The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Understanding diverticular disease 14/07/25, 16:08 Last updated: Published: 27/11/24, 11:31 The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries Diverticulosis, diverticula, diverticulum, and diverticulitis - they may sound similar, but each term describes a specific aspect of diverticular disease. Before diving into diverticular disease, let’s clarify these key terms: Diverticulum: a small, bulging pouch that forms in a weak spot in the lining of the large intestine. Diverticula: the plural form of a diverticulum, indicating multiple bulging pouches in the large intestine's lining. Diverticulosis: a condition where multiple diverticula are present in the large intestine. Diverticulitis: this occurs when one or more diverticula become inflamed or infected. What is diverticular disease? Diverticular disease can be broadly categorised into two main conditions: diverticulosis and diverticulitis. Both involve the presence of diverticula in the colon, but the key difference lies in inflammation. In diverticulitis, the diverticula become inflamed or infected, leading to symptoms. On the other hand, diverticulosis is typically asymptomatic. However, there is a third condition, referred to as symptomatic uncomplicated diverticular disease (SUDD), where diverticula are present without inflammation, but the patient still experiences symptoms. The prevalence of diverticulosis is increasing in developed countries, largely due to the typical 'Western diet', which is high in red meat and low in fibre. Additionally, lifestyle factors such as obesity, smoking, and physical inactivity contribute to this rise. Age is also a significant factor, with 85% of diverticulosis cases occurring in individuals over the age of 50. Pathophysiology The formation of diverticula in the colon is primarily due to three factors: structural abnormalities in the colonic wall, disordered intestinal motility, and a deficiency of dietary fibre. The large intestine has two layers of muscle that work together to move its contents: an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The outer layer consists of three bands called the taeniae coli, which run longitudinally along the colon. The gaps between these muscle bands are areas of weakness, making them vulnerable to the development of diverticula. Age-related weakening of the connective tissue further increases the risk of developing diverticula in these vulnerable areas. In some patients, abnormal gut motility can lead to areas of high pressure in the bowel, causing the mucosa to bulge outward, forming diverticula. Similarly, a lack of fibre in the diet can increase bowel pressure and lead to irregular movement, which also promotes outpouching. As we've discussed, some patients with diverticula may remain asymptomatic, while others experience varying levels of discomfort. The transition from diverticulosis to diverticulitis occurs when undigested food or a fecalith becomes trapped in these pouches, causing a blockage. This leads to bacterial growth and multiplication, resulting in infection and inflammation of the pouch. Symptoms Diverticular disease comes with a range of symptoms, some of which are quite common and could be easily mistaken for other conditions. General symptoms like nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever often overlap with other digestive problems, making diagnosis tricky. However, certain symptoms can hint more strongly at diverticular disease. For instance, experiencing pain in the lower left side of the abdomen (known as the left iliac fossa) or noticing rectal bleeding are more specific indicators that may point towards this condition. Recognising these symptoms can help in getting a more accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Management Managing diverticular disease depends on the individual patient and the severity of their symptoms. For some, simple, conservative treatments are enough—this might include staying hydrated, eating a high-fibre diet, and giving the bowel a short rest by temporarily avoiding food. However, if a patient is experiencing significant pain or signs of infection, medical treatment is necessary. This may involve pain relief based on the WHO pain ladder or antibiotics to tackle the infection. In more serious cases, where other treatments haven’t worked or the patient is in a life-threatening situation, surgery might be required. A common procedure for these severe cases is the Hartmann’s procedure. This surgery removes the damaged section of the large intestine, usually due to infection or blockage. The healthy end of the intestine is brought out through an opening in the abdomen, creating a temporary colostomy that allows waste to leave the body through a bag. This setup gives the intestine time to heal, and in some cases, a follow-up surgery can reconnect it for normal function. Complications There are both short-term and long-term complications associated with diverticulitis, particularly in more severe cases that require more aggressive treatment such as surgery (see Figure 4 ). Future directions Recent changes in the management of diverticulitis have shifted how clinicians approach treatment. One significant update involves the use of antibiotics. Traditionally, diverticulitis was treated with routine antibiotic prescriptions. However, newer guidelines suggest that antibiotics may not be necessary for uncomplicated cases, helping to reduce both antibiotic resistance and the potential medication side effects for patients. Another emerging trend is treating uncomplicated diverticulitis on an outpatient basis. This allows patients to be managed at home with pain relief and dietary adjustments, which in turn frees up hospital resources for those with more severe conditions. Additionally, the management of complicated diverticulitis has evolved. For instance, abscesses may now be treated with percutaneous drainage rather than resorting to emergency surgery. Conclusion In summary, diverticular disease can vary widely in its symptoms and required treatments, ranging from dietary changes to surgical interventions for severe cases. Identifying specific signs and understanding the treatment options can empower patients and help them make informed choices. Advances in treatment approaches are also helping to improve outcomes and quality of life for those affected. Written by Abbasali Gulamhussein Related articles: Crohn's disease / The gut microbiome / Interplay of hormones and microbiome REFERENCES Cater, M. (2023). Foods for Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis . [online] www.hopkinsmedicine.org . Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/foods-for-diverticulosis-and-diverticulitis . Matrana, M.R. and Margolin, D.A. (2009a) Epidemiology and pathophysiology of diverticular disease , Clinics in colon and rectal surgery . Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2780269/ (Accessed: 12 October 2024). Miller, A.S. et al. (2021) The Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland consensus guidelines in emergency colorectal surgery , Colorectal disease : the official journal of the Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland . Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9291558/ (Accessed: 12 October 2024). NHS (2019). Diverticular disease and diverticulitis . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diverticular-disease-and-diverticulitis/ . Sciencedirect.com . (2019). Hartmann Procedure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics . [online] Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/hartmann-procedure . Singh, B., May, K., Coltart, I., Moore, N. and Cunningham, C. (2008). The Long-Term Results of Percutaneous Drainage of Diverticular Abscess. The Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England , [online] 90(4), pp.297–301. doi: https://doi.org/10.1308/003588408x285928 . Ubhi, L. (2023). Prescribing Analgesia and the WHO Analgesic Ladder | Geeky Medics . [online] geekymedics.com . Available at: https://geekymedics.com/prescribing-analgesia-and-the-who-analgesic-ladder/ . Project Gallery

