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Unlocking the mystery of spinal disorders and paving the way for targeted therapies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unveiling the cancer magnet: vertebral stem cells and spinal tumour metastasis Last updated: 29/05/25, 10:46 Published: 24/04/25, 07:00 Unlocking the mystery of spinal disorders and paving the way for targeted therapies Introduction Researchers at Weill Cornell Medicine have discovered that the vertebral bones in the spine contain a unique type of stem cell that secretes a protein-promoting tumour metastasis. This protein, called MFGE8, plays a significant role in attracting tumours to the spine, making it more susceptible to metastasis when compared to other bones in the body. A new line of research on spinal disorders This groundbreaking study , published in the journal Nature, sheds light on the mechanisms behind the preference for solid tumours to spread to the spine. The findings open up a new line of research on spinal disorders, potentially leading to a better understanding and treatment of bone diseases involving the spine. Identifying vertebral stem cells The researchers began their study by isolating skeletal stem cells, which are responsible for bone and cartilage formation, from various bones in lab mice. Through gene activity analysis, they identified a distinct set of markers for vertebral stem cells. Further experiments in mice and lab-dish cell culture systems confirmed the functional roles of these stem cells in forming spinal bone. Unravelling the mystery of spinal tropism Previous theories attributed the spine's susceptibility to metastasis to patterns of blood flow. However, the study's findings challenged this long-standing belief. Animal models reproduced the phenomenon of spinal tropism, but the researchers discovered that blood flow was not the sole explanation. Instead, they found evidence pointing towards vertebral stem cells as the possible culprits. The role of MFGE8 The researchers discovered that spinal tropism is largely a result of the protein MFGE8, which vertebral stem cells secrete in greater quantities than other bone stem cells. Removing vertebral stem cells eliminated the difference in metastasis rates between spine bones and other long bones. Implications for cancer patients These findings have significant implications for cancer patients, particularly those at risk of spinal metastasis. The researchers are now exploring methods to block the activity of MFGE8, aiming to reduce the risk of tumour spread to the spine. By understanding the distinctive properties of vertebral stem cells, researchers hope to develop targeted treatments for spinal disorders. A new frontier in orthopaedics According to study senior author Matthew Greenblatt, the identification of these unique stem cells opens up a new subdiscipline in orthopaedics called spinal orthopaedics. Many conditions in this clinical category may be attributed to the properties of vertebral stem cells. Further research in spinal orthopaedics is needed to understand how these distinct properties of vertebral stem cells contribute to spinal disorders. The discovery of MFGE8, a protein secreted in higher amounts by vertebral stem cells, has shed light on the mechanism behind the preferential spread of tumours to the spine. By investigating methods to block MFGE8, researchers hope to reduce the risk of spinal metastasis in cancer patients. Additionally, the study findings highlight the importance of understanding the role of vertebral stem cells in bone diseases that primarily affect the spine. This new line of research may provide insights into the development of novel treatments for spinal disorders. Conclusion In conclusion, the study by researchers at Weill Cornell Medicine has shown that vertebral bones, which make up the spine, contain a particular type of stem cell that secretes a protein known as MFGE8. This protein plays a significant role in promoting tumour metastases, explaining why solid tumours often spread to the spine. The findings have opened up new avenues of research in understanding spinal disorders and may lead to the development of strategies for reducing the risk of spinal metastasis in cancer patients. Overall, this study highlights the importance of vertebral stem cells in contributing to spinal disorders and emphasises the need for further investigation in this field. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Cancer metastasis / Brain metastasis / Stem cells REFERENCE Sun, J., Hu, L., Bok, S. et al. A vertebral skeletal stem cell lineage driving metastasis. Nature 621, 602–609 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06519-1 Project Gallery

The 14-day rule and stem cell-based embryo models Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Regulation and policy of stem cell research Last updated: 20/10/25, 14:40 Published: 23/10/25, 07:00 The 14-day rule and stem cell-based embryo models This is the last article (article no. 3) in a three-part series on stem cells. Previous article: The role of mesenchymal stem cells in regenerative medicine. Welcome to the final article in this series of three articles about stem cells. Article 1 was an overview of stem cells, and Article 2 focused on mesenchymal stem cells. In Article 3, I will look at the regulation and policy of stem cell research, which is important given the rapidly changing landscape of stem cell research. Introduction If used effectively, stem cells can be used in treating diseases, understanding human development, and more. For example, a recent paper published in September 2025 explains how scientists created embryos from human skin DNA, in an experimental process they named “mitomeiosis”. Here, the scientists attempted to force the egg cell to divide to remove half of its chromosomes so it could be fertilised like a normal egg cell. While mitomeiosis was unsuccessful in creating viable egg cells, new advancements like this raise ethical questions about the use of stem cells, especially those derived from embryos. As a result, policies and regulations must be created and followed to ensure stem cells are used ethically and appropriately. Two major topics in this policy landscape are the 14-day rule for using human embryos and the creation of Stem Cell-Based Embryo Model (SCBEM) frameworks. The 14-day rule One of the most widely known restrictions in the field of stem cells is the 14-day rule. The 14-day rule prohibits scientists from culturing human embryos in vitro (in the laboratory) beyond 14 days or the appearance of the primitive streak. The primitive streak is a developmental marker signalling the point at which an embryo is biologically individualised. The appearance of this streak also marks the beginning of gastrulation, which is when embryonic cells start differentiating into the three primary germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. A timeline of human embryo development from day 0 to day 14 is shown in Figure 1 to help visualise the different stages. In the UK, the 14-day rule is a law under the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (HFE) Act 1990 (as amended 2008) . These human embryos are either donated with consent for research purposes due to no longer being needed, are unsuitable for fertility treatments, or are embryos created explicitly from donated sperm and eggs for research purposes. However, scientific advances have meant that human embryo cultures have now become advanced, resulting in embryos being destroyed at the 14-day deadline due to the law. For example, in 2016, researchers developed new in vitro culture systems that allowed human embryos to be maintained in the lab up to the 12th and 13th day of development. This had previously not been possible. Unfortunately, the experiments had to be stopped because they were approaching the 14-day legal limit. Therefore, scientists have questioned whether the 14-day rule is still fit-for-purpose, and if not, how it could be amended in a way that still ensures ethical and appropriate use of these cells. A specific area of development that scientists do not have a lot of information on is the “black box” period, which includes the moment of gastrulation, happening around day 14-15. Having further knowledge of gastrulation could be used to improve the success rate of In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF), by helping scientists to understand possible causes of early miscarriage and implantation failure, and working to mitigate those. Because of this debate, the Nuffield Council on Bioethics has launched a project to better understand the arguments for and against extensions to the 14-day limit on human embryo research. The Council aims to use this project to provide decision-makers, such as policymakers, with the evidence they need to decide whether to extend the time limit. Regulating