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To begin, there was the Humoral Theory, which looked at how disease was caused by gaps in fluids/humours which were: blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm, which equated to the elements of air, fire, earth and water respectively. The imbalance can come from habits like overeating Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Key historical events and theories in public health Last updated: 17/11/24 Published: 10/02/23 Introduction Now more than ever, public health has become crucial, which looks at promoting health and preventing disease within a society. There have been numerous events and concepts that have helped shape our current health systems today because without them, it is possible that our health systems would not have advanced without previous knowledge to evolve from. This article will focus on certain key events and concepts. Humoral Theory (Ancient Greek and Roman times) To begin, there was the Humoral Theory, which looked at how disease was caused by gaps in fluids/humours which were: blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm, which equated to the elements of air, fire, earth and water respectively. The imbalance can come from habits like overeating and too little/much exercise or external factors such as the weather. This theory was thought to have originated from the Hippocratic Corpus, a compilation of 60 medical documents written during the Ancient Greek era by Hippocrates. Although this theory as we know now is flawed, it did provide a foundational understanding of the human body and was utilised in public health for centuries before being subsequently discredited for the Germ Theory established during the mid-19th century. Miasma Theory (Ancient Greek era to the 19th century) Another theory replaced by Germ Theory was the Miasma theory, which stated that diseases like the plague and cholera were spread due to toxic vapours from the ground/decomposing matter. This theory along with the Humoral theory was accepted for thousands of years since the Ancient Greek era. With regards to the cholera outbreaks in the Victorian era, John Snow’s theory of polluted water causing cholera was initially not accepted by the scientific community during his death in 1858. Eventually though, his theory became accepted when Joseph Bazalgette worked to fix London’s sewage to prevent more deaths by cholera. This event with the Germ Theory led to Miasma and Humoral theories to be disproved, although they provided foundational understanding of how diseases spread. The discovery of vaccines (late 18th century) Aside from theories such as the four humors from above, there were concepts or discoveries that advanced public health measures such as vaccination, which eradicated smallpox and is still used today to prevent the severity of diseases such as COVID-19, influenza and polio. The origins of successful vaccines could be traced back to Edward Jenner who in 1796, retrieved samples from cowpox lesions from a milkmaid because he noticed that contracting cowpox protected against smallpox. With this in mind, he inoculated an 8 year old boy and after this, the boy developed mild symptoms, but then became better. Without this event, it is likely that the human population would significantly decrease as there is more vulnerability to infectious diseases and public health systems being weaker or less stable. Image of a COVID-19 injection. Germ Theory (19th century) As for current scientific theories relating to public health, there is the widely accepted Germ Theory by Robert Koch during the 19th century in the 1860s, stating that microorganisms can cause diseases. He established this theory by looking at cow’s blood through a microscope to see that they died from anthrax and observed rod-shaped bacteria with his hypothesis that they caused anthrax. To test this, he infected mice with blood from the cows and the mice also developed anthrax. After these tests, he developed postulates and even though there are limitations to his postulates at the time like not taking into account prions or that certain bacteria do not satisfy the postulates, they are vital to the field of microbiology, in turn making them important to public health. The establishment of modern epidemiology (19th century) Another key concept for public health is epidemiology, which is the study of the factors as well as distribution of chronic and infectious diseases within populations. One of epidemiology’s key figures is John Snow, who explored the cholera epidemics in London 1854, where he discovered that contaminated water from specific water pumps was the source of the outbreaks. Moreover, John Snow’s work on cholera earned him the title of the “father of modern epidemiology” along with his work providing a basic understanding of cholera. Therefore, this event among others has paved the way for health systems to become more robust in controlling outbreaks such as influenza and measles. Conclusion Looking at the key events above, it is evident that each of them has played an essential role in building the public health systems today through the contributions of the scientists. However, public health, like any other science, is constantly evolving and there are still more future advancements to look forward to that can increase health knowledge. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Are pandemics becoming less severe? / Rare zoonotic diseases / How bioinformatics helped with COVID-19 vaccines REFERENCES Lagay F. The Legacy of Humoral Medicine. AMA Journal of Ethics. 2002 Jul 1;4(7). Earle R. Humoralism and the colonial body. Earle R, editor. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2012. Halliday S. Death and miasma in Victorian London: an obstinate belief. BMJ. 2001 Dec 22;323(7327):1469–71. Riedel S. Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination. Proceedings (Baylor University Medical Center). 2005 Jan 18;18(1):21. National Research Council (US) Committee to Update Science, Medicine, and Animals. A Theory of Germs. Nih.gov. National Academies Press (US); 2017. Sagar Aryal. Robert Koch and Koch’s Postulates. Microbiology Notes. 2022. Tulchinsky TH. John Snow, Cholera, the Broad Street Pump; Waterborne Diseases Then and Now. National Library of Medicine. Elsevier; 2018. p. 77–99.

