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Pioneering progress in biomaterials, imaging and cancer therapeutics, and cancer-cell surfaces Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Women Leading the Charge in Biomedical Engineering 02/05/25, 11:26 Last updated: Published: 22/03/24, 18:21 Pioneering progress in biomaterials, imaging and cancer therapeutics, and cancer-cell surfaces In collaboration with Kameron's Lab for International Women's Month I was launched into the world of biomedical engineering by following my dreams. I met Dr. Ayanna Howard, an American roboticist and entrepreneur, and after hearing about my aspirations to become a surgeon but also loving robotics, she suggested the subject to me. Biomedical engineering is like a new dawn, seamlessly blending medicine, technology and engineering. It is a dawn that is illuminated by the brilliant dedication of the women who lead and innovate in the field. In a male-dominated industry like engineering, it is refreshing to see that the discipline of biomedical engineering constitutes of 40% women. This article celebrates the women who are redefining the boundaries of this interdisciplinary field. Changing lives with their discoveries, contributions and innovations. By sharing their stories, I aim to not only highlight the importance of diversity and representation in STEM but also to encourage more women to pursue their passions. Women leading biomedical innovation Speaking of women who are pioneering progress in biomedical engineering, this section highlights three of those women. Professor Elizabeth Tanner, Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam and Dr. Carcia Carson. Of course, this list is nowhere near exhaustive of the amazing contributions women have made to this field. I highly encourage you to learn more about the others who are forging a path for us all.... Professor Elizabeth Tanner, OBE, FREng, FRSE, PhD (Hon Caus), MA, DPhil, FIMMM, FIMechE, FIPEM, CEng, CSci Meeting Professor Tanner was like meeting a force to be reckoned with. In fact, I heard her name and about her contributions long before having the chance to meet her as a SEMS student ambassador. Professor Tanner is renowned for her work in biomaterials for bone and joint replacement. She is the Bonfield Professor of Biomedical Materials, Director of the Centre for Sustainable Engineering and the Director of the Institute of Bioengineering at Queen Mary University of London. Her significant contribution to developing HAPEX (hydroxyapatite polyethylene), the first of the bioactive composites used in patients, illustrates her commitment to blending scientific rigor with practical healthcare solutions. She left Queen Mary in 2007 to join the University of Glasgow where she started their Biomedical Engineering degree. This was the first in Scotland and she continued her research on bioactive composite materials there. Returning to Queen Mary in 2018, she has influenced countless students, including myself as my professor. She imparts not only knowledge in her lessons but also her passion. If you ever study biomedical engineering at Queen Mary, you can look forward to her engaging lecture on gait. Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam As a distinguished Professor of Biomedical Engineering and the Director of the Centre for Global Women’s Health Technologies, Dr. Ramanujam’s work represents meaningful innovation. Her work focuses on developing imaging and therapeutic tools for cancer, especially in women’s help. It is truly transforming the approach to cancer care and goes beyond the lab. She has made several global initiatives that aim to make a long lasting impact on health and education. One of the most well known is the Women Inspired Strategies for Health (WISH). Carcia Carson, PhD Dr. Carcia Carson is an inspiration for young black women in engineering. She hold the historic achievement of the first Black woman to earn a Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering at Vanderbilt University. Her success and journey exemplify the steps being made towards diversity and representation in STEM fields. She was introduced to medical physics through her studies at Fisk University. After her Ph.D, her professional research will center around developing translational research in cancer vaccines and personalised immunotherapy. Her research focuses on engineering cancer-cell surfaces with surface-conjugated nanomaterial drug carries to enhance immunogenicity of whole cell-based cancer vaccines. To break it down a bit, cell-surface conjugation permits co-localised delivery of both tumor antigens and immune-stimulatory adjuvants. She notes that while studying she ‘didn’t see anybody that looked like’ her. With this being the experience for many woman of colour in STEM, the need for representation and diversity remains imperative. The importance of representation With biomedical engineering progressing every day, the significance of representation cannot be overstated. Diversity in the field is not just about fairness and equity, it is about ensuring that the innovation includes people from a wide range of backgrounds. This way, problems are being solved for a multitude of cultures and needs, not just a cookie cutter solution. The 40% of women in biomedical engineering are more than a statistic, they are a testament to the rich and varied perspectives in this critical field. It is wonderful to see. Representation is profoundly important for several reasons, especially in healthcare. For example, the speculum has remained the same for over 150 years. This cold, uncomfortable device is used for the screening of cervical cancer. Until recently, it has remained untouched and led to women being put off the test entirely. In the UK, nearly 98% of cases are classed as preventable. Women bring valuable insights into women’s health issues through advocation, and creating inclusive healthcare solutions. A diverse workforce challenges the status quo and leads to novel approaches and thinking. Furthermore, the presence of women in leadership roles within biomedical engineering catalyses change and creates opportunities for the next generation. Young girls are more likely to pursue careers ins STEM if they see other women succeeding in them. This representation builds a pipeline of talent that is crucial for the sustained growth and evolution of biomedical engineering. The power of mentorship Outside of representation, the transformative power of mentorship is so important. Having a mentor is like the difference between navigating in the dark and having someone hold your hand with a comforting light. This mentorship can take a variety of forms: formal mentorship programs (sometimes provided by a university), organic relationships with friends and family and even virtually. A pivotal moment in my career was meeting my mentor, Dr. Carika Weldon. She was the first black Bermudian woman I met who was doing genetic research. But not only doing it, she was coming back home to share her success and giving back to the community. Conclusion Women’s invaluable contributions to biomedical engineering have made it clear that their involvement has been nothing short of transformative. Professor Elizabeth Tanner, Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam and Dr. Carcia Carson have had inspiring journeys of not only professional success but also in moving the field towards more diversity and