Stem Cell-Based Embryo Models (SCBEMs) There is also the development of SCBEMs to consider, as seen in Figure 2 . SCBEMs are also called embryoids or embryo models. They are complex, organised three-dimensional structures derived from pluripotent stem cells, which are cells that can differentiate into all cells in the human body. SCBEMs replicate certain features and processes of embryonic development, meaning they can provide new insights into stages of early human development that have been normally inaccessible to scientists. However, SCBEMs are not defined as embryos under existing laws, like the HFE Act 1990, meaning there is a policy and regulation gap covering these structures. To fill this gap, researchers recently created the first-ever UK guidelines for generating and using SCBEMs in research. The new SCBEM Code of Practice was published in July 2024 and has clear guidance and standards, increasing the transparency of research that will be conducted using SCBEMs. The Code requires that research have well-justified scientific objectives and adhere to an approved culture period, the minimum duration needed to achieve the scientific objective. For example, the Code prohibits the transfer of human SCBEMs into a human or animal womb. Furthermore, adherence to the Code requires that a dedicated SCBEM Oversight Committee be created to review and approve proposed work. An SCBEM Register is also needed to record information about successful applications. Both of these increase the transparency and openness of research using SCBEMs. Future of regulation and policy of stem cell research Given the rapid pace of development in stem cell research, policies and regulations must be created and followed to ensure ethical and appropriate use of these cells. The review by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics regarding the 14-day rule will be important in determining if the rule should be extended. The extension could allow scientists to study developmental stages such as gastrulation, currently part of the “black box” period of development occurring after 14 days. The creation of the UK's first-ever SCBEM Code of Practice in July 2024 has introduced guidelines to fill the existing policy gap, requiring research using these models to have well-justified scientific objectives, follow approved culture periods, and be reviewed by an Oversight Committee to ensure transparency and ethical use. However, there is a need for stronger regulations, as opposed to guidelines, for using SCBEMs, and it is an important example of where policy needs to continue to be developed. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Animal testing ethics / How colonialism, geopolitics and health are interwoven Project Gallery

From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The fundamental engineering flaws of the Titan Submersible Last updated: 03/04/25, 10:27 Published: 03/04/25, 07:00 From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design On June 18, 2023, the Titan submersible made headlines when the expedition to visit the wreck of the Titanic ended in tragedy. In the North Atlantic Ocean, 3,346 metres below sea-level, the underwater vessel catastrophically imploded along with its five passengers. Two years on, this article deep dives into the key points of failure in engineering and reflects on what we can learn from the fatal incident. The Titanic and OceanGate’s mission The Titanic wreck lies around 3800 metres below sea level in the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately 370 miles off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. Since the wreckage was finally discovered in September 1985, over seven decades after the boat sank from an iceberg collision on the 15th of April 1912, less than 250 people have personally viewed the wreckage. Despite many discussions to raise the wreckage back to the surface, the complete Titanic structure has become too fragile after over a century underwater and will likely disintegrate completely over the next few decades. Hence, viewing the Titanic in person is only possible with an underwater vessel, a feat which has been achieved successfully since 1998 by a range of companies seating historians, oceanographers, and paying tourists. The Titan submersible is one such vessel developed by OceanGate Expeditions. Titan has been attempting dives to the Titanic wreck since 2017 and was first successful in 2021, when it went on to complete 13 successful dives. According to the passenger liability waiver however, this was only 13 out of 90 attempted dives (a 14% success rate), as a result of communication signal failures, structural concerns, strong currents, poor visibility, or logistical issues. On the many failed attempts, the mission was either cancelled or aborted before the Titan reached the depth of the Titanic wreck. Despite concerns raised by engineers, poor success rates in testing and simulation, as well as previous instances of the Titan spiralling out of control, OceanGate continued with their first planned dive of 2023, leading to its catastrophic implosion that claimed five lives. The Titan is the first fatality of a submersible dive to the Titanic. What went wrong: structural design When designing an underwater vessel to reach a certain depth, the body of the vessel called the hull, would need to be capable of withstanding an immense amount of pressure. For 10 metres of depth, the pressure on the submersible’s hull increases by one atmosphere (1 bar or 101kPa). To reach the wreck of the Titanic 3800 metres underwater would require the hull to withstand the pressure of over 38 MPa (see Figure 1 ). For perspective, this is around 380 times the pressure we feel on the surface and about 200 times the pressure of a standard car tyre. Over one square inch, this equates to nearly 2500kg. To withstand such high hydrostatic pressure, a submersible hull is normally constructed with high-strength steel and titanium alloys in a simple spherical, elliptical, or cylindrical shell. At this point we discover some of the key points of failure in the Titan. The Titan’s hull was made from Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), i.e., multiple layers of carbon fibre mixed with polymers. Carbon fibre is a high-tech and extremely desirable material for its tensile strength, strength-to-weight ratio, high chemical resistance, and temperature tolerance. The material has proven itself since the 1960’s in the aerospace, military, and motorsport industries, however the Titan was the first case of using carbon fibre for a crewed submersible. At first glance, the use of a carbon fibre hull suggests the advantage of significantly reducing the vessel's weight (50-75% lighter than titanium) while maintaining tensile strength, which will allow for a greater natural buoyancy. Without the need for added buoyancy systems, the hull would be able to hold space for more passengers at one time. As carbon fibre is cheaper than titanium and passengers pay $250,000 a seat, carbon fibre may appear to be a better business plan. However, although carbon fibre performs extremely well under tension loads, it has no resistance to compression loads (as with any fibre) unless it is infused with a polymer to hold the fibres together (see Figure 2 ). The polymer in the CFRP holding the fibres in alignment is what allows the material to resist compressive loads without bending by distributing the forces to all the fibres in the structure. This means the material is an isotropic: it is much stronger in the direction of the fibres than against (the same way wood is stronger along the grain). Therefore, individual layers of the CFRP must be oriented strategically to ensure the structure can withstand an expected load in all directions. A submersible hull intending to reach the ocean floor must withstand a tremendous compressive load, much higher than carbon fibre is typically optimised for in the aviation and automotive racing industries, and carbon fibre under such high compressive load is currently an under-researched field. Although it is likely possible for carbon fibre to be used in deep-sea vessels in the future, it would require rigorous testing and intensive research which was not done by OceanGate. Despite this, the Titan had apparently attempted 90 dives since 2017 and the repeated cycling of the carbon fibre composite at a high percentage of its yield strength would have made the vessel especially vulnerable to any defects reaching a critical level. Upon simple inspection, the Titan also raises other immediate structural concerns. Submersible hulls are usually spherical or slightly elliptical, which would allow the vessel to receive an equal amount of pressure at every point. The unique tube-shape of the Titan’s hull (see cover image) would not equally distribute pressure, and this issue was ‘addressed’ with the use of