This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Summary of a liquid viscosity experiment Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 26/01/23 For this experiment the liquid viscosity of castor oil was determined by dropping steel spherical balls into a tube of castor oil. By considering the forces acting on the ball whilst in the fluid, it was found that the viscosity was 1.37±0.01 Pa s with a percentage error of 71.25% to the literature value of castor oil’s viscosity. This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, because as the particles slide past each other there will be work done to slide over another particle which will produce heat. For this experiment, laminar flow was a valid model for the sphere falling down the castor oil tube, because the terminal velocity of the sphere is quite small and was reached quickly so there will not be any turbulence effects. Laminar flow is defined when liquids flow smoothly with layers that do not mix, however when the layers do mix then the flow is turbulent with different layers of the fluid swirling and mixing. As the sphere was travelling through the fluid there were three forces acting on it: drag force, weight and buoyancy. This investigation can be furthered as viscosity is vital in the field of medicine. There are certain drugs that are directly injected into patients so by knowing the optimal path for the drug to be administered, the drug can reach the patient’s vital areas as quickly as possible. Overall, this experiment was interesting as it led to numerous insights as to what may have affected the motion of a sphere falling down the tube of a viscous fluid, regardless of the simplicity of the experiment. Even though the uncertainties did not overlap with the literature value and the percentage differences were very high (in part due to calculations of the momentum), the experiment was not a failure due to the scientific insight it provided to make a carry out a more accurate experiment. Written by Siam Sama Related article: Pendulum and its relation to gravity experiment

The researchers counted over 100,000 neurons and over a billion connections between them within this small cube of brain tissue. To find all the neurons and reconstruct the neural network, researchers had to slice the mouse brain 25,000 times. The issue is Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can a human brain be linked to a computer? Last updated: 06/11/24 Published: 28/12/22 Scientists in the US have succeeded in mapping the three-dimensional structure of the network of neurons in one cubic millimetre of mouse brain- a feat that would require two petabytes of storage. The human brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons, which is one million times the number of neurons found in a cubic millimetre of mouse brain. The researchers counted over 100,000 neurons and over a billion connections between them within this small cube of brain tissue. To find all the neurons and reconstruct the neural network, researchers had to slice the mouse brain 25,000 times. The issue is that the amount of data to store would kill any single computer. Memory and experiences that would have defined people later would be lost if they tried to store their minds too early. Using a computer too late may result in the accumulation of a mind with dementia, which would not work so well. Human tissue would have to be cut into zillions of thin slices using techniques compatible with dying and cutting. Local electrical changes that travel down dendrites and axons allow neurons to communicate with one another. However, when reconstructing the 3D structure, this may not be possible. After we die, our brains undergo significant chemical and anatomical changes. At the age of 20, they begin to lose 85,000 neurons per day due to apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Many memories that would have shaped a person later would be lost if he or she tried to store their mind too early. There are numerous steps involved in developing a computer capable of storing and processing human-level intelligence. It may be impossible for an artificial intelligence to produce sensations and actions identical to those provided and produced by your biological body. Bots are susceptible to hacking and hardware failure. Connecting sensors to the AI's digital mind would also be difficult. Written by Jeevana Thavarajah Related articles: The evolution of AI / The wonders of the human brain / AI in genetic diagnoses