inclusion. From launching the first biomedical engineering course in Scotland, to being the first black woman to hold a Ph.D in the field. These inspiring women serve as role models to us all. It is inspiring stories like theirs that we need as students with a passion for STEM. But many students find themselves unable to find mentors or someone in the STEM community to speak with. To learn from and to be inspired by. This is the reason that I launched my podcast, Kameron’s Lab| Dive In. I hope that it will be a platform for students to learn from the experts in the fields they aspire to be a part of. I remember only meeting a successful black woman in genetics when I was 16 years old. Students deserve to see people like them who are successful in the fields they love. My podcast aims to introduce them early by creating a library of professionals. Or as I like to call them, the Jedi Masters of STEM. Going back to the amazing women in biomedical engineering, their increasing presence is a sign of progress. But of course, more work needs to be done. We need to make sure that women not only enter this field, and other engineering fields, but also thrive and ascend to leadership positions. Only in these roles can they make the most significant change and shape the future of healthcare and technology. This narrative serves as not only a celebration of achievements, but also a call to action. To all aspiring female engineers, and scientists, it’s a showcase of possibilities and encouragement. To educators and industry leaders, it’s a reminder of the importance and benefits of a diverse workforce. As we continue to celebrate and support the achievements of women in this field, we are also moving closer to a future where the potential of every individual can be nurtured and realized for the benefit of all. Written by Kameron Young -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Kameron Young , Founder of Kameron's Lab, for this interesting article on the pioneering individuals in the field of biomedical engineering. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Follow @Kamerons_Lab on Instagram and @Kameron Young on Linkedin for more information. -- Check out the amazing work Kameron does and follow her social pages for latest content! -- Read more about the inspiring women mentioned in the article: Professor Elizabeth Dr. Nimmi Dr. Carcia -- Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics and in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research / The foremothers in gynaecology / Sisterhood in STEM REFERENCES Khan M. The success of women in Biomedical Engineering [Internet]. MedTech Foundation. 2023. Available from: https://www.medtechfoundation.org/post/the- success-of-women-in-biomedical-engineering Prof Elizabeth Tanner [Internet]. QMUL School of Engineering and Materials Science. Available from: https://www.sems.qmul.ac.uk/staff/k.e.tanner Young Lady bags PhD in Biomedical Engineering, sets record as the first-ever black person to achieve it in US university | Scholarship Region [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://www.scholarshipregion.com/young-lady-bags-phd-in-biomedical-engineering-sets-record-as-the-first-ever-black-person-to-achieve-it-in-us-university/ Carcia Carson [Internet]. Fisk-Vanderbilt Master’s-to-PhD Bridge Program. Available from: https://www.fisk-vanderbilt-bridge.org/carcia-carson How enduring use of 150-year-old speculum puts women off smear tests [Internet]. The Independent. 2022. Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/life- style/women/speculum-use-smear-tests-pain-sexism-b2105111.html Project Gallery

Resources such as: other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help! Aiding university students studying STEM subjects. Extra Resources A masterlist of other websites, textbooks, YouTube videos, and books to help with your studies, research and revision. You may also like: A-level resources, IB resources, Entrance exam preparation, FREE CV check!, STEM book reviews Representation in STEM Sisterhood in STEM GENERAL INFORMATION Referencing guide: Cite Them Right Cite this for me ZoteroBib (fast, free reference generator) Phrasebank to help with essays Free notes and textbooks: Studocu Grammar checker: Grammarly (available as a browser extension) Money financing for students: Save the Student Others: New Scientist (print and online magazine) BBC iPlayer science and nature documentaries WEBSITES TO AID STUDIES Science and maths: MME Revise Cognito Resources Access Tuition Maths Genie LibreTexts: biology , chemistry , physics , maths , engineering , and medicine HELP WITH RESEARCH Databases: - PubMed - MEDLINE (by National Library of Medicine) - ScienceDirect - Web of Science - Literature search: Google Scholar - Participate in actual research: Zooniverse - citizen science - Top multi-disciplinary journal in the field: Nature PHARMACOLOGY AND RELATED Reference sites: - Pharmgkb - Drug Bank - Check which drugs are in trial Textbooks: - Katzung's Basic & Clinical Pharmacology, 16th edition by Todd Vanderah, PhD - The Top 100 Drugs: Clinical Pharmacology and Practical Prescribing by Andrew Hitchings, Daniel Burrage, Dagan Lonsdale and Emma Baker BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES TEXTBOOKS Biology: - Campbell & Reece - Molecular biology and genetics: Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition - Molecular Cell Biology by Lodish et al - Anatomy and physiology: Marieb - Principles of Animal Physiology by Moyes and Schulte - Animal Physiology by Hill, Wyse, and Anderson - Developmental Biology by Barresi and Gilbert - Cancer: The Biology of Cancer by Robert A. Weinberg Biochemistry: - Medical Biochemistry b y N. Mallikarjuna Rao Neuroscience: - Purves et. al - Kandel Immunology: - Immunobiology, 5th edition The Immune System in Health and Disease Genetics: - Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics and Genomics by Turnpenny & Ellard - Lewin’s Genes by Krebs, Goldstein, and Kilpatrick - Human Molecular Genetics by Strachan and Read CHEMISTRY TEXTBOOKS Physical chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Solid State Chemistry (Fourth Edition) by Lesley Smart and Elaine Moore Organic chemistry: - Jonathan Clayden Organic Chemistry (latest edition) Inorganic chemistry: - Atkins Physical Chemistry (latest edition) - Housecroft Inorganic Chemistry (latest edition) - Electronic Structure (Basic Theory and Practical Methods) by Richard M. Martin - Two-minute Neuroscience - Amoeba Sisters (biology related) - Khan Academy (all STEM based) - TEDx Talk - Royal Society (range of science videos) - NumberPhile - patrickJMT (maths) - Tyler DeWitt (general chemistry) - Crash Course - Stanford Medicine (wellness) PHYSICS Resources: - Astronomy Picture of the Day - NASA STEM activities Textbooks: - University Physics by Young and Freedman - Introduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths - Introduction to Elementary Particles by Griffiths - Introduction to Quantum Mechanics by Griffiths - Modern Quantum Mechanics (Third Edition) by J. J. Sakurai and Jim Napolitano - Introductory Statistical Mechanics by Bowley & Sanchez - Statistical Mechanics: A Survival Guide by Glazer & Wark - Electricity and Magnetism by Morin and Purcell - Concepts in Thermal Physics by Blundell and Blundell - Introduction to Solid State Physics by Mittel & McEuen - Solid State Physics by Ashcroft and Mermin - Space, Time, and Geometry by Sean M. - Density