separate end-caps. The joints that attach the end-caps to the rest of the hull only introduced further structural weaknesses, which made the vessel especially vulnerable to collapsing from micro-cracks. The Titan’s glass viewpoint was another structurally unsound feature [Figure 3]. David Lochridge, the former director of OceanGate’s marine operations between 2015 and 2018 who was fired for raising concerns about the submersible’s safety features, claimed the company that made the material only certified its use down to 1300m (falling over 2000 metres short of the Titanic’s depth). The immense forces on materials without the properties to withstand the compressive pressure made the Titan’s failure inevitable. Cutting corners in the interest of business The foundation of the implosion’s cause was OceanGate’s insistence on cutting corners in Titan’s design to save time and money. The Titan was not certified for deep-sea diving by any regulatory boards and instead asked passengers to sign a waiver stating the Titan was ‘experimental’. As underwater vessels operate in international waters, there is no single official organisation to ensure ship safety standards, and it is not essential to have a vessel certified. However, many companies choose to have their ships assessed and certified by one of several organisations. According to The Marine Technology Society submarine committee, there are only 10 marine vessels capable of reaching Titanic level depths, all of which are certified except for the Titan. According to a blog post on the company website, OceanGate claimed the way that the Titan had been designed fell outside the accepted system - but it “does not mean that OceanGate does not meet standards where they apply”. The post continued that classification agencies “slowed down innovation… bringing an outside entity up to speed on every innovation before it is put into real-world testing is anathema to rapid innovation”. According to former engineers and consultants at OceanGate, the Titan’s pressure hull also did not undergo extensive full-depth pressure testing, as is standard for an underwater vessel. Carbon fibre - the primary material of the Titan’s hull - is extremely unpredictable under high compressive loads, and currently has no real way to measure fatigue. This makes it an unreliable and dangerous material to be used for deep-sea dives. OceanGate CEO Stockton Rush, who was a passenger on the Titan during its last fatal dive in 2023, described the glue holding the submersible’s structure together as “pretty simple” in a 2018 video, admitting “if we mess it up, there’s not a lot of room for recovery”. Having attempted 90 dives with a 14% success rate since 2017, it was inevitable that micro-cracks in the Titan from repeated dives, if not for the extremely sudden failure modes of carbon fibre composites, would result in the vessel's instantaneous implosion. On the 15th of July 2022 (dive 80), Titan experienced a "loud acoustic event" likely form the hull’s carbon fibre delaminating, which was heard by the passengers onboard and picked up by Titan's real-time monitoring system (RTM). Data from the RTM later revealed that the hull had permanently shifted following this event. Continued use of the Titan beyond this event without further testing of the carbon fibre - because the hull was ‘too thick’ - prevented micro-cracks and air bubbles in the epoxy resin from being discovered until it was too late. Another fundamental flaw lies in the Titan’s sole means of control being a Bluetooth gaming controller. While this is not an uncommon practice, especially in the case of allowing tourists to try controlling the vessel once it has reached its location, it is essential that there are robust secondary and even tertiary controls that are of a much higher standard. The over-reliance on wireless and touch-screen control, particularly one operating on Bluetooth which is highly sensitive to interference, was a dangerous and risky design choice. Although it was unlikely to have caused the implosion on its own, cutting corners in the electronics and controls of a vessel that needs to be operated in dangerous locations is irresponsible and unsafe. Submersibles operating at extreme depths require robust fail-safes, including emergency flotation systems and locator beacons. Again, OceanGate cut corners in developing Titan’s emergency recovery systems, using very basic methods and off-the-shelf equipment. In the event of catastrophic failure, the absence of autonomous emergency measures is fatal. With the extent of damage and poor design to the vessel’s carbon fibre hull, it was unlikely that even the most advanced emergency systems could prevent the magnitude of the implosion. Still, the carelessness displayed in almost every aspect of the submersible’s design was ultimately the cause of the fatal Titan tragedy. Conclusion In a 2019 interview, OceanGate’s former CEO Stockton Rush said: There hasn’t been an injury in the commercial sub industry in over 35 years. It’s obscenely safe because they have all these regulations. But it also hasn’t innovated or grown — because they have all these regulations. In the world of engineering, shortcuts can be catastrophic. Whilst risk-taking is undeniably essential to support innovation, Titan’s fatal tragedy was entirely preventable and unnecessary if the proper risk management techniques were employed. OceanGate had the potential to revolutionise the use of carbon fibre in deep-sea industries but consistently cutting corners and not investing in the required real-world testing, as well as the arrogance to ignore expert warnings, is what ultimately led to Titan’s story fatefully echoing the overconfidence of Titanic’s “she is unsinkable!”. Whilst regulations on submersibles tighten and research into carbon fibre is increased, it is important to take the fundamental cause of the tragic implosion as a wake-up call. Assumptions are deadly: trust the science, invest in the proper research, test every bolt, and never underestimate the ocean’s relentless power. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Engineering case study- silicon hydrogel / Superconductors / Building Physics Project Gallery

In bones, neural communications, fertilisation and more Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The importance of calcium in life Last updated: 12/03/25, 16:45 Published: 10/04/25, 07:00 In bones, neural communications, fertilisation and more Did you know that the same mineral that gives your bones strength also helps to maintain your heartbeat and even plays a role in the very start of life? Calcium, the most abundant mineral in the human body, is primarily found in bones and teeth as calcium phosphate (Ca₃(PO₄)₂). But beyond its structural role, calcium ions are essential for nearly every biological function, from muscle contractions to nerve signalling. What makes calcium so versatile, while other minerals like iron, have far more limited roles? To truly understand its significance, we must explore its underlying chemical properties. Calcium and bones The calcium ion carries a 2+ charge allowing it to form stronger ionic bonds and interact strongly with negatively charged molecules like nucleotides and ATP. This makes it essential for energy transfer in cells. In comparison to monovalent ions like Na+ and K+, calcium, therefore, has a more significant charge density, increasing affinity for anions. However, the ion also has more shells than beryllium and magnesium in the same group (Group 2), contributing to reduced charge density. These properties are very crucial in determining the strength of Calcium compounds, as a high charge density may result in problems with toxicity and difficulty in the breakdown of the product. Calcium phosphate exists as hydroxyapatite in bones and teeth, giving them hardness and rigidity. Hydroxyapatite forms hexagonal crystals that are tightly packed, contributing to the dense, durable structure of bones. These crystals are organised into a matrix along collagen fibres, creating a composite material that combines rigidity (from hydroxyapatite) and flexibility (from collagen). The properties of hydroxyapatite make it uniquely suited for its roles in the body. Its hardness provides bones with the ability to resist deformation and compression, while its porous structure allows space for blood vessels, bone marrow, and the exchange of nutrients and waste. Osteoclasts break down the bone releasing calcium and phosphate ions while osteoblasts can reabsorb this calcium to reform bones in another area of the body, maintaining skeletal health and strength. Neural communication Imagine a relay race where one runner must pass the baton to the next for the race to continue. In a similar way, calcium ions act as messengers in the nervous system, triggering the release of neurotransmitters which allow nerve cells to communicate