It's in the diet Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How epigenetic modification gives the queen bee her crown 23/01/25, 11:52 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:46 It's in the diet Honey bee colonies are comprised of three kinds of adult bees: workers, drones and a single queen. While all drones are male, the queen and the worker bees are female. Within the female population, only the queen bee is fertile and is thus responsible for laying eggs which are fertilised by drones. Additionally, a queen bee is larger than worker bees and produces pheromones to allow the colony to function. However, worker and queen bees are genetically identical, so how is it possible that they are so fundamentally different? ( Figure 1 ) The answer lies in epigenetic modification , defined as the alteration in gene function without a change in the DNA sequence. Types of epigenetic regulation include histone modification, DNA methylation and action of noncoding RNA. The honey bee Apis mellifera is amongst the many species that can produce different characteristics of organisms using the same genome. The mechanism by which honey bees do this derives from epigenetic modification resulting from the difference in diet during larval development. All larvae feed on royal jelly during the first three days of their development ( Figure 2 ). However, worker larvae will then feed on a diet of honey and pollen, which constitutes worker jelly. In comparison, the queen larva maintains a diet of royal jelly; this is a complex mixture produced by nurse bees and contains water, crude protein, monosaccharides, and fatty acids. Subsequently, the difference in dietary intake provides information to facilitate the correct epigenome which in turn allows correct transcription. Thus, key studies have taken place to investigate the effect of epigenetic marks on the development of bees. DNA methyltransferase DNMT3 is responsible for the methylation of DNA and is a repressive mark; a study found that the silencing of DNMT3 resulted in worker larvae developing into queens that had developed ovaries. Consequently, this shows that royal jelly gives information to larvae destined to be queens that can be interpreted to apply the correct epigenome. Additionally, certain histone deacetylase inhibitors have been observed in royal jelly including the compound 10 HDA and phenylbutyrate. Histone acetylation within regions of the genome results in chromatin opening; acetylation is associated with active regions. HDACi activity will inhibit the removal of such acetylation and maintain open regions of DNA. However, note that worker bees are not just a repressed version of queen bees, as they have overexpressed genes of their own to facilitate their specific behaviours. On examination of the methylome (see Figure 3 ), different genes were identified as being hypo- or hyper- methylated within worker vs queen bees. See the table below for a detailed analysis of worker and queen bees on days 3-5 of development. How exactly the specificity of epigenetic modifications is accomplished is not completely realised. To exemplify this, DNMTs do not have specificity, and thus, there must be an interplay between chromatin modifiers and cellular components to accomplish the correct recruitment of enzymes involved in epigenetic modification. However, it is clear that the epigenomes of workers vs queen bees are decidedly different and thus are the cause of different physiological and behavioural characteristics. Written by Isobel Cunningham Related articles: An introduction to epigenetics / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery

And can we overcome them? Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Challenges in Modern Day Chemistry 04/04/26, 17:39 Last updated: Published: 24/02/24, 22:09 And can we overcome them? Chemistry is often called the "central science" because it connects everything in the natural world. It is the foundation for how we understand life and is essential for solving the massive problems facing humanity today. In recent years, chemistry has changed significantly as top researchers push the boundaries of technology. However, this progress is met with a series of complex, overlapping challenges that require creative and completely new solutions. This article explores the most difficult hurdles currently facing the world of modern chemistry. Sustainability and the Imperative of Green Chemistry The biggest challenge for modern chemistry is the urgent need for environmental sustainability. For a long time, the chemical industry has been a major contributor to pollution and the loss of natural resources. Because of this, there is a desperate need to create "greener" and safer chemical processes. Green chemistry is a leading movement focused on designing products that avoid using or creating hazardous materials. Researchers in this field are working hard to find non-toxic alternatives and energy-efficient methods to reduce the damage caused by chemical work. Energy Storage and Conversion at the Frontier As the world demands more renewable energy, like solar and wind power, the need for better ways to store and convert that energy has become incredibly urgent. Chemistry is at the heart of developing advanced batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors. However, scientists are still struggling with how to make batteries hold more power, last longer, and cost less to produce. To solve this, a massive effort is underway to find brand-new materials and invent better ways to manage the chemical reactions that store electricity. Drug Resistance as a Crescendoing Predicament The rise of "superbugs"—bacteria that antibiotics can no longer kill—is a growing crisis in medicine. As germs continue to evolve, chemists face the massive task of constantly inventing new antibiotics and antiviral drugs. At the same time, the move toward "personalized medicine" requires new ways to design drugs that are tailored to a specific person’s body. The ultimate goal is to find a way to stop drug resistance while also getting rid of dangerous side effects, which is one of the most difficult puzzles in chemistry today. Ethical Conundrums and the Regulatory Labyrinth As chemistry continues to move forward, the ethical and legal questions surrounding it become more complicated. Issues like who owns a discovery, how to innovate responsibly, and how to prevent chemical knowledge from being used for harm require careful thought and strict ethical rules. Finding the right balance between pushing for scientific breakthroughs and being a responsible protector of those discoveries is a constant challenge for the chemistry community. In conclusion... Modern chemistry is a fast-moving field that drives innovation in almost every industry while tackling global problems. However, it must overcome its own obstacles, from environmental responsibility and drug resistance to complex ethical dilemmas. Success will require experts from different fields to work together, use their imaginations, and commit to using their power for good. As we continue to learn more about the world of atoms and molecules, solving these problems is the only way to ensure a sustainable and successful future for everyone. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related article: Green Chemistry Project Gallery

The web of geopolitics surrounding the Rohingyas, and how this impacts their health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Addressing the health landscape of Bangladesh’s Rohingya community Last updated: 05/03/26, 15:04 Published: 18/09/25, 08:00 The web of geopolitics surrounding the Rohingyas, and how this impacts their health This is article no. 6 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir. Next article: A deep, critical reflection . Introduction Welcome to the sixth article of the Global Health Injustices Series, a collaboration with Nasif Mahmood . This article focuses on the ongoing injustices and health issues affecting the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. This community leads a vulnerable life and suffering that it is becoming one of the most significant South Asian crises in the 21st century. Due to Bangladesh's inadequate resources and geopolitical situation, the overall health and well-being of the country and the migratory population are severely hampered. A brief history of Bangladesh and the Rohingya population Bangladesh's history is intricate and has been influenced by many cultures. After India was divided in 1947, the area, previously part of ancient Bengal, was ruled by the British and became East Pakistan. Demands for autonomy resulted from tensions between West and East Pakistan. The Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, culminating in these tensions, led to the country's independence. Bangladesh has made great strides in education, health, and economic growth since gaining its autonomy, despite facing economic hardship, political turmoil, and natural disasters. Rohingya, the Muslim ethnic minority from the state of Rakhine, were denied citizenship by the Myanmar Government, leaving them homeless. They endured years of persecution, discrimination, and violence. In 2017, an inhuman, violent crackdown by the military of the Myanmar government forced over 70,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh. Over 1 million refugees live in Bangladesh, primarily in the Cox Bazar area. A lot of refugees cause overcrowding situations, and limited resources lead to a high rate of nutritional problems and spread of disease, specifically infectious diseases and mental health disorders in the refugee camp. Connecting geopolitics and health: impacts on the Rohingya population The Rohingya crisis is more than just a humanitarian issue; it is a tangled web of geopolitical challenges. The Myanmar government’s ongoing refusal to grant citizenship and fundamental rights to the Rohingya people not only deepens their suffering but also fuels instability in the region. They have not taken the necessary steps to ensure their safety, leaving the crisis unresolved. As refugees continue to pour into neighbouring countries, tensions have escalated, placing a heavy burden on host nations like Bangladesh. This crisis worsens existing socio-economic problems and stretches resources thin in areas struggling to care for their citizens. The international community has responded in various ways; some countries are pushing for tougher sanctions against Myanmar, while others are focused on delivering aid to those affected. However, the underlying issues driving this crisis will unlikely be resolved without a coordinated and sustained political effort ( Table 1, Figure 1 ). Addressing them can lead to improved outcomes for the Rohinyga population. On top of that, the health challenges faced by the Rohingya people go beyond just infectious diseases. The lack of access to essential health services has not only worsened physical health problems but has also led to a growing mental health crisis. Many Rohingya individuals are grappling with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression stemming from their traumatic experiences of violence, loss, trauma, isolation, and forced displacement. Yet, mental health services in the refugee camps are severely lacking. A study showed that the prevalence of emotional and behavioural disorders is high among forcefully migrated refugee children, because of traumatic exposure like the unexpected death of parents, forceful displacement, and the witnessing of family violence and abuse. The stigma surrounding mental health in many cultures, including in the Rohingya community, creates additional hurdles for those seeking help. Enhancing access to mental health support is crucial, not just for the immediate well-being of the refugees, but also for their long-term healing and successful integration into the societies that host them. Moreover, providing humanitarian aid and hosting such a large population in Bangladesh is becoming difficult. The national and international NGOs maintain healthcare for the Rohingya population. However, the funding shortage and inadequate infrastructure hinder the provision of adequate medical services. For this reason, the refugee camps have reported significant outbreaks of diphtheria, cholera, and COVID-19. Given the challenges, developing innovative solutions and working collaboratively on a global or regional scale is needed. By empowering local health workers and training them to offer basic healthcare and mental health support, to close the service delivery gaps. Additionally, building partnerships among NGOs, governments, and international organisations can help ensure that resources are allocated more effectively and that comprehensive health programs are created to meet the unique needs of the Rohingya population. It's crucial to engage the community; by listening to the voices and experiences of the Rohingya, we can develop interventions that truly respect their dignity and cultural context. Additionally, raising global awareness about the struggles faced by the Rohingya can lead to stronger advocacy efforts. Involving the media, educational institutions, and civil society can foster a deeper understanding of the interconnected issues of geopolitics and health. Initiatives that share personal stories and experiences can rally public support and