Functional Theory by David S. Sholl and Janice A. Steckel - The Physics of Semiconductors: An Introduction Including Nanophysics and Applications by Marius Grundmann - Condensed Matter Field Theory (Second Edition) by Alexander Altland and Ben Simons - Condensed Matter Physics by Michael P. Marder MATHS Textbooks: - Mathematical Methods for Physicists and Engineers by Riley Benson and Hobson - Mathematics for Natural Scientists 1 and 2 by Lev Kantorovich - Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig - Thomas's Calculus by George B. Thomas - Mathematical Methods for Science students by G Stephenson - Contemporary Abstract Algebra by Joseph A. Gallian Read this article on how to excel in maths COMPUTER SCIENCE AND RELATED Resources: - Codeacademy - W3Schools ( has tutorials for HTML/ CSS/ Javascript, Python, Java, and many other languages) - Adacomputerscience - TeachComputing - Codewars (practise coding with your friends) - freeCodeCamp ENGINEERING Resources: - eFunda- formulae - Engineering statistics handbook - The Engineering Toolbox - free tools, calculators, and more - Engineers Edge - Online Ethics - ethics in engineering and science PSYCHOLOGY Resources: - QMUL resource guides - Psychology Today - Royal Holloway activities and research - Verywell Mind INFORMATIVE YOUTUBE CHANNELS

​Dive into the latest biological research! Read about animal testing and ethics, discover how moving houses can affect your health in gentrification, and learn how specific organisms can survive in the extreme cold. Biology Articles Dive into the latest biological research! Read about animal testing and ethics, discover how moving houses can affect your health in gentrification, and learn how specific organisms can survive in the extreme cold. You may also like: Cancer , Ecology , Genetics , Immunology , Neuroscience , Zoology , and Medicine Animal testing and ethics A breakdown on the practices and procedures Gentrification in the context of health How does moving houses impact your well-being? Cryptosporidium crisis Investigating the outbreak in Devon, UK in May 2024 Survival secrets of the Arctic springtail How do springtails (Collembola) survive the extreme cold? An introduction to stem cells Cells that can differentiate into any other type of cell. Article #1 in a series on stem cells. Monkey see, monkey clone An outline of recent discoveries in cloning research Are we doing enough to fight anti-fungal resistance? Preventing fungal infections in the body The chronotypes Demystifying the body clock Last updated: The interplay of hormones and the microbiome A look at how hormones can affect the gut Mesenchymal stem cells Cells that can differentiate into connective and lymphatic tissues, and blood vessels. Article #2 in a series on stem cells. Health and well-being of Palestinians Impact of war on health. Article #1 in the Global Health Injustices Series. Discovery of channel-blocking nanoparticles A solution to plant diseases Civil war in Sudan Impact of war on health. Article #2 in the Global Health Injustices Series. The effects of nanoparticles on (gut) health Looking at the nanoparticle silicon dioxide Circadian rhythms and nutrition How nutrition timing plays a part in circadian rhythms Previous

Looking at silicon dioxide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The effects of nanoparticles on health Last updated: 01/05/25, 10:33 Published: 01/05/25, 07:00 Looking at silicon dioxide There are around 100 trillion harmless and beneficial microbes in the gut, representing as many as 5,000 different species! They are called the gut microbiota and are essential for regulating brain function through the microbiota-gut-brain axis, controlling intestinal inflammation and more. Nanoparticles may alter the gut microbiota, posing a risk to health and well-being. Read on to find out more about how. What are nanoparticles? Nanoparticles are small particles that are usually less than 100 nm in diameter. One example of a common nanoparticle is silicon dioxide, which can be found as the food additive E551. Silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SiO2NPs) are commonly used as anti-caking agents in free-flowing powdery food products, such as spices and coffee. These nanoparticles can be toxic, damaging cells, tissues, and organs including the liver, kidneys, and lungs. The damage is primarily due to the way SiO2NPs react in the body as a result of their size: even though SiO2NPs are bigger than 100 nm in the form of E551, when the SiO2NPs are in the gastrointestinal tract, they can clump together and degrade into a smaller size of 10-50 nm. The experiment Researchers completed several experiments to examine the effects of exposure to SiO2NPs on health. This article will specifically talk about one experiment where they looked at the impacts of SiO2NPs on the gut microbiota. For this experiment, the researchers hypothesised that oral exposure to SiO2NPs will cause changes in the gut microbiota, affecting diversity and function in mice. 20 healthy male 4-week-old mice were used, weighing 8 to 12 grams. Researchers administered either SiO2NPs solution or vehicle solution for 28 days. The vehicle solution can be considered the control and was created out of a sterile saline solution. All bacteria contain the 16S rRNA gene which is highly conserved, meaning that the sequence remains mostly unchanged across different species. After 28 days, the researchers took faecal samples from the mice and conducted 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the bacterial DNA in the faeces to analyse the gut microbiota. Figure 1 shows the process of 16S rRNA gene sequencing, a method used to identify and compare bacterial diversity without needing to grow bacterial cultures. Because it is culture-free, 16S sequencing can survey complex microbiomes or difficult environments to study. This technique is commonly used to identify bacteria down to the genus or species level, depending on the needs of the experiments. Researchers looked at the alpha diversity of the gut microbiota, with Sob, Ace, Chao, Simpson, and Shannon indices being used. Sob, Ace and Chao give information about the number of species, while Simpson and Shannon give information about the community diversity, including the species evenness. The results The results of this experiment, as seen in Figure 2 , show that there was a significant increase in Sob, Ace, and Chao indices, but there was no substantial change in Simpson or Shannon indices. This suggests that SiO2NPs can change the diversity of gut microbiota, which could impact their biological functions. For example, if there are changes to the gut microbiota, it could result in increased inflammation in the intestine. This could potentially lead to the immune system’s defences in the gut being weaker, allowing harmful pathogens to pass through the epithelial barrier more easily. Conclusion One of the main weaknesses of this experiment is that it was conducted on mice. Because of this, the study's findings cannot be directly translated to humans. In addition, the study was conducted over only 28 days, meaning we don’t know the long-term effects and consequences of the impacts of SiO2NPs on the gut microbiota. Nevertheless, this is still a critical study as it shows that SiO2NPs do impact the gut microbiota. It also shows that maintaining healthy gut microbiota is important. This can be done by being mindful of what we eat. So next time, instead of having instant noodles full of additives, think about making a home-made soup with your favourite vegetables! Eating unprocessed whole foods is not just good for us, but also for our gut microbiota! Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Nanomedicine / Nanoparticles as diabetes treatment / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Microbiota Project Gallery