Since 2006 when the link between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal degeneration and TDP-43 mutations was demonstrated by Arai et al., it has remained a focus in neurological academia. This is for good reason; the research boom around the role of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration has elucidated links between TDP-43, parkinsonism and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link TDP-43 and Me: the Neurodegenerative Impact of Gene Misplacement in Parkinsonism Last updated: 18/11/24 Published: 06/04/23 Practice and Progress in Neurology Since 2006 when the link between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal degeneration and TDP-43 mutations was demonstrated by Arai et al., it has remained a focus in neurological academia. This is for good reason; the research boo m around the role of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration has elucidated link s between TDP-43, parkinsonism and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The link between point mutations, deletions and loss of gene function in PRKN has long been established, but has yet to lead to the development of a targeted therapeutic treatment. PRKN is involved in the tagging of excess or faulty proteins with ubiquitin, which leads to degradation of the proteins in the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS)- a system characterised in medical neurology by its potential to cause serious neurological disorders. This places parkinsonism in a domain of neurodegenerative disorders sharing a common root in UPS dysfunction, including Alzheimer’s Disease, multiple sclerosis and Huntington’s Disease. Panda et al. (2022) demonstrated how the dysfunction of the UPS due to PRKN aberration inhibits the breakdown of the damaging TDP-43 aggregates which develop in human brains in response to mutation or stress. In healthy people, autophagic granules would attack and kill off these TDP-43 aggregates as an end result of the UPS , but due to aberrations in PRKN the UPS is inhibited in those afflicted with parkinsonism, causing neurodegeneration. The discovery of how TDP-43 and parkinsonism are linked could lead to the development of a treatment mimicking the organic catalyst of the TDP-43 aggregate breakdown to replicate UPS, reducing TDP-43 aggregate volume and by proxy, inhibiting neurodegeneration. In 2007, research by Esper et al. catalysed recognition of drug-induced Parkinsonism as severely underdiagnosed, with evidence proving even neurologists fail to effectively remember which medications cause parkinsonism. Fast halting of the inciting agent is necessary for the reversal of all parkinsonism symptoms, but in some patients, cognitive symptoms may persist for a time after the medication is stopped. In response to the novel discoveries of Panda et al. (2022), it is likely due to the aggregation of TDP-43. Another possibility is that permanent cognitive symptoms after inciting agent cessation in DIP may be due to large TDP-43 aggregates unable to be destroyed by the UPS. Further research will demonstrate whether TDP-43 aggregates become more resistant to UPS or autophagy through the progression of DIP, whether due to size or other extraneous factors. The implications of such a promising lead in neurotherapeutics for refractory parkinsonism cannot be understated. Surgical therapies have long since remained the industry standard in treating refractory parkinsonism, though this option remains prone to risk since many of those afflicted with parkinsonism are elderly, with drug-induced parkinsonism from treatment with antipsychotics, calcium channel blockers or other medications always heightening the number of the geriatric population requiring care for parkinsonism . Furthermore, the adequate treatment of those with parkinsonism in their youth could inhibit their progression to a refractory disease state in old age. Overall, the future looks very promising for those around the world suffering from all different forms of parkinsonism. Written by Aimee Wilson Related articles: A common diabetes drug treating Parkinson's disease / Lifestyle and PD risk

Resources such as: other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help! Aiding university students studying STEM subjects. Extra Resources A masterlist of other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help with your studies, research and revision. You may also like: A-level resources, IB resources, Entrance exam preparation, FREE CV check!, STEM book reviews Representation in STEM Sisterhood in STEM GENERAL INFORMATION Referencing guide: Cite Them Right Cite this for me ZoteroBib (fast, free reference generator) Phrasebank to help with essays Free notes and textbooks: Studocu Grammar checker: Grammarly (available as a browser extension) Money financing for students: Save the Student Others: New Scientist (print and online magazine) BBC iPlayer science and nature documentaries WEBSITES TO AID STUDIES Science and maths: MME Revise Cognito Resources Access Tuition Maths Genie LibreTexts: biology , chemistry , physics , maths , engineering , and medicine HELP WITH RESEARCH Databases: - PubMed - MEDLINE (by National Library of Medicine) - ScienceDirect - Web of Science - Literature search: Google Scholar - Participate in actual research: Zooniverse - citizen science - Top multi-disciplinary journal in the field: Nature