Immunosenescence and related therapies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Ageing and its association with immune decline Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:28 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Immunosenescence and related therapies Introduction Ageing is a profoundly complex and integral part of human life. As pharmaceutical developments have occurred, introducing new medicines and therapies such as biologics and antibiotics within the last 100 years, research has begun to look at malignancy at a more macro scale. To be clear, while it has become easier to combat infectious diseases in recent times, the combating of diseases tied to our genetic composition is far more complicated, whether it be autoimmune diseases or onset conditions such as cases of dementia. Ageing is one such case of a process that is hard to combat because the mechanisms that cause it are diverse and currently not fully understood. Strides have been made under a concept known as senescence, which continues to enlighten researchers and the anti-ageing pharmaceutical industry. This article provides a short summary of what immunosenescence is and how we can utilise our understanding to develop therapies for human immunity. What is immunosenescence? Immunosenescence is the change from a healthy, active immune cell phenotype to one that is no longer conventionally active and begins to secrete inflammatory chemical messengers known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) ( Figure 1 ). A most important aspect of senescence is that a cell undergoes cell cycle arrest, meaning it cannot proliferate. You may now question why cells are programmed to senesce if the outcomes are detrimental to the host? It prevents the continued proliferation of old or damaged cells, including cells with uncontrolled proliferation (such as cancer cells). If we stop senescence altogether, we run the risk of accumulating damaged and/or mutated cells, increasing the chances of disease progression, such as through fibrosis and tumorigenesis, so specific targeting and dosage of drug interventions have to be considered. The immune system in particular, displays biological changes that are indicative of senescent progression. These include thymic involution (shrinking of the thymus associated with a decrease in T cell production), inflammaging (chronic inflammation associated with SASP), an increase in mitochondrial stress through metabolic changes, and an increase in differentiated memory T cells (EMRA T cells). Knowledge of these changes can give insight into potential mechanisms to target for therapeutics. Current and developing therapies for immunosenescence Given our expanding understanding of senescence, as of the time of writing, there are no clinically approved drugs for senescence specifically. The development of therapies for diseases such as cancer, heart disease and diabetes (diabetic patients tend to exhibit increased levels of cellular senescence owing to “accelerated ageing”) have been implicated with suppressing senescence. These drugs would be mTOR inhibitors such as Rapamycin, statins, P13K inhibitors, as well as immune checkpoint inhibitors for T cells, such as anti CTLA-4 PD-L1 and PD-L2, and the anti-diabetic metformin, which have all shown in vitro to be effective against high levels of senescent cells. There was also the development of the recent first senolytic drugs dasatinib and quercetin in 2015 that kill senescent cells selectively against non-senescent cells and stand to provide a proof of concept for targeting disease through senescent mechanisms. Conclusion The field of senescence is certainly one to keep an eye on, with a bibliometric analysis in 2023 showing an increase every year in the number of published papers ( Figure 2 ). It may be sooner rather than later that we see this become a trending topic of discussion for treating an array of disease states. Continuous research into specific immune cell subtypes (B, T and NK cells) and their relation to a decline in immunity in response to age can tell us more about potential therapeutic pathways or lifestyle choices that can improve the health of the immunocompromised elderly. One such example of this is Treg-mediated increased glucose consumption in the tumour microenvironment leading to an increase in cell senescence in effector T cells, suggesting that high sugar diets can accelerate tumorigenesis. Our understanding of ageing through senescence will help reduce the mortality rates of elderly groups in decades to come through knowing that mechanisms such as the SASP and altered immune cell function, which can promote disease states. Written by Yaseen Ahmad Related articles: Genetics of ageing and longevity / Accelerated ageing REFERENCES Henson, S.M. and Aksentijevic, D. (2021) ‘Senescence and type 2 diabetic cardiomyopathy: How young can you die of old age?’, Frontiers in Pharmacology , 12. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.716517. Wang, R. et al. (2017) ‘Rapamycin inhibits the secretory phenotype of senescent cells by a NRF2-independent mechanism’, Aging Cell , 16(3), pp. 564–574. doi:10.1111/acel.12587. Henson, S.M. et al. (2012) ‘Reversal of functional defects in highly differentiated young and old CD8 T cells by PDL blockade’, Immunology , 135(4), pp. 355–363. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03550.x. Islam, M.T. et al. (2023) ‘Senolytic drugs, dasatinib and quercetin, attenuate adipose tissue inflammation, and ameliorate metabolic function in old age’, Aging Cell , 22(2). doi:10.1111/acel.13767. Li, C., Liu, Z. and Shi, R. (2023) ‘A comprehensive overview of cellular senescence from 1990 to 2021: A machine learning-based bibliometric analysis’, Frontiers in Medicine , 10. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1072359. Herranz, N. and Gil, J. (2018) ‘Mechanisms and functions of cellular senescence’, Journal of Clinical Investigation , 128(4), pp. 1238–1246. doi:10.1172/jci95148. Li, L. et al. (2019) ‘TLR8-mediated metabolic control of human Treg function: A mechanistic target for cancer immunotherapy’, Cell Metabolism , 29(1). doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2018.09.020. Project Gallery

Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Same-sex attraction in non-human animals Last updated: 17/06/25, 12:20 Published: 11/09/25, 08:00 Behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates Biased science communication can have detrimental consequences. For example, facts about animal reproduction have been twisted to justify discrimination against the LGBTQIA+ community. Some people call homosexuality a “Darwinian paradox”, because it does not fit their preconceived belief that an animal’s job is to stay alive and make babies. This belief ignores how some animals, like humans, have complex social structures and do things just for fun. Same-sex sexual behaviours (SSSB) have been observed in 1500 animal species, none of whom do it to make babies. This article describes some of these behaviours in birds, mammals, and invertebrates. Same-sex sexual behaviour (SSSB) in birds The first recorded example of SSSB in non-human animals comes from Aristotle about 2300 years ago. He wrote about male pigeons, partridges, and quails mating with other male conspecifics. Since then, same-sex relationships have been recorded in other bird species. Greylag geese form “gander pairs” of two males, whose behaviours resemble pairs of opposite-sex mates. In Oahu, Hawaii, female-female Laysan albatross pairs looked after 31% of nests between 2004 and 2007. These pairs, one of which is pictured in Figure 1 , were equally good at raising chicks as male-female pairs. SSSB was also observed in unbonded king penguins, meaning penguins which had not committed to a mate for that breeding season. Using DNA to assess individual sex, 26.4% of courtship displays between unbonded king penguin couples were same-sex. There was also one male-male and one female-female pair of bonded king penguins, but both couples broke up and re-bonded with opposite-sex mates in the same season. The most famous same-sex bird couple is Roy and Silo from Central Park Zoo. They were a pair of chinstrap penguins who raised a chick named Tango when given a fertile egg. This family was the subject of a children’s book ( Figure 2 ) and an American culture war. Thus, many bird species pair with individuals of the same sex in captivity and more importantly, in the wild. SSSB in mammals Humans are not the only mammals to mate with individuals of the same sex. Male bats from the Myotis genus have been observed getting intimate with each other, and Mytois lucifugus releases sperm during this activity. In another bat species called the Bonin flying fox, males groomed each other in a way scientists perceived as sexual. Japanese macaques have monogamous female-female pairs called consortships, in which females carry out the same mating behaviours seen with male-female pairs. SSSB in insects In addition to birds and mammals, some insects conduct sexual activities to others of the same sex. In a 2012 study, 16% of male field crickets did courtship displays to and/or tried to mate with another male. The authors conducted experiments to rule out some leading Darwinian causes of SSSB, such as establishing dominance relationships (similar to an ‘alpha male’) or defusing hostile encounters. SSSB is well studied in flour beetles, where the males mount other males and release capsules of sperm like they would to females. In these beetles, the sexes are sexually dimorphic - distinguishable by appearance, smell, and/or