with each other. Upon experiencing a stimulus, sodium ions begin to enter neurones through voltage-gated sodium channels, causing depolarisation, which sends an electrical signal throughout the neurone that results in the opening of other sodium channels, carrying the electrical signal throughout the neurone until the signal reaches the axon terminal. When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane of the presynaptic neurone. Calcium ions from the extracellular fluid flow into the neurone due to the concentration gradient. This influx of calcium ions is a critical step in neural communication, as it directly facilitates the release of neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles. This action helps to coordinate the strength and the timing of each heartbeat. Calcium ions bind to proteins on the surface of these vesicles, which enables the vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. This fusion releases neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synaptic cleft—a tiny gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurones. These neurotransmitters then bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neurone, leading to either an excitatory or inhibitory response. For example, acetylcholine often causes an excitatory response, such as muscle contraction or memory formation. Fertilisation Calcium ions are crucial for fertilisation, facilitating key events from sperm-egg interaction to the activation of embryonic development. When a sperm binds to the egg’s outer layer, calcium ions trigger the release of enzymes from the sperm, enabling it to penetrate the egg. Following the sperm-egg fusion, calcium ions are released within the egg, creating a wave-like signal. The rise in intracellular calcium levels in the egg has several critical effects triggers the cortical reaction, in which cortical granules – small vesicles located beneath the egg’s plasma membrane- release their contents into the space between the plasma membrane and the zona pellucida. The enzymes released during this reaction modify the zona pellucida, making it impermeable to other sperm. This process prevents polyspermy, ensuring that only one sperm fertilises the egg. This precise calcium signalling achieves successful fertilisation and the initiation of new life. Role of calcium in other organisms Calcium is a vital element essential for initiating and sustaining human life, but its importance extends far beyond the human body. Its role is not confined to animals as calcium is equally critical in the physiology of plants and fungi, where it contributes to a wide range of biological processes. In plants, calcium ions are used to form calcium pectate, a chemical used to strengthen the cell walls of the cell and make plant cells stick together. Additionally, calcium is vital for root development and nutrient uptake. It helps in the formation of root nodules in legumes, where nitrogen-fixing bacteria establish symbiotic relationships, and it influences the movement of ions across cell membranes to regulate nutrient transport. Furthermore, calcium oscillations play a crucial role in regulating the polarised growth of fungal hyphae, which are essential for environmental exploration and host infection. Hyphal growth is characterised by a highly localised expansion at the tip, requiring cytoplasmic movement and continuous synthesis of the cell wall. Calcium ions are central to these processes, functioning as dynamic signalling molecules. Calcium concentration is highest at the growing hyphal tip, forming a steep gradient essential for maintaining growth direction. This gradient is not static but oscillatory, with periodic fluctuations in cytosolic calcium levels. These oscillations arise from the interplay of calcium influx through plasma membrane channels like voltage-gated channels. These are critical for coordinating key processes at the hyphal tip. Calcium regulates vesicle trafficking by triggering the fusion of vesicles carrying enzymes with the plasma membrane. Additionally, calcium modulates the actin cytoskeleton, which provides tracks for vesicle transport and maintains the structural polarity of the hypha. Periodic calcium signals promote the dynamic assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, ensuring flexibility and responsiveness to physical barriers to mobility during growth. Through its oscillatory signalling, calcium enables the precise regulation required for hyphal growth and network formation. Conclusion In conclusion, calcium is a remarkably versatile element, playing vital roles across a diverse range of organisms. In humans and animals, it not only provides structural integrity through bones and teeth but also regulates critical physiological processes such as nerve signalling. Beyond animal systems, calcium is also essential in plants, where it strengthens cell walls and improves structure. In fungi, calcium oscillations are fundamental to hyphal growth, coordinating vesicle trafficking. From building bones to driving vital biological processes, calcium is a silent powerhouse in life. Its influence stretches across humans, plants, and even fungi. Its role is truly indispensable. Written by Barayturk Aydin Related articles: Bone cancer / Tooth decay REFERENCES Haider, A. et al. (2017) Recent advances in the synthesis, functionalization and biomedical applications of Hydroxyapatite: A Review, RSC Advances. Available at: https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2017/ra/c6ra26124h (Accessed: 24 November 2024). Splettstoesser, T. (2024) Action potentials and synapses, Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland. Available at: https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/action-potentials-and-synapses (Accessed: 01 December 2024). Abbott, A., L. (2001) ‘Calcium and the control of mammalian cortical granule exocytosis’, Frontiers in Bioscience, 6(1), p. d792. doi:10.2741/abbott. Vaz Martins, T. and Livina, V.N. (2019) What drives symbiotic calcium signalling in legumes? insights and challenges of imaging, International journal of molecular sciences. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6539980/#:~:text=Currently%2C%20two%20different%20calcium%20signals,formation%20of%20the%20root%20nodule%2C (Accessed: 01 December 2024). Lew, R.R. (2011) ‘How does a hypha grow? the biophysics of pressurized growth in fungi’, Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9(7), pp. 509–518. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2591. Project Gallery

Establishing causation through Randomised Controlled Trials and Instrumental Variables Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Proving causation: causality vs correlation Last updated: 03/06/25, 13:43 Published: 12/06/25, 07:00 Establishing causation through Randomised Controlled Trials and Instrumental Variables Does going to the hospital lead to an improvement in health? At first glance, one might assume that visiting a hospital should improve health outcomes. However, if we compare the average health status of those who go to the hospital with those who do not, we might find that hospital visitors tend to have worse health overall. This apparent contradiction arises due to confounding – people typically visit hospitals due to existing health issues. Simply comparing these two groups does not tell us whether hospitals improve health or if the underlying health conditions of patients drive the observed differences. A similar challenge arises when examining the relationship between police presence and crime rates. Suppose we compare two cities—one with a large police force and another with a smaller police force. If the city with more police also has higher crime rates, does this mean that police cause crime? Clearly not. Instead, it is more likely that higher crime rates lead to an increased police presence. This example illustrates why distinguishing causation from correlation is crucial in data analysis, and that stating that two variables are correlated does not imply causation. First, let’s clarify the distinction between causation and correlation. Correlation refers to a relationship between two variables, but it does not imply that one causes the other. Just because two events occur together does not mean that one directly influences the other. To establish causation, we need methods that separate the true effect of an intervention from other influencing factors. Statisticians, medical researchers and economists have ingeniously come up with several techniques that allow us to separate correlation and causation. In medicine, the gold standard for researchers is the use of Randomised Controlled Trials (RCTs). Imagine a group of 100 people, each with a set of characteristics, such as gender, age, political views, health status, university degree, etc. RCTs randomly assign each individual to one of two