PHARMACOLOGY AND RELATED Reference sites: - Pharmgkb - Drug Bank - Check which drugs are in trial Textbooks: - Katzung's Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, 16th edition by Todd Vanderah, PhD - The Top 100 Drugs: Clinical Pharmacology and Practical Prescribing by Andrew Hitchings, Daniel Burrage, Dagan Lonsdale and Emma Baker BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES TEXTBOOKS Biology: - Campbell & Reece - Molecular biology and genetics: Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition - Molecular Cell Biology by Lodish et al - Anatomy and physiology: Marieb - Principles of Animal Physiology by Moyes and Schulte - Animal Physiology by Hill, Wyse, and Anderson - Developmental Biology by Barresi and Gilbert - Cancer: The Biology of Cancer by Robert A. Weinberg Biochemistry: - Medical Biochemistry b y N. Mallikarjuna Rao Neuroscience: - Purves et. al - Kandel Immunology: - Immunobiology, 5th edition The Immune System in Health and Disease Genetics: - Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics and Genomics by Turnpenny & Ellard - Lewin’s Genes by Krebs, Goldstein, and Kilpatrick - Human Molecular Genetics by Strachan and Read CHEMISTRY TEXTBOOKS Physical chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Solid State Chemistry (Fourth Edition) by Lesley Smart and Elaine Moore Organic chemistry: - Jonathan Clayden Organic Chemistry (latest edition) Inorganic chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Housecroft Inorganic Chemistry (latest edition) - Electronic Structure (Basic Theory and Practical Methods) by Richard M. Martin - Two-minute Neuroscience - Amoeba Sisters (biology related) - Khan Academy (all STEM based) - TEDx Talk - Royal Society (range of science videos) - NumberPhile - patrickJMT (maths) - Tyler DeWitt (general chemistry) - Crash Course - Stanford Medicine (wellness) PHYSICS Resources: - Astronomy Picture of the Day - NASA STEM activities Textbooks: - University Physics by Young and Freedman - Introduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths - Introduction to Elementary Particles by Griffiths - Introduction to Quantum Mechanics by Griffiths - Modern Quantum Mechanics (Third Edition) by J. J. Sakurai and Jim Napolitano - Introductory Statistical Mechanics by Bowley & Sanchez - Statistical Mechanics: A Survival Guide by Glazer & Wark - Electricity and Magnetism by Morin and Purcell - Concepts in Thermal Physics by Blundell and Blundell - Introduction to Solid State Physics by Mittel & McEuen - Solid State Physics by Ashcroft and Mermin - Space, Time, and Geometry by Sean M. - Density Functional Theory by David S. Sholl and Janice A. Steckel - The Physics of Semiconductors: An Introduction Including Nanophysics and Applications by Marius Grundmann - Condensed Matter Field Theory (Second Edition) by Alexander Altland and Ben Simons - Condensed Matter Physics by Michael P. Marder MATHS Textbooks: - Mathematical Methods for Physicists and Engineers by Riley Benson and Hobson - Mathematics for Natural Scientists 1 and 2 by Lev Kantorovich - Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig - Thomas's Calculus by George B. Thomas - Mathematical Methods for Science students by G Stephenson - Contemporary Abstract Algebra by Joseph A. Gallian Read this article on how to excel in maths COMPUTER SCIENCE AND RELATED Resources: - Codeacademy - W3Schools ( has tutorials for HTML/ CSS/ Javascript, Python, Java, and many other languages) - Adacomputerscience - TeachComputing - Codewars (practise coding with your friends) - freeCodeCamp ENGINEERING Resources: - eFunda- formulae - Engineering statistics handbook - The Engineering Toolbox - free tools, calculators, and more - Engineers Edge - Online Ethics - ethics in engineering and science PSYCHOLOGY Resources: - QMUL resource guides - Psychology Today - Royal Holloway activities and research - Verywell Mind INFORMATIVE YOUTUBE CHANNELS

Synaptic plasticity is the process of connections within the brain changing to adapt to new information over time. It is of increasing significance in neuroscience, especially in the field of memory. Early research into synaptic plasticity was conducted by many of those Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Our understanding of how the brain forms connections between things we’ve learnt, and how London taxi drivers fit in Last updated: 18/11/24 Published: 05/01/23 Synaptic plasticity is the process of connections within the brain changing to adapt to new information over time. It is of increasing significance in neuroscience, especially in the field of memory. Early research into synaptic plasticity was conducted by many of those now considered the pioneers of neuroscience. For instance, Terje Lomo (1966) experimented on rabbit hippocampus with repeated, high-frequency stimulation, identifying long term potentiation, the persistent strengthening of synapses leading to enduring increases in signal transmission