sound - so a male beetle is intentionally choosing to mate with another male. When 59 male damselflies were offered a male and female in the same cage, 10 approached and began mating with the male. More damselflies chose the male over the female after spending a few days in a male-only population, perhaps because they were used to only having males to choose from. Therefore, analogies to both homoromantic and homosexual partnerships in humans exist in insects. Conclusion Since mammals, birds, insects, and molluscs all have evidence of SSSB in the wild, it is normal and certainly not unnatural for humans to do the same. These behaviours range from preferentially approaching the same sex to intentional, intimate actions. All the papers I used in this article are over a decade old, with the earliest evidence of non-human same-sex behaviour being 2300 years old. This means using biology to justify homophobia is very outdated, and factually incorrect. Written by Simran Patel REFERENCES Young LC, Zaun BJ, VanderWerf EA. Successful same-sex pairing in Laysan albatross. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2008 Aug 23 [cited 2025 Feb 1];4(4):323–5. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0191 Richardson J, Parnell P, Cole H. And Tango makes three. First Little Simon board book edition. New York: Little Simon; 2015. 1 p. Sugita N. Homosexual Fellatio: Erect Penis Licking between Male Bonin Flying Foxes Pteropus pselaphon . Pellis S, editor. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2016 Nov 8 [cited 2025 Feb 1];11(11):e0166024. Available from: https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166024 Bailey NW, French N. Same-sex sexual behaviour and mistaken identity in male field crickets, Teleogryllus oceanicus . Animal Behaviour [Internet]. 2012 Oct [cited 2025 Feb 1];84(4):1031–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0003347212003508 Huber R, Martys M. Male-male pairs in Greylag Geese ( Anser anser ). J Ornithol [Internet]. 1993 Apr [cited 2025 Feb 1];134(2):155–64. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01640084 Levan KE, Fedina TY, Lewis SM. Testing multiple hypotheses for the maintenance of male homosexual copulatory behaviour in flour beetles. J of Evolutionary Biology [Internet]. 2009 Jan [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1):60–70. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jeb/article/22/1/60-70/7324140 Pincemy G, Dobson FS, Jouventin P. Homosexual Mating Displays in Penguins. Ethology [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];116(12):1210–6. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01835.x Riccucci M. Same-sex sexual behaviour in bats. Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy [Internet]. 2010 Sep 24 [cited 2025 Feb 1];22(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.4404/hystrix-22.1-4478 Van Gossum H, De Bruyn L, Stoks R. Reversible switches between male–male and male–female mating behaviour by male damselflies. Biol Lett [Internet]. 2005 Sep 22 [cited 2025 Feb 1];1(3):268–70. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0315 Vasey PL, Jiskoot H. The Biogeography and Evolution of Female Homosexual Behavior in Japanese Macaques. Arch Sex Behav [Internet]. 2010 Dec [cited 2025 Feb 1];39(6):1439–41. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-009-9518-2 Project Gallery

Various people are needed to make a successful David Attenborough nature documentary Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Behind the scenes of a David Attenborough nature film Last updated: 25/05/26, 19:40 Published: 25/05/26, 19:29 Various people are needed to make a successful David Attenborough nature documentary Sir David Attenborough celebrated his 100th birthday on 8th May 2026 to much fanfare. He is the visionary and narrator of iconic BBC nature documentaries like the Planet Earth series (the first released in 2006, the sequel released in 2016, and the most recent instalment released in 2023, see Figure 1 ). Sir Attenborough’s landmark docuseries Life on Earth , released in 1979, showed the public natural beauty in a way no producer had done before. However, there are dozens of people around Sir Attenborough away from the spotlight, who carry out excruciating work to make his nature documentaries so engaging. In honour of the centenarian, the BBC released an interview with Sir Attenborough and the crew behind Life on Earth . This article explains what I learned from watching that interview, and how nature documentary filming has changed over the course of Sir Attenborough’s long, illustrious career. People behind the scenes Various people are needed to make a successful David Attenborough nature documentary. Before filming begins, there are producers responsible for planning travel, accommodation, meetings