groups. Consequently, each group of 50 individuals should, on average, have similar ages, gender distribution, and baseline health. Researchers then examine both groups simultaneously while changing only one factor. This could involve instructing one group to take a specific medicine or asking individuals to drink an additional cup of coffee each morning. This results in two statistically similar groups differing in only one key aspect. Therefore, if the characteristics of one group change while those of the other do not, we can reasonably conclude that the change caused the difference between the groups. This is great for examining the effectiveness of medicine, especially when you give one group a placebo, but how would we research the causation behind the police rate and crime example? Surely it would be unwise and perhaps unethical to randomise how many police officers are present in each city? And because not all cities are the same, the conditions for RCTs would not hold. Instead, we use more complex techniques like Instrumental Variables (IV) to overcome those limitations. A famous experiment using IV to explain police levels and crime was published by Steven Levitt (1997). Levitt used the timings of mayoral and gubernatorial elections (the election of a governor) as an instrument for changes in police hiring. Around election time, mayors and governors have incentives to look “tough on crime.” This can lead to politically motivated increases in police hiring before an election. Crucially, hiring is not caused by current crime rates but by the electoral calendar. So, by using the timing of elections to predict an increase in police, we can use those values to estimate the effect on crime. What he found was that more police officers reduce violent and property crime, with a 10% increase in police officers reducing violent crime by roughly 5%. Levitt’s paper is a clever application of IV to get around the endogeneity problem and takes correlation one step further into causation, through the use of exogenous election timing. However, these methods are not without limitations. IV analysis, for instance, hinges on finding a valid instrument—something that affects the independent variable (e.g., police numbers) but has no direct effect on the outcome (e.g., crime) other than through that variable. Finding such instruments can be extremely challenging, and weak or invalid instruments can lead to biased or misleading results. Despite these challenges, careful causal inference allows researchers to better understand the true drivers behind complicated relationships. In a world where influencers, media outlets, and even professionals often mistake correlation for causation, developing a critical understanding of these concepts is an essential skill required to navigate through the data, as well as help drive impactful change in society through exploring the true relationships behind different phenomena. Written by George Chant Related article: Correlation between HDI and mortality rate REFERENCE Steven D. Levitt (1997). “Using Electoral Cycles in Police Hiring to Estimate the Effect of Police on Crime”. American Economic Review 87.3, pp. 270–290 Project Gallery

VR in pain management, and mental health treatment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The potential of virtual reality (VR) in healthcare Last updated: 27/03/25, 15:44 Published: 06/03/25, 08:00 VR in pain management, and mental health treatment Introduction The term 'extended reality' (XR) consists of three concepts: augmented reality, mixed reality and virtual reality (VR). The Oxford English Dictionary defines VR as a 'computer-generated simulation of a lifelike environment that a person can interact with in a seemingly real or physical way'. When you think of VR, you might think of headsets, goggles and gaming. However, you might not know that VR can have huge potential in healthcare as a non-pharmacological intervention. Research has shown that active VR, where patients interact and engage more with the virtual environment, becoming immersed, works better than passive VR, where patients just view content. In this article, I will look at the use of VR in two cases: for pain management and mental health treatment. VR for pain management VR-based treatments for pain management work by attention modulation, also known as focus-shifting, providing distraction analgesia (pain relief) by shifting a patient’s focus away from the pain to the virtual environment. To access the VR set-up, patients use a head-mounted display (HMD) and hardware. VR uses technology that stimulates the senses, particularly sight, sound, and touch, reducing the amount of pain a patient feels by changing the pain intensity; it is especially useful when a patient experiences sharp and sudden pain, including pain during labour or post-surgery. Additionally, VR changes how the brain processes pain by affecting the pain-control system, which includes regions like the periaqueductal grey (PAG) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Specifically for chronic pain (persistent pain that lasts for more than three months), VR can help patients develop techniques to manage their pain better over time, such as by improving their physical abilities, like moving their arms or legs more easily and improving their muscular endurance. For example, Merlot et al. (2023) found that for women with endometriosis-related pelvic pain who used Endocare (a VR software designed to reduce pain for those with endometriosis), women reported that it reduced pain intensity, with Endocare's maximum pain reduction being 51.58% compared to 27.37% in the sham control group. VR for mental health treatment VR-based treatments have also proven to be effective in treating mental health conditions, helping patients to manage conditions such as anxiety and depression. This is because they can replicate a negative environment within a controlled and safe VR setting, helping patients manage and confront their triggers. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation has stated that as of 2019, 301 million people were living with an anxiety disorder, and 58 million of them (about 20% of those with anxiety) were children and adolescents. Regarding depression, the statistic was 280 million people, including 23 million (nearly 10% of those with anxiety) children and adolescents. For anxiety, VR-based treatments use exposure treatment, where patients are confronted with the stimuli, but the expected outcome does not occur. Repeating the exposure leads to patients’ anxiety decreasing over time since their perception of the stimuli leading to the feared outcome does not come true. For example, someone with a fear of heights would undergo VR-based exposure treatment where they would be exposed to heights. They would be guided through a learning process, and after multiple exposures, they would think of heights as being safe, leading to less fear of heights overall. For depression, VR-based treatments use behavioural activation so that individuals can reconnect with activities they enjoy. This can help patients develop and learn coping strategies, improving their mood and reducing depressive symptoms. VR-based treatments will be particularly helpful for children and adolescents. The statistics by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation clearly show that a high percentage of those with mental health conditions are young people, and general research has shown that they will be less likely to seek professional help and receive appropriate care. VR could help this group by becoming a more appealing therapy method, especially through gamification, making children and adolescents more motivated and more likely to participate in treatment. This method would provide an immersive environment and could be a personalised form of therapy. Implications for the future It is important to note that there are still limitations stopping a wider roll-out of VR within healthcare. For example, VR can cause cybersickness, the virtual equivalent of motion sickness, resulting in nausea, disorientation, and headaches. In addition, within the use of VR for young people, more research needs to be conducted on whether gamified therapies are safe and effective. Nevertheless, these limitations can be mitigated. Technology is advancing rapidly, and newer hardware have a better field of vision and refresh rates of visual content. The VR environment is also being designed better, accounting for individual patient preferences. With further research, scientists can examine in more detail the factors that make VR-based therapies effective and implement them in a way that addresses ethical concerns and increases their effectiveness. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Clinical scientist computing / Smart bandages / Emojis in healthcare Project Gallery

Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Building Physics Last updated: 03/04/25, 10:39 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future From the high rise establishments that paint the expansive London skyline to the new build properties nestled within thriving communities, buildings serve as a beacon of societal needs. The planned and precise architecture of buildings provides shelter and comfort for individuals, as well as meet business agendas to promote modern day living. Additionally, buildings serve a purpose as a form of protection where, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the design and construction of buildings is to create an environment suitable for human living: more favourable than the state of the natural environment outdoors construction and building protects us from: extremes of temperature moisture excessive noise To sustain these pivotal agendas, a comprehensive analysis of the physical factors within the environment of buildings, including temperature, light and sound are required for design and legislation for a building to function. The field of ‘Building Physics’ primarily addresses these physical factors to innovate ‘multifunctional solutions’, be more efficient, and build upon present designs, which can be adapted for future use. Moreover, the built environment is regarded as one of the biggest carbon emissions on the planet, so using building physics as an early design intervention can reduce energy consumption and minimise carbon emissions. This supports global manifestos of moving towards net zero and decreasing the likelihood of the detrimental effects caused by climate change. The main components of Building Physics Building Physics is composed of examining the functions of an interior physical environment, including air quality, thermal comfort, acoustics comfort (sound), and light : Air quality: Ventilation is needed for maintaining a safe environment and reducing the quantity of stale air - consisting of carbon dioxide and other impurities - within an interior environment. Air infiltration also contributes to a significant heat loss, where it is important to provide intentional ventilation to increase the efficiency of energy transfers within the building. Thus, good ‘airtightness’ of a building fabric, which can be considered as the building’s resistance to unintentional air infiltration or exfiltration, can enable planned airflows for ventilation. Thermal: The biggest influence within the field of Building Physics stems from an understanding of heat conductivity depending on the density and moisture content of the material, as well as heat transfers - conduction, convection, radiation and transition - to determine the suitability of materials used for construction. For example, a material such as a solid wood panel for walls and ceilings is favourable as it can be installed in layers, providing even temperature fields across the surface. It is important that a building has the ability to isolate its environment from external temperature conditions and have the correct building envelope - a barrier that separates the interior and exterior of a building. Acoustics: A regulated control of sound within buildings contributes towards maintaining habitable conditions for building users to make sure that sound is loud, undistorted, and the disturbances are reduced. Acoustics can be controlled and modified through material choices, such as installing sound-absorbing material. These materials can be adapted to reduce sound leakage, which are common in air openings, such as ventilators and doors, that are more likely to transmit sound than adjacent thicker walls. Light: Light provides an outlook of viewing an environment in an attractive manner, particularly using daylight as a primary source of enhancing the exterior of a building, whilst also functioning within a building. One strategy used to fulfil the purpose of light in buildings is designing windows for the distribution of daylight to a space. The window design has a divisive effect on the potential daylight and thermal performance of adjacent spaces, so it needs to be closely checked using the standardised methods, in order to be suitable for use. Additionally, as windows are exposed to the sky, daylighting systems can adapt windows to transmit or reflect daylight as a function of incident angle, for solar sharing, protection from glare and redirection of daylight. Overall, a key objective of sustaining a safe and eco-friendly building is to ensure that the space has proper heat and humidity aligning with a suitable degree of acoustic and visual comfort in order to sustain the health of the people using the building. Particularly within modern society, a combination of Building Physics principles and digitalised software, such as Building Information Modelling (BIM), can enhance the design process of a building to provide healthy environments for generations to come. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Titan Submersible REFERENCES Unsplash. A construction site with cranes [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://unsplash.com/photos/a-construction-site-with-cranes-mOA2DAtcd1w . Katunský D, Zozulák M. Building Physics . 2012. ISBN: 978-80-553-1261-3. Partel. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.partel.co.uk/resources/building-physics/#:~:text=According%20to%20WHO%20(World%20Health,%3A%20in%20contrast%2C%20allows%20productions . RPS Group. A day in the life of a senior building physics engineer [Internet]. [Accessed 4 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.rpsgroup.com/insights/consulting-uki/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-senior-building-physics-engineer/ . Cyprus International University. What is Building Physics and Building Physics Problems in General Terms [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: /mnt/data/What_Is_Building_Physics_and_Building_Ph.pdf. Centre for Alternative Technology. Airtightness and Ventilation [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://cat.org.uk/info-resources/free-information-service/eco-renovation/airtightness-and-ventilation/#:~:text=With%20good%20airtightness%2C%20effective%20ventilation,won't%20work%20as%20intended . KLH. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.klh.at/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/klh-building-physics-en.pdf . Watson JL. Climate and Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/98/1/Watson.pdf . Ruck N, Aschehoug Ø, Aydinli S, Christoffersen J, Edmonds I, Jakobiak R, et al. Daylight in Buildings - A source book on daylighting systems and components . 2000 Jun. Synergy Positioning Systems. How BIM Saves Time & Money for Construction Businesses [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://groupsynergy.com/synergy-positioning-news/how-bim-saves-time-money-for-construction-businesses . Project Gallery

The effect on sleep on nutrition (nutrition timing) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The interaction between circadian rhythms and nutrition Last updated: 27/04/25, 11:20 Published: 01/05/25, 07:00 The effect on sleep on nutrition (nutrition timing) The circadian system regulates numerous biological processes with roughly a 24-hour cycle, helping the organism adapt to the day-night rhythm. Among others, circadian rhythms regulate metabolism, energy expenditure, and sleep, for which meal timing is an excellent inducer. Evidence has shown that meal timing has a profound impact on health, gene expression, and lifespan. Proper timed feeding in accordance with the natural circadian rhythms of the body might improve metabolic health and reduce chronic disease risk. Circadian rhythms Circadian rhythms are controlled by the central clock of the brain, which coordinates biological functions with the light-dark cycle. Along with meal timing, circadian rhythms influence key elements of metabolism such as insulin sensitivity, fat storage, and glucose metabolism. When meal timing is not synchronised with the body's natural rhythm, it can cause circadian misalignment, disrupting metabolic processes and contributing to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Literature has indicated that one should eat best during the daytime, particularly synchronised with the active phase of the body. Eating late at night or in the evening when the circadian rhythm of the body is directed towards sleep could impair metabolic function and lead to weight gain, insulin resistance, and numerous other diseases. Also, having larger meals in the morning and smaller meals later in the evening has been linked to improved metabolic health, sleep quality, and even lifespan. A time-restricted eating window, in which individuals eat all meals within a approximately 10–12 hour window, holds promise for improving human health outcomes like glucose metabolism, inflammation, harmful