An engineering case study Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Silicon hydrogel contact lenses 01/05/25, 10:26 Last updated: Published: 29/04/24, 10:59 An engineering case study Introduction Contact lenses have a rich and extensive history dating back over 500 years; when, in 1508, Leonardo Di Vinci first conceived the idea. It was not until the late 19th century that the concept of contact lenses as we know them now were realised. In 1887 F.E.Muller was credited with making the first eye covering that could improve vision without causing any irritation. This eventually led to the first generation of hydrogel-based lenses as the development of the polymer, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), allowed Rishi Agarwal to conceive the idea of disposable soft contact lenses. Silicon hydrogel contact lenses dominate the contemporary market. Their superior properties have extended wear options and have transformed the landscape of vision correction. These small but complex items continue to evolve, benefiting wearers worldwide. This evolution is such that the most recent generation of silicon hydrogel lenses have recently been released and aim to phase out all the existing products. Benefits of silicon hydrogel lenses There are many benefits to this material’s use in this application. For example, the higher oxygen permeability improves user comfort and experience through relatively increased oxygen transmissibility that the material offers. These properties are furthered by the lens’ moisture retention which allows for longer wear times without compromising on comfort or eye health. Hence, silicon hydrogel lenses aimed to eradicate the drawbacks of traditional hydrogel lenses including: low oxygen permeability, lower lens flexibility and dehydration causing discomfort and long-term issues. This groundbreaking invention has revolutionised convenience and hygiene for users. The structure of silicon hydrogel lenses Lenses are fabricated from a blend of the two materials: silicon and hydrogel. The silicon component provides high oxygen permeability, while the hydrogel component contributes to comfort and flexibility. Silicon is a synthetic polymer and is inherently oxygen-permeable; it facilitates more oxygen to reach the cornea, promoting eye health and avoiding hypoxia-related symptoms. Its polymer chains form a network, creating pathways for oxygen diffusion. Whereas hydrogel materials are hydrophilic polymers that retain water, keeping the lens moist and comfortable as it contributes to the lens’s flexibility and wettability. Both materials are combined using cross-linking techniques which stabilise the matrix to make the most of both properties and prevent dissolution. (See Figure 1 ). There are two forms of cross-linking that enable the production of silicon hydrogel lenses: chemical and physical. Chemical cross-linking involves covalent bonds between polymer chains, enhancing the lens’s mechanical properties and stability. Additionally, physical cross-links include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and crystallisation. Both techniques contribute to the lens’s structure and properties and can be enhanced with polymer modifications. In fact, silicon hydrogel macromolecules have been modified to optimise properties such as: improved miscibility with hydrophilic components, clinical performance and wettability. The new generation of silicon hydrogel contact lenses Properties Studies show that wearers of silicon hydrogel lenses report higher comfort levels throughout the day and at the end of the day compared to conventional hydrogel lenses. This is attributed to the fact that they allow around 5 times more oxygen to reach the cornea. This is significant as reduced oxygen supply can lead to dryness, redness, blurred vision, discomfort, and even corneal swelling. What’s more, the most recent generation of lenses have further improved material properties, the first of which is enhanced durability and wear resistance. This is attributed to their complex and unique material composition, maintaining their shape and making them suitable for various lens designs. Additionally, they exhibit a balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties which have traditionally caused an issue with surface wettability. This generation of products have overcome this through surface modifications improving comfort by way of improving wettability. Not only this, but silicon hydrogel materials attract relatively fewer protein deposits. Reduced protein buildup leads to better comfort and less frequent lens replacement. Manufacturing There are currently two key manufacturing processes that silicon hydrogel materials are made with. Most current silicon hydrogel lenses are produced using either cast moulding or lathe cutting techniques. In lathe cutting, the material is polymerised into solid rods, which are then cut into buttons for further processing in computerised lathe - creating the lenses. Furthermore, surface modifications are employed to enhance this concept. For example, plasma surface treatments enhance biocompatibility and improve surface wettability compared to earlier silicon elastomer lenses. Future innovations There are various future expansions related to this material and this application. Currently, researchers are exploring ways to create customised and personalised lenses tailored to an individual’s unique eye shape, prescription, and lifestyle. One of the ways they are aiming to do this is by using 3D printing and digital scanning to allow for precise fitting. Although this is feasible, there are some challenges relating to scalability and cost-effectiveness while ensuring quality. Moreover, another possible expansion is smart contact lenses which aim to go beyond just improving the user's vision. For example, smart lenses are currently being developed for glucose and intraocular pressure monitoring to benefit patients with diseases including diabetes and glaucoma respectively. The challenges associated with this idea are data transfer, oxygen permeability and therefore comfort. (See Figure 2 ). Conclusion In conclusion, silicon hydrogel lenses represent a remarkable fusion of material science and engineering. Their positive impact on eye health, comfort, and vision correction continues to evolve. As research progresses, we can look forward to even more innovative solutions benefiting visually-impaired individuals worldwide. Written by Roshan Gill Related articles: Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor / Titan Submersible / Nanoparticles on gut health REFERENCES Optical Society of India, Journal of Optics, Volume 53, Issue 1, Springer, 2024 February Lamb J, Bowden T. The history of contact lenses. Contact lenses. 2019 Jan 1:2-17. Ţălu Ş, Ţălu M, Giovanzana S, Shah RD. A brief history of contact lenses. Human and Veterinary Medicine. 2011 Jun 1;3(1):33-7. Brennan NA. Beyond flux: total corneal oxygen consumption as an index of corneal oxygenation during contact lens wear. Optometry and vision science. 2005 Jun 1;82(6):467-72. Dumbleton K, Woods C, Jones L, Fonn D, Sarwer DB. Patient and practitioner compliance with silicon hydrogel and daily disposable lens replacement in the United States. Eye & Contact Lens. 2009 Jul 1;35(4):164-71. Nichols JJ, Sinnott LT. Tear film, contact lens, and patient-related factors associated with contact lens–related dry eye. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2006 Apr 1;47(4):1319-28. Jacinto S. Rubido, Ocular response to silicone-hydrogel contact lenses, 2004. Musgrave CS, Fang F. Contact lens materials: a materials science perspective. Materials. 2019 Jan 14;12(2):261. Shaker LM, Al-Amiery A, Takriff MS, Wan Isahak WN, Mahdi AS, Al-Azzawi WK. The future of vision: a review of electronic contact lenses technology. ACS Photonics. 2023 Jun 12;10(6):1671-86. Kim J, Cha E, Park JU. Recent advances in smart contact lenses. Advanced Materials Technologies. 2020 Jan;5(1):1900728. Project Gallery