with local wildlife experts, and other logistics. Lawyers help secure filming permissions in each country, and health & safety experts help write risk assessments. Then there is the camera crew, managed by a film director. To precisely operate the heavy cameras, the crew need physical strength, dexterity, and concentration. After the camera crew returns from filming, the producers pick the best scenes and video editors stitch them together. In addition, a live orchestra is recorded playing bespoke music scores for each documentary, the audio from which is passed on to sound mixers. Depending on what needs to be filmed and where, other specialists may also be needed. For example, a camera was attached to a professional paraglider for filming a fast-flying golden eagle in the Planet Earth II documentary. As Sir Attenborough has got older, his role has shifted from presenting and directing on-site to script-writing and narrating from home, but the dedication and expertise of his team have stayed the same. Challenges of filming Everyone in a nature documentary crew faces many challenges throughout the filming process, but it is all worth it when the final documentary is released. Ensuring the wildlife are not disturbed by filming is crucial, so that they behave naturally and do not attack the crew. Behind-the-scenes footage from the Planet Earth III documentary shows the camera crew staying still, keeping a respectful distance, even putting on camouflage to discreetly film wildlife. Another challenge is the physical toll of filming in extreme habitats. In the Life on Earth interview celebrating his 100th birthday, Sir Attenborough said he did not know he was allergic to donkey fur until he had to ride one for the docuseries, and it flared up his skin exactly when he needed to be on camera. While filming Planet Earth III, the crew in Madagascar got sick from eating local food, and a producer in the Himalayas got mountain sickness from the low oxygen conditions. These health issues are made worse by the lack of medical care in some of the remote regions being filmed in. The mental challenges of wildlife filming are not to be underestimated – a cinematographer on Planet Earth II describes how difficult it was to watch an animal die because trying to save its life would risk the crew’s safety. It is also challenging to be away from loved ones for weeks, especially during holidays or important family events. Cinematographers need to be incredibly patient when filming wildlife. It could take weeks for the animals to feel comfortable enough in the presence of humans to behave naturally, or for unpredictable natural phenomena to occur, or to find a rare animal in the vast empty wilderness. Despite the patience and sacrifices, it may be that the crew does not get the footage they want in the time they have. If the country being filmed in is politically unstable, both the video footage and the crew could be at risk. In the Life on Earth interview, one of the producers recalls Saddam Hussein’s troops seizing the crew’s hotel in Iraq. Sir Attenborough describes in the same interview how the most famous moment of the documentary, where he gets close and personal with gorillas, was almost captured by armed soldiers in Rwanda. Issues with filming permits could also threaten a shoot’s success, such as if a rebel group controlling the filming area does not acknowledge permits issued by the official government. Since the filming equipment is expensive and possibly irreplaceable, it must be carefully protected. Extreme weather events and wildlife, even animals that are not being filmed, risk damaging the equipment. With all these challenges, everyone involved in a wildlife documentary needs to be resilient. How technology has evolved Nature documentaries have changed a massive amount since Life on Earth was filmed in the mid-1970s, during the advent of colour television, whereas now we can watch wildlife in 4K ultra-high definition, showing how cameras have evolved rapidly in the last 50 years. Cameras have also gotten smaller, like drones or remote camera traps, meaning parts of nature which people cannot reach can still be filmed ( Figure 2 ). Camera traps also help with discreet filming, as mentioned earlier, allowing us to get closer to wildlife than ever before. Assistant producers on Life on Earth explained in the Sir David Attenborough centenarian interview that they arranged logistics on physical paper since there were no e-mails, so it could take weeks to hear back from international colleagues. The producers also said the documentary was filmed when commercial aeroplanes were a new concept, so they could plan to film on opposite ends of the world faster than ever before. The COVID-19 pandemic helped the innovation of remote technology, making filming even faster