gene expression, and weight loss ( Figure 1 ). It is necessary to consider the impact of meal timing on gene expression. Our genes react to a number of stimuli, including environmental cues like food and light exposure. Gene expression of the body's metabolic, immune, and DNA repair processes are regulated by the body's circadian clock. Disturbances in meal timing influence the expression of these genes, which may result in greater susceptibility to diseases and reduced lifespan. Certain nutrients, such as melatonin in cherries and grapes, and magnesium in leafy greens and nuts, can improve sleep quality and circadian entrainment. Omega-3 fatty acids in fatty fish and flax seeds also have been shown to regulate circadian genes and improve metabolic functions. Other species Meal timing is quite varied among species, and animals have adapted such that food-seeking behavior is entrained into circadian rhythm and environmental time cues. There are nocturnal animals which eat at night, when they are active ( Figure 2 ). These nocturnal animals have evolved to align their meal time with their period of activity to maximise metabolic efficiency and lifespan. Meal timing is optimised in these animals for night activity and digestion. Humans, and most other animals, are diurnal and consume food during the day. In these animals, consuming most of their calories during the day is conducive to metabolic processes like glucose homeostasis and fat storage. These species tend to have better metabolic health when they are on a feeding regimen that is synchronized with the natural light-dark cycle. Conclusion Meal timing is important in human health, genetics, and life expectancy. Synchronising meal times with the body's circadian rhythms optimises metabolic function, reduces chronic disease incidence, and potentially increases longevity by reducing inflammatory genes and upregulating protective ones. This altered gene expression affects the way food is metabolised and metabolic signals are acted upon by the body. Humans naturally gravitate towards eating during daytime hours, while other creatures have feeding habits that are adaptively suited to their own distinct environmental needs. It is important to consider this science and incorporate it into our schedules to receive the best outcome from an activity that we do not normally think about. Written by B. Esfandyare Related article: The chronotypes REFERENCES Meléndez-Fernández, O.H., Liu, J.A. and Nelson, R.J. (2023). Circadian Rhythms Disrupted by Light at Night and Mistimed Food Intake Alter Hormonal Rhythms and Metabolism. International Journal of Molecular Sciences , [online] 24(4), p.3392. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043392 . Paoli, A., Tinsley, G., Bianco, A. and Moro, T. (2019). The Influence of Meal Frequency and Timing on Health in Humans: The Role of Fasting. Nutrients , [online] 11(4), p.719. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30925707 . Potter, G.D.M., Cade, J.E., Grant, P.J. and Hardie, L.J. (2016). Nutrition and the circadian system. British Journal of Nutrition , [online] 116(3), pp.434–442. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114516002117 . St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, et al. Meal timing and frequency: implications for obesity prevention. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2017;11(1):7-16. Patterson RE, Sears DD. Metabolic effects of intermittent fasting. Annu Rev Nutr. 2017;37:371-393. Zhdanova IV, Wurtman RJ. Melatonin treatment for age-related insomnia. Endocrine. 2012;42(3):1-12. Prabhat, A., Batra, T. and Kumar, V. (2020). Effects of timed food availability on reproduction and metabolism in zebra finches: Molecular insights into homeostatic adaptation to food-restriction in diurnal vertebrates.Hormones and Behavior, 125, p.104820. Project Gallery

Broadening access for (black) women in STEM Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Power of sisterhood in STEM Last updated: 28/03/25, 11:10 Published: 28/03/25, 08:00 Broadening access for (black) women in STEM In collaboration with SiSTEM for International Women's Month Entering a fluid dynamics lecture. Looking under a microscope confined to the four walls of a lab. Walking onto a construction site or a board meeting. As a woman in these spaces, particularly as a woman of colour it is easy to believe you are the ONLY one. That’s what we thought, two sisters of black heritage starting out in the biomedical and the engineering field respectively. The higher we went in education the less people that looked like us. Being 1 of 10 women in a cohort of 200 was a familiar sight. Being less than 2% of the engineering workforce as a woman, you can start to feel like science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) is not for you. But the reality is there are women in STEM doing incredible work. STEM is not a man’s industry. As women, we deserve our space on the STEM table. Through our struggles and isolating experiences, we decided to create SiSTEM, a community for all these wonderful women. Real life sisterhood We are often asked how we find working with your sister. Truth is, we wouldn’t be each other’s first choice for a business partner! We never thought we would start an organisation together, growing up as most siblings we have always wanted to do our own thing. Science and engineering was always seen as us doing separate things. Moreover we have completely different personalities. But we are two sisters with one dream; we don’t want another girl to leave the STEM field because she doesn’t believe she belongs there. We don’t want another girl to disqualify herself from her STEM career or degree because she has been told she doesn’t have the look for STEM or grades to do well. We have one passion and that’s to change the narrative of women in STEM, particularly black women and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is power in numbers Community and having a support system are important. We wouldn’t have completed our STEM degrees or broken into our careers without our personal sisterly support. We were always a phone call away for each other, ready to be a listening ear and a cheerleader. That same sisterly support is what we offer to other women and girls through our initiative. There’s power in sisterhood, standing on the shoulders of great women. Women face unique challenges particularly in the STEM industry, discrimination, feeling less valued, difficulty with pay and promotion but by building a culture of support we empower women to thrive despite the barriers. It’s beautiful to belong to a circle of women as we are stronger together. By belonging to a community it cultivates a feeling of belonging. You also learn from one another, sparking interesting conversations, building important connections. We learn from our community everyday: the conversations we are able to have inspire us and broaden our knowledge. Throwing the rope to the next generation From its inception, SiSTEM’s goal was to support women and girls throughout their STEM journey. The gender gap issue in STEM starts very early on, very often not when we choose our degree courses but as early as primary school. That’s why we empower young girls as young as five years old. Every girl, every woman deserves to be part of a community. Every stage of the journey has its unique challenges which belonging to community can help navigate. I’m sure you’ve heard the saying ‘empowered women empower women’ - now we feel empowered to empower other girls and women. We originally felt like we were not the people to create this community. Imposter syndrome told us we weren’t qualified enough, that we didn’t have a story to tell worth listening to. Reflecting on our own journeys, it’s women like our teachers, our mother, our friends who have been key in our success. Our mum telling us to ‘aim high and be the best’, a female science teacher telling us ‘you can be whatever you want to be’, a friend's comment on our graduation post saying how proud they are. And now a community of women who we can lean on for support, receive advice and inspire us every day. Today, we meet women at schools, events, universities and workplaces. A common theme in some of these women and girls we meet is a lack of confidence. Our biggest joy is when we are able to put a smile on a young girl’s face who feels giving up.Women need reminding how amazing they are so we continue to do amazing things, find a cure for cancer, make an innovative product to solve the world’s biggest problems or to design a beautiful building which would will be seen by generations to come. We shouldn’t be afraid to share our personal stories of how we got to where we are. when others hear they are empowered. This is what we use our platform to do. We are able to pass on the mic to other woman to share their untold stories. By putting