Nanoparticles have unique properties Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nanoparticles: the future of diabetes treatment? 01/05/25, 10:28 Last updated: Published: 06/05/24, 13:20 Nanoparticles have unique properties Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder affecting millions worldwide. Given its myriad challenges, there is a substantial demand for innovative therapeutic strategies in its treatment. The global diabetic population is expected to increase to 439 million by 2030, which will impose a significant burden on healthcare systems. Diabetes occurs when the body cannot produce enough insulin, a hormone crucial for regulating glucose levels in the blood. This deficiency leads to increased glucose levels, causing long-term damage to organs such as the eyes, kidneys, heart, and nervous system, due to defects in insulin function and secretion. Nanoparticles have unique properties making them versatile in their applications and are promising to help revolutionise the future of the treatment of diabetes. This article will explore the potential of this emerging technology in medicine and will address the complexities and issues that arise with the management of diabetes. Nanoparticles have distinct advantages: biocompatibility, bioavailability, targeting efficiency and minimal toxicity, making them ideal for antidiabetic treatment. The drug delivery is targeted, making the delivery precise and efficient, avoiding off-target effects. Modifying nanoparticle surfaces enhances therapeutic efficacy, enabling targeted delivery to specific tissues and cells, while reducing systemic side effects. Another currently researched key benefit is real-time glucose sensing and monitoring, which addresses a critical aspect in managing diabetes, as nanoparticle-based glucose sensors can detect glucose levels with high sensitivity and selectivity. This avoids the use of invasive blood sampling and allows for continuous monitoring of glucose levels. These can be functionalised and integrated into wearable devices, or implanted sensors, making it convenient and reliable to monitor and to be able to optimum insulin therapy. Moreover, nanoparticle-based approaches show potential in tissue regeneration, aiding insulin production restoration. For example, in particular, nanomedicine is a promising tool in theranostics of chronic kidney disease (CKD), where one radioactive drug can diagnose and a second delivers the therapy. The conventional procedure to assess renal fibrosis is by taking a kidney biopsy, which is then followed by a histopathological assessment. This method is risky, invasive, and subjective, and less than 0.01 % of kidney tissue is examined which results in diagnostic errors, limiting the accuracy of the current screening method. The standard use of pharmaceuticals has been promising but can cause hypoglycaemia, diuresis, and malnutrition because of the low caloric intake. Nanoparticles offer a new approach to both diagnosis and treatment and are an attractive candidate for managing CKD as they can carry drugs and enhance image contrast, controlling the rate and location of drug release. In the treatment of this multifaceted disease, nanoparticle delivery systems seem to be a promising and innovative therapeutic strategy, with the variety in the methods of delivery. The range of solutions that are currently being developed are promising, from enhancing the drug delivery to monitoring the glucose level, to direct tissue regeneration. There is immense potential for the advancement of nanomedicines, helping improve patient outcomes, the treatment efficacy, and allowing the alleviation of the burden and side effects of the disorder. With ongoing efforts and innovation, the future treatment of diabetes can be greatly helped with the use of nanoparticles, and these advancements will improve strategies for the management and future treatment of diabetes. Written by Saanchi Agarwal Related articles: Pre-diabetes / Can diabetes mellitus become an epidemic? / Nanomedicine / Nanoparticles on gut health REFERENCES Lemmerman LR, Das D, Higuita-Castro N, Mirmira RG, Gallego-Perez D. Nanomedicine-Based Strategies for Diabetes: Diagnostics, Monitoring, and Treatment. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2020 Jun;31(6):448-458. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2020.02.001. Epub 2020 Mar 4. PMID: 32396845; PMCID: PMC7987328. Dehghani P, Rad ME, Zarepour A, Sivakumar PM, Zarrabi A. An Insight into the Polymeric Nanoparticles Applications in Diabetes Diagnosis and Treatment. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2023;23(2):192-216. doi: 10.2174/1389557521666211116123002. PMID: 34784864. Luo XM, Yan C, Feng YM. Nanomedicine for the treatment of diabetes-associated cardiovascular diseases and fibrosis. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2021 May;172:234-248. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.01.004. Epub 2021 Jan 5. PMID: 33417981. L. Tillman, T. A. Tabish, N. Kamaly, A. El-Briri F, C. Thiemermann, Z. I. Pranjol and M. M. Yaqoob, Review Advancements in nanomedicines for the detection and treatment of diabetic kidney disease, Biomaterials and Biosystems, 2022, 6, 100047. J. I. Cutler, E. Auyeung and C. A. Mirkin, Spherical nucleic acids, J Am Chem Soc, 2012, 134, 1376–1391. Veiseh, O., Tang, B., Whitehead, K. et al. Managing diabetes with nanomedicine: challenges and opportunities. Nat Rev Drug Discov 14, 45–57 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd4477 Project Gallery