than flying to the filming site. Local camera operators can now send footage to the UK for editing, or robot cameras can be controlled halfway across the world. Thus, while Life on Earth was the first documentary of its kind, new technology since its release has made nature documentaries more engaging. Conclusion Filming a David Attenborough nature documentary requires patience and tenacity from a wide range of skilled people, in the face of health-, safety-, and weather-related challenges. Using state-of-the-art camera equipment, the documentaries we have access to today have captured wildlife in a level of detail Sir Attenborough could not have dreamed of when he filmed Life on Earth in the 1970s. The next time you relax to the sound of Sir Attenborough’s voice, think of the years of blood, sweat, and tears it took to produce such a marvellous celebration of nature. Written by Simran Patel Project Gallery

Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick suitable animal models Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Do other animals get periods? Last updated: 29/03/26, 16:48 Published: 26/06/25, 08:00 Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick suitable animal models Periods, formally called menstruation, happen to female mammals every menstrual cycle when an egg cell is not fertilised. Levels of the progesterone hormone decrease, causing the lining of the uterus to self-destruct and shed. This lining is called the endometrium and is flushed out of the body with blood during menstruation. Some primates, bats, the spiny mouse, and elephant shrews get periods ( Figure 1 ). Since these groups are distantly related, menstruation likely evolved multiple times independently. Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick animal models which best reflect the human female reproductive system. Why do we get periods? Despite being painful and inconvenient, menstruation must have some benefit; otherwise, natural selection would not favour it on multiple separate occasions. Hypotheses put forward to explain menstruation include clearing the uterus of pathogens and saving energy compared to maintaining an endometrium all the time. A 2012 paper argues that neither of these hypotheses are true and that menstruation is an unfortunate byproduct of the way pregnancy occurs in certain animals. A more recent article expands on this idea; menstruation was not selected for in isolation, rather it evolved as one small part of a complex reproductive system. In non-menstruating animals, an embryo induces morphological and biological changes in the uterus, so those changes do not happen if they are not pregnant. The uterus of a menstruating animal undergoes regular changes even without an embryo, and one of those changes is shedding the endometrium. However, there is no consensus on the benefits of menstruation. Non-human primates Old World monkeys, apes, and humans menstruate conspicuously. This could be because their endometria have spiral arteries, which dilate and weaken in response to hormones. Eventually, the weakened arteries break and release blood, which carries dead and detached endometrial tissue out of the body. While chimpanzee menstruation is visible to the naked eye, menstrual blood in orangutans and gorillas is detected with a chemical urine strip. Gorillas bleed for 3 days, while orangutans bleed for 1-4 days. Humans have the most obvious, and possibly the most prolonged, menstruation out of the Old World primates. (Aren’t we unlucky?). On the other hand, the very few New World monkey species which menstruate need a microscope to detect it. Pedro Mayor and colleagues sampled the endometria of various New World monkeys and viewed those samples under a microscope. They found that monkeys from the Aotus nancymaae and Sapajus macrocephalus species had weakened endometria with dilated blood vessels and blood clots ( Figure 2 ). Combined with other context clues from those endometrium samples, they concluded that those monkeys must be menstruating. Bats Microscopy also identified menstruation in some bat species. In a 2011 study, uterus sections from Carollia perspicillata bats showed the endometrium getting thinner over a few days with associated bleeding. Some sections had endometrial debris in the lumen of the uterus – but unlike in Old World primates and humans, this debris was reabsorbed by the body rather than released. Menstruating Molossus ater bats had blood and endometrial cells in their cervix under a microscope, while one individual was visibly bleeding in its vagina. In contrast, a colony of female Rousettus leschenaulti bats all had visible vaginal bleeding on the same day. On that day, two-thirds of their endometria were shed, and they had low progesterone levels – meaning those bats were menstruating. Bat