could be overstated due to confounding factors such as socioeconomic status, residence and employment. This would explain why countries at higher latitudes like the Netherlands have higher mortality rates per 100,000 (41.80) which is the third highest HDI-country in this investigation. Another explanation for this non-correlation could be that the less developed countries could be more used to dealing with a pandemic, or stress on a healthcare system, due to previous experience. For example, after the SARS outbreak, many countries decided to prepare in case of a pandemic, however some large HDI-countries such as the UK chose not to and even ignored other warnings on the effects of a pandemic (like the exercise signs simulation). Moreover, studies have shown that as a very high HDI-country becomes more developed, its healthcare system continues to develop until it reaches a peak where its effectiveness is undermined by economic benefit or interest. This would explain why the UK had a death rate of 342 per 100,000 and a total death count of around 232,422 (as of early 2026), and as of 2024/25, the UK recorded higher-than-expected death rates compared to other countries. Implications Since there is no correlation between a country’s HDI index and its mortality rate of COVID-19, this may apply to other diseases that became pandemics such as 1918’s Spanish Flu, or more recent ones like the SARS outbreak in the early 21st century. As for tropical diseases (malaria, dengue, chikungunya and others) and other illnesses such as the common cold and the flu, these diseases present in only certain geographies. This means that the countries with these ailments will be of a similar HDI and economical status; therefore there would be a correlation between a country’s HDI index and its mortality rate of these diseases, to a certain extent. Investigation conducted and written by Roshan Gill Tables, charts, stats and calculations by Roshan Gill Summary by Manisha Halkhoree ‘Implications’ section by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: Causality vs correlation / Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Global Health Injustices (series) Project Gallery

Vicuñas are members of the camelid family Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The cost of coats: celebrating 55 years of vicuña conservation 08/03/26, 18:25 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 14:03 Vicuñas are members of the camelid family This is article no. 1 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: Conserving the California condor . Is the softest coat in the world worth the near-extinction of a species? Just ask a vicuña, the wild cousin of llamas and alpacas. After being widely hunted in South America in the mid-20th century, the vicuña population thrives. Their recovery is considered one of the earliest successes in modern wildlife conservation, setting a precedent for sustainable development. October 2024 marked the 55th anniversary of the first international agreement to conserve these furry friends. In its honour, here is the story of vicuña conservation. What are vicuñas? Vicuñas have a unique biology. They are members of the camelid family ー which includes llamas, alpacas, and camels. Vicuñas live in high-altitude arid grasslands in South America (Figure 1). Their families consist of one alpha male, multiple females, and their offspring – while bachelor males form their own groups. Unlike other camelids, vicuña families remain together for most of the year. Vicuñas are herbivores with characteristic grazing and defecating behaviours that shape the surrounding plant community. Therefore, their ecological role cannot be underestimated. How vicuñas nearly went extinct However, vicuñas are hunted by humans because their wool is the finest and softest in the world. They are difficult to domesticate, and their habitat has no hiding spots, so they are easy poaching targets. Their intricate social structure means killing one vicuña has unforeseen impacts on the rest of the population. Consequently, expensive wool comes at the expense of a fascinating species. Demand for ultra-fine vicuña wool made hunting the animals a lucrative business in South America. Although 15th-16th century Inca rulers wore high-end clothing made from vicuña wool, it was usually harvested without killing the animals. European colonisation in the 19th-20th centuries opened vicuña wool to a wealthy international market, making poaching more popular and reckless than under Inca rule. These inconsiderate hunting practices continued after South American countries gained independence. As the luxurious wool remained in demand, the vicuña population decreased by over 99% between 1940 and 1965. Conservation policies saved the vicuñas South American national governments soon realised that indiscriminate vicuña hunting had to stop. As well as being ecologically important, vicuñas should not be allowed to go extinct because of their economic value. Peru had the largest proportion of the vicuña population, so in 1966 its government set up a nature reserve called Pampa Galeras. Creating this reserve involved negotiating with rural communities so that both people and vicuñas benefitted, for example, by employing locals at the reserve. This was one of