drive meaningful change. Ultimately, tackling the Rohingya crisis calls for a multifaceted approach that blends immediate humanitarian aid with long-term strategies aimed at ending their statelessness and ensuring their rights as human beings are upheld and protected. Recommendations from NGOs National NGOs: Several national NGOs play an essential role in supporting the healthcare needs of the Rohingya population: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), one of the world's largest NGOs, provides comprehensive health care services, including maternal and child health, immunisation programmes, disease prevention initiatives, and arranges many health campaigns for refugees. Gonoshasthaya Kendra established a field hospital and free clinic in the Cox Bazar area near the refugee camp, focusing on primary health care and emergency medical support. International NGOs MedGlobal, an international NGO, responds to this global crisis by delivering medical assistance within the refugee camp. Support hospitals and clinics for affected refugees between 2017 and 2019. This organisation's volunteers contributed over 17,000 hours of aid, assisting more than 80,000 individuals. Medair is another international NGO offering health and nutritional support to the Rohingya refugees. Migrant Offshore Aid focuses on sea rescue operations and delivering medical aid and assistance to surfers. Together, these national and international organisations make meaningful contributions to the healthcare needs of the Rohingya population, handling both immediate medical concerns and long-term health support in a challenging environment. Their collaborative efforts help ensure that essential services reach those in critical need, facilitating better health outcomes for refugees. Although they address the healthcare needs of the Rohingya, several challenges can limit their effectiveness. For example, coordination issues may lead to overlapping efforts or service gaps, resulting in inequitable and unequal healthcare access. Also, limited resources and funding can slow extensive long-term support, leaving specific medical needs unaddressed. Additionally, the intricate political and social conditions restrict these organisations' capacity to operate effectively, impacting immediate care and sustainable health initiatives for the Rohingya population. Moving forward, it is crucial for host countries to: finance extra healthcare facilities in refugee camps to enhance access and reduce diseases, launch culturally appropriate mental health initiatives with locally trained workers to decrease stigma and provide community-based support, integrate nutrition programmes to address different forms of malnutrition in vulnerable communities and encourage further international support to maintain health initiatives among the Rohingya population. Conclusion The Rohingya crisis is an example of global health injustice exacerbated by geopolitical and humanitarian challenges. At the same time, Bangladesh is trying to provide temporary shelter for the refugees to minimise the crisis. However, this crisis also requires international cooperation, policy support, and increased funding. Solving this issue is essential for global public health and human rights. Notably, finding sustainable solutions will help the Rohingya people recover and thrive, and enhance stability and security in the region. Their future goes beyond humanitarian aid; it is about upholding inclusion, justice, and respect for human dignity, which should guide all efforts to link geopolitics with health outcomes. To truly tackle the health issues faced by the Rohingya community, we need to take a comprehensive approach that looks at the political, social, and economic factors at play. By adopting such all-encompassing systems, we can work towards a brighter and fairer future for the Rohingya community and other vulnerable groups around the globe who are facing similar challenges. The next article will be the final one reflecting on everything discussed in this series. Written by Nasif Mahmood and Sam Jarada Related articles: Health and well-being in- Palestine , Kashmir / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health / Ethnic health inequalities REFERENCES Tinker HR. History of Bangladesh | Events, People, Dates, & Facts [Internet]. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023 [cited 2025 Jul 15]. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Bangladesh Rahman MM, Bhuiyan MR, Ali MZ, Rahman MS, Hossain MA. Insecurity feelings and mental health status of Rohingya orphan children in BangladeshResearchGate; 2021 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348521935_Insecurity_Feelings_and_Mental_Health_Status_of_Rohingya_Orphan_Children_in_Bangladesh UNHCR. Rohingya refugee crisis – Bangladesh. 2023. https://www.unhcr.org International Crisis Group (ICG). The health crisis in Rohingya refugee camps. 2022. https://www.crisisgroup.org Tay AK, Riley A, Islam R, Welton-Mitchell C, Duchesne B, Waters V, et al. The culture, mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of Rohingya refugees: a systematic review. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences [Internet]. 2019 Apr 22 [cited 2025 Sep 10];28(5):489–94. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6998923/ Human Rights Watch. The plight of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. 2023. https://www.hrw.org . Nivedita Sudheer, Banerjee D. The Rohingya refugees: a conceptual framework of their psychosocial adversities, cultural idioms of distress and social suffering. Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Sep 10];8. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/global-mental-health/article/rohingya-refugees-a-conceptual-framework-of-their-psychosocial-adversities-cultural-idioms-of-distress-and-social-suffering/F4D229807D4ED7667EA16195FDF5C787 World Health Organization (WHO). Health challenges in Rohingya refugee camps. 2022. https://www.who.int Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). Medical response in Rohingya refugee settlements. 2022. https://www.msf.org Project Gallery

Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Which fuel will be used for the colonisation of Mars? 01/10/25, 11:48 Last updated: Published: 30/04/23, 12:06 Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars The creation of a “Planet B” is an idea that has been circulating for decades; however we are yet to find a planet that is similar enough to our Earth that would be viable to live on without major modifications. Mars has been the most widely talked about planet in the media, and is commonly thought to be the planet that we know the most about. So, could it be habitable? If we were to move to Mars, how would society thrive? The dangers of living on Mars As a neighbour to Earth, Mars might be classed as habitable without more knowledge. Unfortunately, it is quite the opposite. On Earth, humans have access to air with an oxygen content of 21%, however Mars only has 0.13% oxygen. The difference in the air itself suggests an uninhabitable planet. Another essential factor of human life is food. There have indeed been attempts to grow crops in Martian soil, including tomatoes, with great levels of success. Unfortunately, the soil is toxic therefore ingesting these crops could cause significant side effects in the long term. It could be possible to introduce a laboratory that crops could be grown in, modelling Earth soil and atmospheric conditions however this would be difficult. Air and food are two resources that are essential and could not readily be available in a move to Mars. Food could be grown in laboratory style greenhouses and the air could be processed. It is important to note that these solutions are fairly novel. The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) was a component of the NASA Perseverance rover that was sent to Mars during 2020. Solid oxide electrolysis converts carbon dioxide, readily available in the atmosphere of Mars, into carbon monoxide and oxygen. MOXIE contributes to the idea that, in the move to Mars, oxygen would have to be ‘made’ rather than being readily available. The MOXIE experiment utilised nuclear energy to do this, and it was shown that oxygen could be produced at all times of day in multiple different weather conditions. It is possible to gain oxygen on Mars, but a plethora of energy is required to do so. What kind of energy would be better? With accessing oxygen especially, the energy source on Mars would need to be extremely reliable in order to ensure the population is safe. It is true that fossil fuels are reliable however it is increasingly obvious that the reason a move to Mars would be necessary is due to the lack of care of the Earth therefore polluting resources are to be especially avoided. A combination of resources is likely to be used. Wind power during the massive dust storms that find themselves on Mars regularly and solar power in clear weather, when the dust has not yet settled over the surface. One resource that would be essential is nuclear power. The public perception is mixed yet it is certainly reliable and that is the main requirement. After all, a human can only survive for around five minutes without oxygen. Time lost due to energy failures would be deadly. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Exploring Mercury / Artemis: the lunar south pole base / Total eclipses Project Gallery

Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Same-sex attraction in non-human animals Last updated: 17/06/25, 12:20 Published: 11/09/25, 08:00 Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Biased science communication can have detrimental consequences. For example, facts about animal reproduction have been twisted to justify discrimination against the LGBTQIA+ community. Some people call homosexuality a “Darwinian paradox”, because it does not fit their preconceived belief that an animal’s job is to stay alive and make babies. This belief ignores how some animals, like humans, have complex social structures and do things just for fun. Same-sex sexual behaviours (SSSB) have been observed in 1500 animal species, none of whom do it to make babies. This article describes some of these behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates. Same-sex sexual behaviour (SSSB) in birds The first recorded example of SSSB in non-human animals comes from Aristotle about 2300 years ago. He wrote about male pigeons, partridges, and quails mating with other male conspecifics. Since then, same-sex relationships have been recorded in other bird species. Greylag geese form “gander pairs” of two males, whose behaviours resemble pairs of opposite-sex mates. In Oahu, Hawaii, female-female Laysan albatross pairs looked after 31% of nests between 2004 and 2007. These pairs, one of which is pictured in Figure 1 , were equally good at raising chicks as male-female pairs. SSSB was also observed in unbonded king penguins, meaning penguins which had not committed to a mate for that breeding season. Using DNA to assess individual sex, 26.4% of courtship displays between unbonded king penguin couples were same-sex. There was also one male-male and one female-female pair of bonded king penguins, but both couples broke up and re-bonded with opposite-sex mates in the same season. The most famous same-sex bird couple is Roy and Silo from Central Park Zoo. They were a pair of chinstrap penguins who raised a chick named Tango when given a fertile egg. This family was the subject of a children’s book ( Figure 2 ) and an American culture war. Thus, many bird species pair with individuals of the same sex in captivity and more importantly, in the wild. SSSB in mammals Humans are not the only mammals to mate with individuals of the same sex. Male bats from the Myotis genus have been observed getting intimate with each other, and Mytois lucifugus releases sperm during this activity. In another bat species called the Bonin flying fox, males groomed each other in a way scientists perceived as sexual. Japanese macaques have monogamous female-female pairs called consortships, in which females carry out the same mating behaviours seen with male-female pairs. SSSB in insects In addition to birds and mammals, some insects conduct sexual activities to others of the same sex. In a 2012 study, 16% of male field crickets did courtship displays to and/or tried to mate with another male. The authors conducted experiments to rule out some leading Darwinian causes of SSSB, such as establishing dominance relationships (similar to an ‘alpha male’) or defusing hostile encounters. SSSB is well studied in flour beetles, where the males mount other males and release capsules of sperm like they would to females. In these beetles, the sexes are sexually dimorphic - distinguishable by appearance, smell, and/or sound - so a male beetle is intentionally choosing to mate with another male. When 59 male damselflies were offered a male and female in the same cage, 10 approached and began mating with the male. More damselflies chose the male over the female after spending a few days in a male-only population, perhaps because they were used to only having males to choose from. Therefore, analogies to both homoromantic and homosexual partnerships in humans exist in insects. Conclusion Since mammals, birds, insects, and molluscs all have evidence of SSSB in the wild, it is normal and certainly not unnatural for humans to do the same. These behaviours range from preferentially approaching the same sex to intentional, intimate actions. All the papers I used in this article are over a decade old, with the earliest evidence of non-human same-sex behaviour being 2300 years old. This means using biology to justify homophobia is very outdated, and factually incorrect. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Young LC, Zaun BJ, VanderWerf EA. Successful same-sex pairing in Laysan albatross. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2008 Aug 23 [cited 2025 Feb 1];4(4):323–5. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0191 Richardson J, Parnell P, Cole H. And Tango makes three. First Little Simon board book edition. New York: Little Simon; 2015. 1 p. Sugita N. Homosexual Fellatio: Erect Penis Licking between Male Bonin Flying Foxes Pteropus pselaphon . Pellis S, editor. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2016 Nov 8 [cited 2025 Feb 1];11(11):e0166024. Available from: https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166024 Bailey NW, French N. Same-sex sexual behaviour and mistaken identity in male field crickets, Teleogryllus oceanicus . Animal Behaviour [Internet]. 2012 Oct [cited 2025 Feb 1];84(4):1031–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0003347212003508 Huber R, Martys M. Male-male pairs in Greylag Geese ( Anser anser ). J Ornithol [Internet]. 1993 Apr [cited 2025 Feb 1];134(2):155–64. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01640084 Levan KE, Fedina TY, Lewis SM. Testing multiple hypotheses for the maintenance of male homosexual copulatory behaviour in flour beetles. J of Evolutionary Biology [Internet]. 2009 Jan [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1):60–70. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jeb/article/22/1/60-70/7324140 Pincemy G, Dobson FS, Jouventin P. Homosexual Mating Displays in Penguins. Ethology [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];116(12):1210–6. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01835.x Riccucci M. Same-sex sexual behaviour in bats. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy [Internet]. 2010 Sep 24 [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.4404/hystrix-22.1-4478 Van Gossum H, De Bruyn L, Stoks R. Reversible switches between male–male and male–female mating behaviour by male damselflies. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2005 Sep 22 [cited 2025 Feb 1];1(3):268–70. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0315 Vasey PL, Jiskoot H. The Biogeography and Evolution of Female Homosexual Behavior in Japanese Macaques. Arch Sex Behav [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];39(6):1439–41. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-009-9518-2 Project Gallery

The secrets of the brain are secrets no longer; the field of neuroscience is rapidly expanding day by day. Read articles which discuss Parkinsonism, Huntington’s, degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and more. Neuroscience Articles The secrets of the brain are secrets no longer; the field of neuroscience is rapidly expanding day by day. Read articles which discuss Parkinsonism, Huntington’s, degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and more. You may also like: Biology , Immunology , Medicine Synaptic plasticity and London taxi drivers Synaptic plasticity and navigating our surroundings Stress and neurodegeneration And how the hormone cortisol plays a significant role Markers for Parkinsonism Exploring the role of TDP43 The wonders of the human brain A basic overview of brain function The brain-climate connection Can rising temperatures really affect our brains? Schizophrenia and accelerated ageing A complex medical phenotype Squid axons And how they were fundamental to discoveries in neuroscience Alzheimer's disease Its pathology and potential treatment Serial killers Their neurological basis Huntington's disease A rare, inherited, debilitating neurological disease Electricity in the body Luigi Galvani 's work PTSD and intrusive memories Article #1 in a series on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and traumatic memories Mobility disorders Hypermobility spectrum disorders vs. Hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Brief neuroanatomy of autism Autism is a neurological and developmental disorder Oliver Sacks Who was this famous neuroscientist? A treatment for Huntington's disease Antisense oligonucleotide gene therapy PTSD and Tetris Article #2 in a series on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and traumatic memories The dopamine connection The link between the brain and the digestive system Neuromyelitis optica (NMO)- Devic disease How is it different to Multiple Sclerosis? Article #8 in a series on Rare diseases. DFNB9 How was this form of deafness treated for the first time? Next

Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The secret to disarming plant pathogens revealed Last updated: 22/09/25, 11:14 Published: 27/03/25, 08:00 Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Unravelling the role of bacterial proteins in plant diseases! Disarming plant diseases one protein at a time! Scientists may have found a means to neutralise them, saving farmers $220 billion in yearly crop losses. The impact of plant diseases on global food production Bacteria have long been known to wreak havoc on crops, threatening our food supply and causing substantial economic losses. For over two decades, biologist Sheng-Yang He and his dedicated team have been delving into the mysterious world of bacterial proteins, seeking to unravel their role in plant diseases that plague countless crops worldwide. Finally, a breakthrough has been achieved after years of tireless research and collaboration. In a groundbreaking study published in the esteemed journal Nature, he and his colleagues have uncovered the mechanisms by which these proteins induce disease in plants and devised a method to neutralise their harmful effects. Understanding the mechanism of harmful proteins Their investigation focused on a group of injected proteins called AvrE/DspE, responsible for causing diseases ranging from brown spots in beans to fire blight in fruit trees. Despite their significance, the exact workings of these proteins have long remained elusive. The researchers discovered that these proteins adopt a unique 3D structure resembling a tiny mushroom with a cylindrical stem through cutting-edge advancements in artificial intelligence and innovative experimental techniques. Intriguingly, this structure resembled a straw, leading the team to hypothesise that the proteins create channels in plant cells, enabling the bacteria to extract water from the host during infection. Further investigation into the 3D model of the fire blight protein revealed that its hollow inner core contains many proteins from the AvrE/DspE family. These proteins were found to suppress the plant's immune system and induce dark water-soaked spots on leaves, the telltale signs of infection. However, armed with this newfound knowledge, the researchers sought to develop a strategy to disarm these proteins and halt their destructive effects. They turned to poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM), tiny spherical nanoparticles with precise diameters that can be tailored in the lab. By experimenting with different sizes, they identified a nanoparticle that effectively blocked the water channels formed by the bacterial proteins. Application of nanoparticles in blocking water channels In a remarkable series of experiments, the researchers treated frog eggs engineered to produce the water channel protein with these channel-blocking nanoparticles. The results were astounding—the eggs no longer swelled with water and remained unaffected. Similarly, infected Arabidopsis plants treated with the nanoparticles significantly reduced pathogen concentrations, effectively preventing disease development. This breakthrough discovery offers a glimmer of hope in the battle against plant diseases, which cause immense