menstruation differs from primates in at least two ways. Firstly, menstruation happens simultaneously with ovary development in Carollia perspicillata and before ovary development in primates. Secondly, some bat species only menstruate after an interrupted mating attempt – which scientists call coitus , and the public would call “pulling out”. Perhaps menstruation gives these bats a second chance at successful mating in that breeding season. Conclusion We rarely see other animals on their period because if the species does menstruate, they do not bleed as much as humans do. Evidence of menstruation in New World monkeys and bats usually came from microscopy, where the endometrium was seen to detach, and blood was seen in the uterine lumen. These monkeys and bats could be used as rudimentary animal models to study what happens in humans during a period. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Monkey see, monkey clone REFERENCES Catalini L, Fedder J. Characteristics of the endometrium in menstruating species: lessons learned from the animal kingdom. Biology of Reproduction [Internet]. 2020 May 26 [cited 2025 Jan 8];102(6):1160–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioaa029 Mayor P, Pereira W, Nacher V, Navarro M, Monteiro FOB, El Bizri HR, et al. Menstrual cycle in four New World primates: Poeppig’s woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii), red uakari (Cacajao calvus), large-headed capuchin (Sapajus macrocephalus) and nocturnal monkey (Aotus nancymaae). Theriogenology [Internet]. 2019 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Jan 7];123:11–21. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093691X18302796 Rasweiler IV JJ, Badwaik NK, Mechineni KV. Ovulation, Fertilization, and Early Embryonic Development in the Menstruating Fruit Bat, Carollia perspicillata. The Anatomical Record [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2025 Jan 8];294(3):506–19. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ar.21304 Graham C. Reproductive Biology of the Great Apes: Comparative and Biomedical Perspectives. Elsevier; 2012. 456 p. Rasweiler IV JJ. Spontaneous decidual reactions and menstruation in the black mastiff bat, Molossus ater. American Journal of Anatomy [Internet]. 1991 [cited 2025 Jan 8];191(1):1–22. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/aja.1001910102 Martin RD. The evolution of human reproduction: A primatological perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2025 Jan 8];134(S45):59–84. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.20734 Emera D, Romero R, Wagner G. The evolution of menstruation: A new model for genetic assimilation. BioEssays [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Jan 8];34(1):26–35. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.201100099 Etxeberria, A. and Rodriguez-Muguruza, A. (2025) Reframing the significance of menstruation: evolutionary insights from an organismal-relational perspective. HPLS , 48(1), 2. Zhang X, Zhu C, Lin H, Yang Q, Ou Q, Li Y, et al. Wild Fulvous Fruit Bats (Rousettus leschenaulti) Exhibit Human-Like Menstrual Cycle1. Biology of Reproduction [Internet]. 2007 Aug 1 [cited 2025 Jan 8];77(2):358–64. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.106.058958 Project Gallery

Psilocybin's active metabolite, psilocin, acts as a serotonin receptor agonist Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The promising effects of magic mushrooms for depression Last updated: 05/04/26, 15:37 Published: 19/02/26, 08:00 Psilocybin's active metabolite, psilocin, acts as a serotonin receptor agonist This is Article 3 in a series on psychiatric disorders and the brain. Previous article: Inside out: the chemistry of depression . Next article coming soon. What is psilocybin? Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic tryptamine alkaloid found in over 200 species of mushrooms (Psilocybin mushrooms), commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms. Upon ingestion, the body converts psilocybin into its active metabolite, psilocin, which acts as a serotonin receptor agonist, primarily impacting 5-HT2A receptors. What is psilocybin useful for? In recent years, clinical research has shown that psilocybin-assisted therapy, can quickly and meaningfully reduce symptoms of depression, often within days rather than weeks, when given in a safe, controlled medical setting with psychological support. Importantly, these studies don’t just look at mood while someone is under the influence. They measure long-term changes weeks or months after treatment. Studies, such as Gukasyan et al. , 2022 and Goodwin et al. , 2022, have shown that 1-2 doses of psilocybin plus therapy have led to sustained reductions in depressive symptoms that last at least 8-12 weeks, and in some cases 12 months later. Research