Delving into the impacts of gut bacteria on health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Gut Microbiome 01/05/25, 10:24 Last updated: Published: 04/04/24, 16:41 Delving into the impacts of gut bacteria on health Inflammatory Bowel Disease The microbiome is hugely important to human health, and has been shown to beneficial to digestion, the immune system and even our mental health when in good working condition. However, disruption to the balance of the microbial flora has likewise been associated with multiple diseases and poor general health. Dysbiosis, or a poor balance, of human microbiome communities has been implicated in a wide range of disease, such as cardiovascular disease, chronic inflammation, obesity and even mental health issues. A diverse and well-balanced microbial community is important for disease prevention, however modern over usage of antibiotics as well as poor diets low in dietary fibre and high in artificial additives can lead to compromised communities dominated by single pathogenic strains of bacteria. The human microbiome plays a critical role in overall health, from providing valuable metabolites to aiding the immune system. Friendly commensal bacteria colonise major regions in our gut, with characteristic diverse communities of microbes inhabiting them. These microbes occupy these niches and outcompete pathogenic organisms, actively preventing infection and disease. In this article we will be specifically looking into the link between the gut microbiome and Inflammatory Bowel disease (IBD), as this is currently one of the most well researched cases of a causal relationship between the microbiome and disease state. Dysbiosis and Disease state Disruption of the gut flora is associated with painful inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, diagnosed as IBD. Crohn’s disease and Ulcerative Colitis are conditions under the umbrella term of IBD and cause painful swelling and eventually ulcers in the gastrointestinal tract. The exact cause of IBD remains unclear, with the true cause likely a combination of genetics, environmental factors and the gut microbiome. Evidence has come to light that shows a link between disease state and the gut dysbiosis, where they influence each other and are potentially both each other’s cause and effect. Successfully treating IBD has proved difficult; medications focus on alleviating inflammation or other symptoms as antibiotics have shown limited effectiveness in curing the disease. Antibiotics have even been suggested to weaken the immune system long-term, as evidence suggests that antibiotic clearance of commensal bacteria can provide opportunity for pathogenic strains to establish themselves. Medical treatments destabilizing the microbiome can lead to a change in overall metabolism and chronic Clostridium difficile infection. When colonization resistance is compromised there is more opportunity for single bacteria to dominate the community, with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea a common side effect associated with antibiotic induced dysbiosis. Microbial based therapies Recently potential therapies pivoted to target the microbiota, as reinstating a healthy colony of gut microbials should alleviate the cause of IBD. Previous treatments relied on antibiotics followed by a course of probiotics; however, this has had variable levels of success as the antibiotic treatment can further reduce bacterial diversity in the gut. Probiotics have limited effectiveness in alleviating symptoms; any effect is transient as no probiotic microbial strains are detectable after 2 weeks of stopping intake. In modern clinical trials we have already seen positive results from microbiome treatments in clearing C. difficile infection, such as faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) therapy. FMT uses faeces from a healthy donor, which are processed and delivered to the gastrointestinal tract of patients. Faeces contain a high microbial load, with up to 1011 bacterium per gram and multiple archaea, fungi and viruses that could not be delivered orally in a probiotic form. Success in resolving dysbiosis through FMT is variable but shows more promise than other therapies. Future Potential Specific forms of IBD such as ulcerative colitis (UC) was first treated with FMT in 1989, with patients reducing medications within a week of enema treatments and remaining clinically disease free for multiple years after treatment. More recent trials have had more variable levels of remission, suggesting donor compatibility, disease prevalence and engraftment of the microbiota all factor into the success of FMT. There is potential in this therapy, as FMT has proved more robust than previous treatments for IBD. Modern research into the relationship between disease and gut flora has come a long way in a relatively short time and shows there is much potential for future research in this area. Written by Charlotte Jones Related articles: the power of probiotics / Crohn's disease / the dopamine connection / Diverticular disease / Nanoparticles on gut health Project Gallery

The natural body clock and the involvement of genetics Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The chronotypes 01/05/25, 10:23 Last updated: Published: 27/11/24, 11:47 The natural body clock and the involvement of genetics Feeling like heading to bed at 9 pm and waking up at the crack of dawn? These tendencies define your chronotype, backed up by changes within your body. A generally overlooked topic, chronotypes affect our everyday behaviour. Many people innately associate themselves with a certain chronotype, but what do we know about how these physiological differences are caused at a molecular level? The word ‘chronotype’ was first coined in the 1970s, combining the Greek words chrono (time) and type (kind or form). While the term is relatively modern, the concept emerged in the 18th century. Researchers in the 1960s and 1970s, like Jürgen Aschoff, explored how internal biological clocks influence our sleep-wake cycles, leading to the classification of people into morning or evening types based on their activity patterns. The first evidence of body clocks was found in plants rather than humans, thus leading to the invention of flower clocks, which were used to tell the time of the day. Before delving into the details, let us be introduced to the general categories of chronotypes, which describe a person’s inclination to wake up and sleep while also affecting productivity periods. We know of the following three categories: The morning type (also referred to as larks): they are inclined to wake up and go to bed early because they feel most alert and productive in the mornings. The evening type (also called the owls): they feel most alert and productive in the evenings and onwards, so they are inclined to wake up and go to bed later. The intermediate types (also referred to as the doves): they fall in the middle of this range. Let’s explore what we know about the genetics that prove that chronotypes are a natural phenomenon. Genetics of chronotypes The main determining factor in our chronotypes is the circadian period. This is the body’s 24 hour cycle of changes that manifest into feelings of productivity and energy or tiredness. The length of this is crucial in determining our chronotypes. More importantly, specific physiological changes that cause these effects are melatonin and core body temperature. One study suggested that the morning types might have circadian periods shorter than 24 hours, whereas evening chronotypes might have circadian periods longer than 24 hours. A major clock gene is PER, which includes a collection of genes known as PER1, PER2 and PER3, which are thought to regulate circadian period factors. Specifically, it has been observed that a delay in the expression of the PER1 gene in humans causes an increased circadian period. Possible causes for this delay may be rendered to a variation within the negative feedback loop that PER1 operates in, including hereditary differences, environmental causes, changes to hormonal signals and age. This process may describe the mechanism behind the evening chronotype. Molecular polymorphs in the PER3 gene are thought to cause shorter circadian rhythms and the manifestation of the morning types. Similarly, a polymorph in the PER3 gene can be caused by a plethora of causes, as described for PER1. These