losses in global food production. Plants are responsible for 80% of the world's food supply, and protecting them from pathogens and pests is crucial for ensuring food security. The team's groundbreaking research on plant pathogens and their harmful proteins opens up new possibilities for combating various plant diseases. The implications of their findings extend far beyond a single crop or disease, offering novel approaches to address a wide range of plant diseases. By understanding the mechanism by which bacterial proteins, such as AvrE and DspE, cause diseases in plants, researchers can now explore strategies to disarm these proteins and prevent their harmful effects. The team discovered that these proteins act as water channels, allowing bacteria to invade plant cells and create a saturated environment that promotes their growth. This insight led to the development of channel-blocking nanoparticles, effectively preventing bacteria from infecting plants and causing disease symptoms. Using precise nanoparticles, such as PAMAM dendrimers, to block plant pathogens' water channels represents a promising avenue for crop protection. Figure 1: this figure shows that PAMAM are very branched polymers that are very small, have a low polydispersity index, and have a lot of active amine functional groups. They have multiple modifiable surface functionalities, facilitating the conjugation of ligands for cancer targeting, imaging, and therapy. PAMAM dendrimers also have solubilisation, high drug encapsulation, and passive targeting ability, contributing to their therapeutic success. Cancer researchers are excited about their potential as drug carriers and non-viral gene vectors, with a focus on diagnostic imaging applications. These nanoparticles can be tailored to specific diameters, allowing for targeted disruption of the bacterial proteins' channels. The nanoparticles effectively render the bacteria harmless by interfering with the proteins' ability to create a moist environment within plant cells. This innovative approach has shown success in combating diseases caused by pathogens like Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia amylovora . Implications for global food production and food security The potential impact of this research on global food production is immense. Plant diseases result in significant crop losses, amounting to over 10% of global food production annually. This translates to a staggering $220 billion economic loss worldwide. Developing strategies to disarm harmful proteins and protect crops from diseases can mitigate these losses and enhance food security. Furthermore, the team's findings highlight the critical role of plant biology research in addressing global challenges. Plants provide 80% of our food, making their health and protection crucial for sustaining our growing population. By understanding how pathogens infect plants and developing innovative solutions, we can safeguard our food supply and reduce the economic impact of crop diseases. Experimental results and a promising outlook The researchers aim to further investigate the interaction between channel-blocking nanoparticles and bacterial proteins. By visualising the structures and mechanisms involved, they hope to refine their designs and develop even more effective strategies for crop protection. Additionally, artificial intelligence, such as the AlphaFold2 programme, has proven instrumental in predicting the 3D structures of complex proteins. Continued advancements in AI technology will undoubtedly contribute to further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases. By unravelling the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, we can protect global food production and enhance food security. The implications of this research extend beyond a single crop or disease, paving the way for novel approaches to combat a wide range of plant diseases and safeguard our agricultural systems. Conclusion The groundbreaking research conducted by biologist Sheng-Yang He and his team offer hope in the fight against plant diseases. By revealing the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, they have paved the way for novel approaches to combat various plant diseases. This enhances food security and protects global food production, reducing economic losses and ensuring a sustainable future. With continued advancements in artificial intelligence and the development of precise nanoparticles, the possibilities for further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases are endless. By safeguarding our agricultural systems, we can secure the health of our crops and, ultimately, the well-being of our growing population. The implications of this research extend far beyond agriculture, offering new avenues for addressing global challenges and paving the way for a brighter and more resilient future. Figure 2: this figure shows a working model for the molecular actions of AvrE-family effectors in plants. AvrE-family effectors are water- and solute-permeable channels that change the osmotic and water potential and make an apoplast that is rich in water and nutrients for bacteria to grow in plant tissues that are infected. They can also engage host proteins to modulate AvrE-family channel properties or optimise pathogenic outcomes. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Nanomedicine / Mechanisms of pathogen evasion / Nanocarriers REFERENCE Kinya Nomura, Felipe Andreazza, Jie Cheng, Ke Dong, Pei Zhou, Sheng Yang He. Bacterial pathogens deliver water- and solute-permeable channels to plant cells. Nature , 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06531-5 Project Gallery

AI in developing different space technologies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Artificial intelligence in space 11/04/26, 15:03 Last updated: Published: 19/11/23, 17:31 AI in developing different space technologies Artificial intelligence or AI has become an important force or a tool that drives the evolution of technologies that improve human life and helps unlock the secrets of the universe beyond the influence of our planet. In simple words, AI is something that enables a computer/ robot to mimic human intelligence and it is revolutionizing the way we explore and utilise space, enhancing everything from spacecraft navigation and autonomous decision-making to data analysis and mission planning. This article explores the profound impact of AI in the development of space related technologies. Mission planning and design Space mission planning and payload, instrument designs rely on the gathered previous mission data. However, access to all the historic mission data is only provided to individuals with a higher authority access at the space agency which requires a lot of paper works and approvals. But recently NASA came up with a solution and they named it as the “Data Acquisition Processing and Handling Network Environment” (DAPHNE) system. Daphne-AT is an AI assistant that can access millions of previous mission data including the most restricted ones and provide the scientists an insight about their mission without the need of a higher authority access or security clearance. It can also