between neurons. Prior to work by Lomo, Ramon y Cajal (1911) proposed the idea that the strength of synaptic connections had to change to alter existing memories. One key question which is pertinent for both humans and other animals alike is how to keep track of our surroundings - how do our memories encode and store information on the places we visit so we can remember the directions for next time? Seminal work by Maguire et al., (2001) assessed whether physical changes “could be detected in the healthy brain” of London taxi drivers, given the repertoire of spatial experience required to navigate London without aid. Sixteen taxi drivers were studied with fifty controls. Using (structural) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), it was found that taxi drivers’ posterior hippocampi were larger than that of control subjects, and the more experience the drivers had, the greater the size of their right posterior hippocampi. Such changes in tissue volume take place gradually over time, because of task-related training. Recent work by Spiers et al., (2022) looked at the difference in spatial navigational ability between city-dwellers and those living in rural areas. A subset of ~400,000 participants from 38 countries played a video game to test their skill in spatial navigation, with city-dwellers performing worse than those who grew up outside cities. More specifically, individuals were better at navigating in environments that were topologically like where they grew up. Hence, one interpretation of these results is that the place where a person grows up impacts their ability to accurately navigate new, unfamiliar environments since this is based on the synaptic connections made between existing information in the brain. In conclusion, synaptic plasticity is the change in connections in the brain over time; interest and research in this field, especially spatial navigation, are increasing significantly. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Full article published in Brain Insights- BNA Bulletin (Issue no. 96, Autumn 2022) Related articles: The wonders of the human brain / The brain-climate connection REFERENCES Nicoll, R. A Brief History of Long-Term Potentiation. Neuron. 2017 Jan 18; 93(2): 281-290. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627316309576 Maguire E, Gadian D, Johnsrude I, et. al. Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc Natl Sci U S A. 2000 Apr 11; 97(8): 4398–4403. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18253/ Coutrot A, Manley E, Goodroe S., et. al. Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature. 2022 March 30; Nature 604: 104-110. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04486-7

Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician and biologist, and is known for his work on bioelectricity, and for laying the foundations of electrophysiology- the branch of science focusing on electricity in the body. He was born in 1737 in Bologna, Italy, and died in 1798 when the age of electricity was approaching. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Electricity in the body: Luigi Galvani Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 05/12/23 Luigi Galvani (1737- 1798) Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician and biologist, and is known for his work on bioelectricity, and for laying the foundations of electrophysiology- the branch of science focusing on electricity in the body. He was born in 1737 in Bologna, Italy, and died in 1798 when the age of electricity was approaching. Galvani began his career as a doctor after he graduated with a thesis in 1762, at the University of Bologna. The same year, he became a Reader in Anatomy at the university. He was then given the Chair of Obstetrics at the Institute of Sciences, owing to his surgical skills, and became its president in 1772. He held his chair for 33 years but was dismissed in 1797 when Napoleon’s army invaded but was reinstated sometime later. Galvani's discovery Galvani was performing experiments on frog legs at the University of Bologna, when his assistant touched his scalpel to the crural nerves of the frog, when he was drawing spark from the brass conductor of the electrostatic machine, and the frog leg twitched. Due to the current, muscular spasms were generated throughout the body. Galvani was intrigued and performed more experiments to see if he would get the same result. He did- the experiment was reproducible. Galvani used a Leyden jar (a device which stores static electricity, an early form of capacitor), and an electrostatic machine to produce this electricity. He knew that metals transmitted something called electricity, and a form of this electricity was presumably generated in the frog tissue to allow muscular contraction- he named this ‘animal electricity’. He believed this ‘animal electricity’ was different from static, and natural electricity e.g. lightning. Indeed, in 1786, during a