nuances cause differences in the periodic release and stop of hormones which control the circadian rhythm, such as melatonin and body temperature. This is important in its power to control our energy levels, windows of productivity, and sleep cycles. The consensus remains that chronotypes are attributable to genetic premeditation by 50%, however, it has also been observed that chronotypes are prone to change with advancing age. Increased age is associated with an inclination towards an earlier phase chronotype. Age-related variation has been observed to be higher in men. There also exists an association between geographical locations and phase preference; increasing latitude (travelling North or South) from the earth's equator is associated with later chronotypes. Of course, many variations and factors come into play to affect these findings, such as ethnic genetics, climate, work culture and even population density. The effect on core body temperature and melatonin Polymorphisms in the PER3 cause a much earlier peak in body temperature and melatonin in the morning than in the evening and intermediate types. These manifest as the need to sleep much earlier in the morning and a decreased feeling of productivity later in the day. In contrast, the evening types experience a later release of melatonin and a drop in core body temperature, causing a later onset of tiredness and lack of energy. It can then be inferred that the intermediate types are affected by the expression of these genes in a way that falls in the middle of this spectrum. Conclusion Understanding differences in circadian rhythms and sleep-wake preferences offers valuable insights into human behaviour and health. Chronotypes influence various aspects of daily life, including sleep patterns and quality, cognitive performance and susceptibility to specific health conditions, including sleep-wake conditions. An extreme deviation in circadian rhythms and sleep cycles may lead to such conditions as Advanced sleep-wake phase Disorder (ASPD) and Delayed sleep-wake phase Disorder (DSPD). Recognising these variations is also helpful in optimising work schedules and aligning to jet lags, improving mental and physical health by tailoring our biological rhythms to our environments. Many individuals opt to do a sleep study at an institution to gain insights into their circadian rhythms. A healthcare professional may also prescribe this if they suspect you have a circadian disturbance such as insomnia. The Morning-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) The MEQ is a self-reported questionnaire you may complete to gain more insight into your chronotype category. Clinical psychologist Micheal Breus created it and uses different animals to categorise the chronotypes further. The framework suggests that the Bear represents individuals whose energy patterns are entrained to the rising and the sun's setting and are the most common types in the general population. The Lions describe the early risers, and Wolves roughly equate to the evening types. Recently, a fourth chronotype has been proposed: the Dolphin, whose responses to the questionnaire suggest that they switch between modes. Whether you're a Bear, Lion, Wolf, or Dolphin, understanding your chronotype can be a game-changer in optimising your daily routine. So, what’s your chronotype—and how can you start working with your body’s natural rhythms to unlock your full potential? A sleep study ? The MEQ ? Maybe keeping a tracker. Written by B. Esfandyare Related article: Circadian rhythms and nutrition REFERENCES Emens JS, Yuhas K, Rough J, Kochar N, Peters D, Lewy AJ. Phase Angle of Entrainment in Morning‐ and Evening‐Types under Naturalistic Conditions. Chronobiology International. 2009 Jan;26(3):474–93. Lee, J.H., Kim, I.S., Kim, S.J., Wang, W. and Duffy, J.F. (2011). Change in Individual Chronotype Over a Lifetime: A Retrospective Study. Sleep Medicine Research , 2(2), pp.48–53. doi: https://doi.org/10.17241/smr.2011.2.2.48 . Ujma, P.P. and Kirkegaard, E.O.W. (2021). The overlapping geography of cognitive ability and chronotype. PsyCh Journal , 10(5), pp.834–846. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.477 . Shearman LP, Jin X, Lee C, Reppert SM, Weaver DR. Targeted Disruption of the mPer3 Gene: Subtle Effects on Circadian Clock Function. Molecular and Cellular Biology. 2000 Sep 1;20(17):6269–75. Viola AU, Archer SN, James Lynette M, Groeger JA, Lo JCY, Skene DJ, et al. PER3 Polymorphism Predicts Sleep Structure and Waking Performance. Current Biology. 2007 Apr;17(7):613–8. Project Gallery

The effect on sleep on nutrition (nutrition timing) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The interaction between circadian rhythms and nutrition Last updated: 27/04/25, 11:20 Published: 01/05/25, 07:00 The effect on sleep on nutrition (nutrition timing) The circadian system regulates numerous biological processes with roughly a 24-hour cycle, helping the organism adapt to the day-night rhythm. Among others, circadian rhythms regulate metabolism, energy expenditure, and sleep, for which meal timing is an excellent inducer. Evidence has shown that meal timing has a profound impact on health, gene expression, and lifespan. Proper timed feeding in accordance with the natural circadian rhythms of the body might improve metabolic health and reduce chronic disease risk. Circadian rhythms Circadian rhythms are controlled by the central clock of the brain, which coordinates biological functions with the light-dark cycle. Along with meal timing, circadian rhythms influence key elements of metabolism such as insulin sensitivity, fat storage, and glucose metabolism. When meal timing is not synchronised with the body's natural rhythm, it can cause circadian misalignment, disrupting metabolic processes and contributing to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Literature has indicated that one should eat best during the daytime, particularly synchronised with the active phase of the body. Eating late at night or in the evening when the circadian rhythm of the body is directed towards sleep could impair metabolic function and lead to weight gain, insulin resistance, and numerous other diseases. Also, having larger meals in the morning and smaller meals later in the evening has been linked to improved metabolic health, sleep quality, and even lifespan. A time-restricted eating window, in which individuals eat all meals within a approximately 10–12 hour window, holds promise for improving human health outcomes like glucose metabolism, inflammation, harmful gene expression, and weight loss ( Figure 1 ). It is necessary to consider the impact of meal timing on gene expression. Our genes react to a number of stimuli, including environmental cues like food and light exposure. Gene expression of the body's metabolic, immune, and DNA repair processes are regulated by the body's circadian clock. Disturbances in meal timing influence the expression of these genes, which may result in greater susceptibility to diseases and reduced lifespan. Certain nutrients, such as melatonin in cherries and grapes, and magnesium in leafy greens and nuts, can improve sleep quality and circadian entrainment. Omega-3 fatty acids in fatty fish and flax seeds also have been shown to regulate circadian genes and improve metabolic functions. Other species Meal timing is quite varied among species, and animals have adapted such that food-seeking behavior is entrained