a light on various women particularly black women in STEM we are giving others positive roles models to look to where they able to believe they do can do it. An empowered woman is a force of nature. She shines. She encourages. She breaks barriers and has the confidence to speak up in a place where she was told to be silent. By forming our community even though we may still find that we are the only women in the room, we have many women standing behind us and many more coming. Conclusion Retention of women in STEM is as equally as important as getting women into STEM. There is a leaky pipeline particularly between university level and STEM leadership positions and also many young girls already have a negative perception about certain STEM careers. That’s why we created an initiative to encourage more girls to get into STEM through innovative workshops and outreach programs and to create a community for women currently in the field. By doing so we aim to open the bottle top at one end and close any holes at the other end. Women supporting women in a powerful thing and there is space for all women in stem, no matter your background, academic records or skin colour. Together we make STEM colourful…preferably pink! -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks SiSTEM for this important piece on female representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! For more information, check them out on Instagram and LinkedIn . -- Related articles: Representation in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does insomnia run in families? Here's what genetics tells us Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:25 Published: 10/07/25, 18:11 Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side Have you ever noticed restless nights affecting more than one relative? Maybe your sister tosses and turns, or your brother wakes up before dawn, wide awake and anxious. It might feel like poor sleep is passed down from parents to kids, and science suggests that feeling isn’t just in your head. In one study, nearly 40% of people with insomnia had a close family member with it, compared to 29% of those without; making them 1.57 times more likely to share the struggle. So is that inherited, or just a string of bad luck? Here’s what science has to say. Your DNA can affect sleep Research shows that insomnia does have a hereditary side. If someone in your family, say a parent, sibling or even a grandparent, struggles night after night, you’re more likely to face similar problems. That doesn’t guarantee you’ll wake up at 3 a.m. every night, but it does raise your baseline risk: studies estimate that around one-third of insomnia liability is genetic. In practical terms, inheriting certain gene variants can make the brain’s sleep-promoting signals weaker or the wake-promoting signals stronger. Think of those genes as nudging you toward more restless nights rather than pushing you entirely into insomnia. So if genes only lay the groundwork, what else determines whether someone actually stays awake counting sheep? That’s where life’s daily stresses come into play. How genes shape your sleep Scientists have identified a handful of genes that guide our body’s natural clock. Our circadian rhythm influences how deeply and how long we sleep. For instance, variants in the PER3 or CLOCK genes can shift your internal timing. This makes it harder to feel sleepy at a conventional hour. Picture the circadian clock as an orchestra conductor: if the conductor’s timing fluctuates, the entire performance, your sleep cycle, can fall out of sync. Other inherited factors affect the brain’s “volume knobs” for alertness. Certain gene differences can heighten sensitivity to minor disturbances; like a creaky floorboard or an ambulance siren, so that you jitter awake even when there’s no real threat. Over time, those tiny awakenings add up, preventing you from reaching the deep, restorative stages of sleep. Yet, these genes don’t act in isolation. The brain remains remarkably adaptable through epigenetic changes; chemical tags that turn genes on or off. Experiences such as stress, illness, or a drastically changed schedule can strengthen or weaken those genetic susceptibilities. Sleep isn’t just genetic; here’s why Even if you inherit gene variants linked to insomnia, your environment and habits often decide the end result. High-pressure jobs, financial worries, or family conflicts can ignite sleep troubles in someone without a family history of insomnia. Conversely, someone with a strong genetic vulnerability might sleep soundly if life stays relatively stress-free and routines remain consistent. Everyday choices, like scrolling through social media until the last minute, drinking coffee late afternoon, or keeping wildly shifting bedtimes, further fuel the problem. For example, evening exposure to bright screens suppresses melatonin, the hormone that signals your brain it’s time to sleep. That means even if your “insomnia genes” are mild, you’re still creating obstacles to a good night’s rest. On the other hand, regular exercise (aim for at least 30 minutes most days), a balanced diet, and a calm, screen-free wind-down routine signal the brain that it’s safe to switch off. Over months, those good habits can overwrite the nudge from your genes, steering you towards deep, uninterrupted rest. Can you change your genetic destiny? Knowing that insomnia has a genetic component can feel validating. It clarifies that tossing and turning isn’t simply an unexplained routine. That awareness reduces shame and makes it easier to adopt practical solutions. If you suspect poor sleep runs in your family, watch for early warning signs: difficulty falling asleep, waking often, or waking too early. Catching these patterns early means you can experiment with sleep hygiene tweaks before the problem becomes chronic. Actionable steps include setting a consistent bedtime, dimming lights an hour before sleep, avoiding caffeine after mid-afternoon, and practising relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation. If these changes don’t help, cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) targets both the thoughts and behaviours that perpetuate sleeplessness, effectively retraining the brain’s response to the bedroom. Those inherited sleep tendencies might suggest insomnia is written in your DNA; but by keeping a consistent bedtime, cutting down on late-night screens and being kind to yourself, you can rewrite that genetic script and finally enjoy the deep rest you’ve earned. Written by Rand Alanazi Related articles: Does anxiety run in families? / Link between sleep and memory loss / The chronotypes REFERENCES Beaulieu-Bonneau S, LeBlanc M, Mérette C, Dauvilliers Y, Morin CM. Family History of Insomnia in a Population-Based Sample. Sleep. 2007 Dec;30(12):1739–45. Pacheco D. Is Insomnia Genetic? [Internet]. Sleep Foundation. 2021. Available from: https://www.sleepfoundation.org/insomnia/is-insomnia-genetic PER3 [Internet]. Wikipedia. 2023. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PER3 Dashti HS, Jones SE, Wood AR, Lane JM, van Hees VT, Wang H, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies genetic loci for self-reported habitual sleep duration supported by accelerometer-derived estimates. Nature Communications [Internet]. 2019 Mar 7;10(1):1–12. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-08917-4 Halperin D. Environmental noise and sleep disturbances: A threat to health? Sleep Science [Internet]. 2014 Dec;7(4):209–12. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1984006314000601 www.ushealthconnect.com H. Unraveling the Impact of Environmental Factors on Sleep Quality and Parkinson Disease [Internet]. Practicalneurology.com . 2025. Available from: https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/unraveling-the-impact-of-environmental-factors-on-sleep-quality-and-parkinson-disease/32197/ Levenson JC, Kay DB, Buysse DJ. The Pathophysiology of Insomnia. Chest [Internet]. 2015 Apr;147(4):1179–92. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4388122/ Spielman AJ, Caruso LS, Glovinsky PB. A Behavioral Perspective on Insomnia Treatment. Psychiatric Clinics of North America [Internet]. 1987 Dec 1;10(4):541–53. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193953X1830532X the I. amBX [Internet]. amBX. 2020 [cited 2025 Jun 6]. Available from: https://www.ambx.com/news/what-is-the-natural-circadian-rhythm Hassell K, Reiter RJ, Robertson NJ. MELATONIN AND ITS ROLE IN NEURODEVELOPMENT DURING THE PERINATAL PERIOD: A REVIEW. Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review. 2013 May 1;24(2):76–107. Wang J, Liu J, Xie H, Gao X. Effects of Work Stress and Period3 Gene Polymorphism and Their Interaction on Sleep Quality of Non-Manual Workers in Xinjiang, China: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jun 3;19(11):6843–3. Project Gallery