the earliest examples of what is now known as sustainable development, which provides rural communities with a way of life that works alongside ecosystems rather than damaging them. Scientists found that vicuñas changed their social structures inside Pampa Galeras to maximise reproductive success. A 1987 study suggested that because females had more time to graze without the constant threat of predators and poachers, their reproductive success was higher. The creation of this reserve was the first of many successful steps South America took in the 1960s towards vicuña recovery. In October 1969, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia joined Peru in the efforts to conserve vicuñas. Their Convention for the Conservation of the Vicuña banned international trade and massively restricted hunting. Since the convention successfully led to a rise in vicuña numbers, it was modified in 1979 so that sustainable vicuña wool could be sold. Meanwhile, conservation laws were being established in the United States and European Union, the wildlife trade regulator CITES was established, and public awareness about the biodiversity crisis was rising. This international effort saved vicuñas from extinction, and today there are 350,000 to 500,000 of them ( Figure 2 ). Although governments have played a huge role in conserving the vicuña, local communities have also contributed. People in Chile and Peru have revived the non-lethal, Inca traditional way of shearing vicuña to harvest their wool. This has many benefits: locals are de-colonising their culture and re-connecting with their heritage, the wool provides a source of income, and the vicuña population remains stable. Vicuñas were classified as ‘least concern’ for conservation by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2018. Climate change, mite infestations, and competition with livestock are affecting the population today – but to a much smaller extent than poaching was. Thus, vicuñas are back to freely roaming the Andes. Conclusion Conserving the vicuña relied on political willpower and community involvement. In the 55+ years since, ecologists have used this charismatic and distinctive animal to galvanise wildlife conservation worldwide. The vicuña’s story should also remind us that what we wear has financial and ecological costs. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine igunanas / Gal á gapos tortoises REFERENCES Acebes, P., Wheeler, J., Baldo, J.L., Tuppia, P., Lichtenstein, G., Hoces, D. & Franklin, W.L. (2018) Vicuna: Vicugna vicugna . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 . Available from: https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/178499 (Accessed 12th September 2024). Bosch, P.C. & Svendsen, G.E. (1987) Behavior of Male and Female Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna Molina 1782) as It Relates to Reproductive Effort. Journal of Mammalogy . 68 (2): 425–429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/1381491 (Accessed 23rd September 2024). González, B. et al. (2019) Phylogeography and Population Genetics of Vicugna vicugna : Evolution in the Arid Andean High Plateau. Frontiers in Genetics . 10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00445 (Accessed 22nd September 2024). Karandikar, H., Donadio, E., Smith, J.A., Bidder, O.R. & Middleton, A.D. (2023) Spatial ecology of the Vicuña ( Lama vicugna ) in a high Andean protected area. Journal of Mammalogy . 104 (3): 509–518. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad018 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Lyster, S. (1985) VICUNA. In: International Wildlife Law: An Analysis of International Treaties concerned with the Conservation of Wildlife . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 88–94. Nolan, D. (2025) How an Ancestral Peruvian Ceremony Is Saving the Once-Endangered Vicuña . Smithsonian Magazine . Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/how-an-ancestral-peruvian-ceremony-is-saving-the-once-endangered-vicuna-180986933/ (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Reider, K.E. & Schmidt, S.K. (2021) Vicuña dung gardens at the edge of the cryosphere. Ecology . 102 (2): 1–3. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26998110 (Accessed 11th September 2024). UNESCO (2024) Ancestral practice promotes vicuña conservation and sustainable . unesco.org . Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/ancestral-practice-promotes-vicuna-conservation-and-sustainable-development-chiles-lauca-biosphere (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Vilá, B. & Arzamendia, Y. (2022) Weaving a vicuña shawl. Pastoralism . 12 (1): 46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-022-00260-6 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Wakild, E. (2020) Saving the Vicuña: The Political, Biophysical, and Cultural History of Wild Animal Conservation in Peru, 1964–2000. The American Historical Review . 125 (1): 54–88. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhz939 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Yacobaccio, H. (2009) The Historical Relationship Between People and the Vicuña. In: Gordon, I.J., ed. The Vicuña: The Theory and Practice of Community Based Wildlife Management . Boston, MA: Springer US: 7–20. Project Gallery