into circadian rhythm and environmental time cues. There are nocturnal animals which eat at night, when they are active ( Figure 2 ). These nocturnal animals have evolved to align their meal time with their period of activity to maximise metabolic efficiency and lifespan. Meal timing is optimised in these animals for night activity and digestion. Humans, and most other animals, are diurnal and consume food during the day. In these animals, consuming most of their calories during the day is conducive to metabolic processes like glucose homeostasis and fat storage. These species tend to have better metabolic health when they are on a feeding regimen that is synchronized with the natural light-dark cycle. Conclusion Meal timing is important in human health, genetics, and life expectancy. Synchronising meal times with the body's circadian rhythms optimises metabolic function, reduces chronic disease incidence, and potentially increases longevity by reducing inflammatory genes and upregulating protective ones. This altered gene expression affects the way food is metabolised and metabolic signals are acted upon by the body. Humans naturally gravitate towards eating during daytime hours, while other creatures have feeding habits that are adaptively suited to their own distinct environmental needs. It is important to consider this science and incorporate it into our schedules to receive the best outcome from an activity that we do not normally think about. Written by B. Esfandyare Related article: The chronotypes REFERENCES Meléndez-Fernández, O.H., Liu, J.A. and Nelson, R.J. (2023). Circadian Rhythms Disrupted by Light at Night and Mistimed Food Intake Alter Hormonal Rhythms and Metabolism. International Journal of Molecular Sciences , [online] 24(4), p.3392. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043392 . Paoli, A., Tinsley, G., Bianco, A. and Moro, T. (2019). The Influence of Meal Frequency and Timing on Health in Humans: The Role of Fasting. Nutrients , [online] 11(4), p.719. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30925707 . Potter, G.D.M., Cade, J.E., Grant, P.J. and Hardie, L.J. (2016). Nutrition and the circadian system. British Journal of Nutrition , [online] 116(3), pp.434–442. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114516002117 . St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, et al. Meal timing and frequency: implications for obesity prevention. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2017;11(1):7-16. Patterson RE, Sears DD. Metabolic effects of intermittent fasting. Annu Rev Nutr. 2017;37:371-393. Zhdanova IV, Wurtman RJ. Melatonin treatment for age-related insomnia. Endocrine. 2012;42(3):1-12. Prabhat, A., Batra, T. and Kumar, V. (2020). Effects of timed food availability on reproduction and metabolism in zebra finches: Molecular insights into homeostatic adaptation to food-restriction in diurnal vertebrates.Hormones and Behavior, 125, p.104820. Project Gallery

The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Beyond the bump: unravelling traumatic brain injuries 29/04/25, 16:12 Last updated: Published: 15/10/24, 11:32 The yearly incidence of TBI is around 27 and 69 million people worldwide A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most serious and complex injuries sustained by the human body, often with profound and long-term effects on an individual’s physical, emotional, behavioural and cognitive abilities. What is a traumatic brain injury? A TBI results from an external force which causes structural and physical damage to the brain. The primary injury refers to the immediate damage to the brain tissue which is caused directly by the event. Whereas secondary injuries result from the cascade of cellular and molecular processes triggered by the initial injury and develop from hours to weeks following the initial TBI. Typically, the injury can be penetrating, where an object pierces the skull and damages the brain, or non-penetrating which occurs when the external force is large enough to shake the brain within the skull causing coup- contrecoup damage. Diagnosis and severity The severity of a TBI is classified as either mild (aka concussion), moderate, or severe, using a variety of indices. Whilst more than 75% of TBIs are mild, even these individuals can suffer long-term consequences from post-concussion syndrome. Here are two commonly used measures to initially classify severity: The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is an initial neurological examination which assesses severity based on the patient’s ability to open their eyes, move, and respond verbally. It is a strong indicator of whether an injury is mild (GCS 13-15), moderate (GCS 9-12) or severe (≤8). Following the injury and any period of unconsciousness, when a patient has trouble with their memory and is confused, they are said to have post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). This is another measure of injury severity and lasts up to 30 30 minutes in mild TBI, between 30 minutes and 24 hours in moderate TBI, and over 24 hours in severe TBI. Imaging tests including CT scans and MRIs are used to detect brain bleeds, swelling or any other damage. These tests are essential upon arrival to the hospital, especially in moderate and severe cases to understand the full extent of the injury. Leading causes of TBI Common causes of TBI are a result of: Falls (most common in young children and older adults) Vehicle collisions (road traffic accidents- RTAs) Inter-personal violence Sports injuries Explosive blasts Interestingly, the rate of TBI is 1.5 times more common in men than women. General symptoms The symptoms and outcome of a TBI depend on the severity and location of the injury. They differ from person to person based on a range of factors which include pre-injury sociodemographic vulnerabilities including age, sex and level of education, as well as premorbid mental illnesses. There are also post-injury factors such as access to rehabilitation and psychosocial support which influence recovery. Due to this, nobody will have the same experience of a TBI, however there are some effects which are more common than others which are described: Mild TBI: Physical symptoms: headaches, dizziness, nausea, and blurred vision. Cognitive symptoms: confusion, trouble concentrating, difficulty with memory or disorientation. Emotional symptoms: mood swings, irritability, depression or anxiety. Moderate-to-severe TBI: Behavioural symptoms: aggression, personality change, disinhibition, impulsiveness. Cognitive symptoms: difficulties with attention and concentration, decision making, memory, executive dysfunction, information processing, motivation, language, reasoning, self-awareness. Physical symptoms: headaches, seizures, speech problems, fatigue, weakness or paralysis. Many of these symptoms are ‘hidden’ and can often impact functional outcomes for an individual, such as their capacity for employment and daily living (i.e., washing, cooking, cleaning etc.). The long-term effects of TBI can vary, with some returning to normal functioning. However, others might experience lifelong disabilities and require adjustments in their daily lives. For more information and support, there are some great resources on the Headway website, a leading charity which supports individuals after brain injury. Written by Alice Jayne Greenan Related articles: Neuroimaging / Different types of seizures Project Gallery