has also demonstrated potential benefits for individuals whose depression has not responded to conventional antidepressant treatments. A large phase II double-blinded trial, by Griffiths et al. , 2016, involving people with treatment-resistant depression found that those given a therapeutic dose (25 mg) of psilocybin had noticeably greater improvement in their depression scores compared with a very low dose (10 mg). Scientists, for example Daws et al. , 2022, believe psilocybin works differently from standard antidepressants. It appears to temporarily increase connections between different parts of the brain and may help break rigid patterns of negative thinking that are typical in depression. If psilocybin is effective, why is it not currently used in treatment for depression? Psilocybin remains classified as a Schedule I controlled substance under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, meaning it is considered to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. For psilocybin to become an approved clinical treatment for depression, it must be rescheduled through formal regulatory review, a process that involves extensive clinical testing and bureaucratic steps. In many countries, including the United States, rescheduling controlled substances can be slow and complex. For example, in 2022-2023, the U.S. government reviewed the scheduling of marijuana (cannabis) after presidential direction to federal agencies, but a final rescheduling decision was still pending as of late 2025. According to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, Schedule III drugs are defined as substances with moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence, whereas Schedule I substances are defined as having no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse. Because psilocybin is still Schedule I in most jurisdictions, it cannot yet be prescribed as a mainstream treatment for depression, despite promising clinical trial results. Written by Chloe Kam Related article: What does depression do to your brain? Project Gallery

NMR is far more elementally diverse and is applicable to any nucleus with a spin quantum number (I) greater than 0 Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The world of inorganic NMR Last updated: 29/05/26, 18:38 Published: 04/06/26, 08:00 NMR is far more elementally diverse and is applicable to any nucleus with a spin quantum number (I) greater than 0 Introduction “It’s an organic chemist’s world, and we are just living in it” is my take on a popular idiom which has never felt more relevant than in the context of NMR spectroscopy. Since our first introductions to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), we are often led to believe that the technique is only applicable to proton (¹H) and carbon (¹³C) nuclei. However, NMR is far more elementally diverse and is applicable to any nucleus with a spin quantum number (I) greater than 0. This article will introduce fluorine (¹⁹F) and phosphorus (³¹P) NMR spectroscopy before considering the “satellite spectra” that arise from nuclei that are not 100% naturally abundant. Finally, the article will explore quadrupolar nuclei, proving that NMR extends far beyond the constraints of organic chemistry. Phosphorus and Fluorine Before discussing ¹⁹F and ³¹P NMR spectroscopy, it is worth considering how a ¹H NMR spectrum is used to characterise a molecule. First, the chemical shifts of particular protons depend on their electronic environments, with protons surrounded by more electronegative elements appearing athigher chemical shifts as they interact more strongly with the applied magnetic field. Splitting patterns are determined by the number of neighbouring nuclei and follow the 2nI + 1 rule, where n is the number of neighbouring nuclei and I is the spin quantum number of the coupled nucleus. Peak intensities are predicted by Pascal’s triangle. These rules are applicable to any spin‑½ nuclei, including ³¹P and ¹⁹F. For example, the inorganic anion [PF₆]⁻ is frequently used as a stabilising counterion in many cationic inorganic complexes and can be readily characterised using NMR. Considering the ³¹P NMR spectrum first, the phosphorus nucleus couples to six equivalent ¹⁹F nuclei and therefore produces a septet splitting pattern. Alternatively, in the ¹⁹F NMR spectrum, six equivalent fluorine nuclei couple to one ³¹P nucleus, producing a doublet. Satellite Spectra The term “satellite spectra” arises when considering coupling to spin‑active NMR nuclei that are not 100% naturally abundant. This usually occurs because multiple isotopes of an element exist, but only one is NMR‑active. For example, tungsten has five naturally occurring isotopes, but only one is NMR‑active (¹⁸³W), with a natural abundance of 14.3%. To illustrate how this affects the appearance