lightning storm, he touched some frog nerves with a pair of scissors and the muscle contracted. Galvani thought ‘animal electricity’ as a fluid secreted by the brain, which flows though nerves and activates the muscles. This is how his experiments helped pave the way for electrophysiology in neuroscience. In 1786, during a lightning storm, Galvani touched some frog nerves with a pair of scissors and the muscle contracted. Galvani's experimental setup consisted of frog legs, a Leyden jar, and an electrostatic machine. He knew that metals transmitted something called electricity, and a form of this electricity was presumably generated in the frog tissue to allow muscular contraction- he named this ‘animal electricity’. A first step in the branch of electrophysiology. Galvani's progress in the field Galvani’s work was accepted by all his colleagues except for Volta, the professor of physics at the University of Pavia. Though Volta could reproduce Galvani’s experiments, he did not like Galvani’s explanation of ‘animal electricity’. Volta believed it was the two dissimilar metals producing the electricity, he named it ‘metallic electricity’, and there was no current running inside the frogs- there was no ‘animal electricity’. Galvani argued that there were electric forces inside organisms, and in 1794 he published an anonymous book Dell’uso e dell’attivita dell’arco conduttore nella contrazione dei muscoli (“On the Use and Activity of the Conductive Arch in the Contraction of Muscles”), where Galvani described his work on how he obtained electricity inside the frog, without the use of any metal. It was reported that he did this by touching the exposed muscle of one frog with a nerve of another, and the muscle contracted (Dibner 2020). This seems doubtful as Galvani’s forceps must have been in contact with spark for there to be movement. Still, it was the first attempt to demonstrate the existence of bioelectric forces. Outside of neuroscience The term ‘animal fluid’ Galvani used, is reminiscent of ‘animal spirits’, which was used by Rene Descartes, French philosopher, in the 1600s. Descartes described ‘animal spirits’ as a fluid flowing through the brain and the body, and Galvani unwittingly built on this belief with his findings on bioelectricity; the spirits ‘became’ “electricity”. There was a paradigm shift as Descartes thought that nerves were water pipes, but they were electrical conductors. This illustrates how Galvani was able to build on existing ideas in science. Limitations Even with the vigorous experiments and support, there was one limitation. For a direct correlation between frog muscle contraction and electricity generation, Galvani needed to be able to quantitatively measure the electrical currents generated in the muscle. This was difficult to do at the time since there was not enough technology to measure the currents- the currents were too small. Eventually, in the early 1900s when there were major advances in technology, Muller, Bois-Reymond, and Helmholtz, three German physiologists, managed to successfully measure the conduction of electrical activity along the nerve axon. This breakthrough furthered the branch of electrophysiology which Galvani had started. Summary In conclusion, Luigi Galvani was an influential physician and biologist, who founded the branch of electrophysiology with his experiments on frogs and metals. His results were crucial to the development of neuroscience, particularly the beginning of understanding electrical activity along the axon. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related article: Nikola Tesla and wireless electricity

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The field of neuroscience is rapidly expanding day by day. Study dopamine in the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal pathways; explore shattered brains in traumatic brain injuries; and delve into the mechanics of motion. Neuroscience Articles The field of neuroscience is rapidly expanding day by day. Study dopamine in the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal pathways; explore shattered brains in traumatic brain injuries; and delve into the mechanics of motion. You may also like: Biology , Immunology , Medicine Dopamine in the movement and reward pathways Aka the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal pathways Pseudo-Angelman syndrome A rare neurological disease that causes intellectual deficits. Article #10 in a series on Rare diseases. What does depression do to your brain? The biological explanation of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Article #1 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Neuroimaging and spatial resolution Which type of brain scan has it all? Beyond the bump A breakdown on traumatic brain injuries How does physical health affect mental health? The effects of exercise on the nervous system Mastering motion Looking at reflex, rhythmic and complex movements Previous