compute and analyse countless input variables to determine the most efficient routes and schedules for missions, which is crucial for long-duration missions or missions with multiple objectives. Manufacturing Manufacturing processes usually involves complex tasks that requires high precision and attention to detail when it comes to space related applications. The use of AI in spacecraft manufacturing not only accelerates production but also increases precision and reliability. AI assistants like collaborative bots (cobots) interact with the engineers and help them to make the right decisions, reduce the overall assembly process time, and also provide insights about the final product which ensures that the spacecrafts are built to the highest standards. Data processing Space missions generate vast amounts of data, from images and telemetry to instrument readings. AI algorithms are capable in sifting through this data, identifying patterns, and extracting meaningful insights. An example is the estimation of planetary wind speed which requires a combination of the satellite imagery and meteorological data. AI tools can rapidly analyse these large datasets and help scientists in understanding these planetary phenomena and easily uncover its secrets. This capability is also valuable in missions to study distant galaxies, black holes, and exoplanets. Navigation & guidance systems One of the critical applications of AI in space technology is autonomous navigation. Spacecraft traveling vast distances through the cosmos must constantly adjust their trajectories to avoid collisions with celestial bodies and maximise their fuel efficiency. Advanced AI systems can process data in real-time and autonomously adjust a spacecraft's course. This not only reduces the need for constant human intervention from the ground station but also allows for more precise and efficient missions. Astronaut health monitoring Astronauts in space face a range of health issues like bone density loss, cardiovascular issues etc. The AI systems can continuously monitor physiological data and provide an insight into the astronaut’s health condition including sleep patterns. This allows early detection of health issues and timely intervention which reduces the need for immediate communication with ground mission control, ultimately safeguard the safety of the astronauts on long-duration missions. In summary, AI is a tool that represents a transformative shift in how we explore and understand our cosmos and its secrets. One day, AI will play an even more significant role that pushes the boundaries of space and bring us closer to answering some of humanity’s most profound questions. Written by Arun Sreeraj Related articles: Astronauts in space / AI in drug discovery / Evolution of AI / Chemistry in space exploration Project Gallery

A chemical perspective Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The environmental impact of EVs 16/01/25, 11:21 Last updated: Published: 07/08/23, 16:58 A chemical perspective Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining momentum worldwide as a greener alternative to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The environmental benefits of EVs extend beyond their efficient use of electricity. In this article, we explore the chemical aspects of EVs and their environmental impact, shedding light on their potential to mitigate climate change and reduce pollution. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction: EVs play a crucial role in addressing climate change by significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Unlike ICEVs that rely on fossil fuels, EVs generate zero tailpipe emissions. By utilising electricity as their energy source, EVs minimise the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other GHGs responsible for global warming. However, it's essential to consider the environmental implications of electricity generation, emphasising the need for renewable energy sources to maximise the positive impact of EVs. Battery Chemistry and Resource Management: The heart of an EV lies in its rechargeable battery, typically composed of lithium-ion technology. The production and disposal of these batteries present both opportunities and challenges. Raw materials, such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, are essential components of EV batteries. Responsible mining practices and efficient recycling techniques are vital to minimising the environmental impact of resource extraction and ensuring proper disposal or repurposing of used batteries. Electrochemical Reactions and Energy Storage: Electric vehicles rely on electrochemical reactions within their batteries to store and release energy. These reactions involve the flow of ions, typically lithium ions, between the positive and negative electrodes. Understanding the chemistry behind these processes enables the development of more efficient and durable battery systems. Continued research and innovation in battery chemistry hold the potential to enhance energy storage capabilities, extend EV range, and improve overall performance. Air Quality and Emission Reduction: EVs contribute to improved air quality due to their zero tailpipe emissions. By eliminating the release of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), EVs reduce smog formation and respiratory health risks. This is particularly significant in urban areas, where high concentrations of vehicular emissions contribute to air pollution. The adoption of EVs can help combat these issues and create cleaner and healthier environments. Battery Recycling and the Circular Economy: Given the increasing demand for EVs, battery recycling plays a vital role in ensuring a sustainable future. Recycling allows for the recovery of valuable materials and reduces the need for resource extraction. Effective recycling processes can mitigate the environmental impact of battery production, minimise waste generation, and promote a circular economy approach, where materials are reused and recycled to their fullest extent. Future Prospects and Chemical Innovations : Advancements in battery technology and chemical engineering are key to unlocking the full potential of EVs. Research efforts are focused on developing alternative battery chemistries, such as solid-state batteries, which offer improved energy density, safety, and recyclability. Additionally, exploring sustainable materials and manufacturing processes for batteries can further reduce the environmental footprint of EVs. In conclusion, electric vehicles represent a promising solution to combat climate change, reduce pollution, and promote sustainable transportation. From the chemistry behind battery systems to their impact on air quality and resource management, EVs offer a greener alternative to traditional vehicles. Continued research, innovation, and collaboration between the automotive industry, chemical scientists, and policymakers are essential for realising the full potential of EVs and creating a cleaner, more sustainable future. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Hydrogen cars / The brain-climate connection / Plastics and their environmental impact Project Gallery