of an NMR spectrum, consider the compound trans‑[W(PPh₃)₂(CO)₄], where the two triphenylphosphine ligands are chemically equivalent. We would initially expect a singlet in the ³¹P NMR spectrum. However, the ³¹P nuclei can also couple to the tungsten centre. Rather than observing a simple doublet, the spectrum appears as a singlet with a small superimposed doublet. This occurs because 85.7% of the molecules contain an inactive tungsten isotope, while 14.3% contain ¹⁸³W. Quadrupolar Nuclei NMR spectra can also be obtained for nuclei with spin quantum numbers where I ≥ 1, known as quadrupolar nuclei. While less commonly analysed by NMR, quadrupolar nuclei account for over 70% of the NMR‑active nuclei on the periodic table. An example of where quadrupolar NMR spectroscopy is effective is in studying the tetrafluoroaluminate ion, [AlF₄]⁻. The ¹⁹F NMR spectrum of this compound appears as a sextet with equal line intensities, as quadrupolar nuclei still obey the 2nI + 1 rule. The splitting pattern indicates that the ²⁷Al nucleus has a spin quantum number of 5/2, and the peak intensities are no longer governed by Pascal’s triangle. However, quadrupolar nuclei are not commonly studied by NMR because their non‑spherical charge distributions often lead to extensive peak broadening. [AlF₄]⁻ acts as a useful exception, where the peaks resolve because of the symmetry in a tetrahedral geometry. Quadrupolar NMR is therefore most effective in highly symmetric environments, such as octahedral (Oₕ) and tetrahedral (T_d) geometries. Conclusion In conclusion, the elemental diversity of NMR spectroscopy makes it one of the most powerful characterisation techniques available to a synthetic chemist. While this article has focused on inorganic applications of NMR, the scope of the technique is far broader. From using NMR to investigate molecular diffusion to advanced 2D NMR methods including COSY and NOESY, NMR spectroscopy dominates the analytical landscape like few others. Written by Antony Lee Related articles: Advances in mass spectrometry technology Project Gallery

How colonialism, interventionism and health are interwoven Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How colonialism and geopolitics shape health injustices: a deep, critical reflection Last updated: 02/04/26, 18:29 Published: 16/10/25, 08:00 How colonialism, interventionism and health are interwoven This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Addressing the health landscape in Bangladesh's Rohingya community Introduction Welcome to the reflective article of the Global Health Injustices Series. Before I begin, I want to thank Jana Antar again for her contributions to the Lebanon and Syria article, and Dr Nasif Mahmood for his contributions to the Rohingya people in Bangladesh article. Writing and researching about these different countries was an incredible experience. Although I initially planned for this series to go beyond ten articles, focusing on the most enduring and neglected injustices was vital, particularly as the world is becoming more dynamic with geopolitical power shifts. With this in mind, I want to emphasise that each vulnerable population faces unique challenges, but they have challenges shared with others that are not mentioned in this series. I wanted to address these injustices because they are urgent and demonstrate how interconnected global struggles truly are. Through writing this last article, I deepened my understanding of how colonialism, interventionism, and health are interwoven. How the past impacts present reality (colonialism) The injustices we see in news headlines, social media, or the ones we directly experience should not be understood as isolated examples ( Table 1 ). Instead, they stem from European colonialism and later foreign interventionism, shaping how regional governments were created. The ongoing Gaza genocide and expanding illegal settlements pushing out Palestinians in the West Bank are due to Israel’s brutal military occupation and apartheid for 70+ years, and its acts, including the Nakba. Sudan had external rulers (notably Egypt and the British Empire) contributing to its civil wars through political destabilisation, among other factors. This similarly happened in Yemen, though it is also important to note that foreign intervention from the United States (US) and Saudi Arabian governments contributed to the country's existing crises. Lebanon and Syria were divided up and governed by Britain and France after the Ottoman Empire collapsed shortly after World War 1, a significant event leading to political destabilisation and ongoing catastrophes, which also happened to Palestine. In Kashmir, the people’s plight erupted through the British Empire partitioning the Indian subcontinent into multiple nations in 1947 (India, West Pakistan becoming Pakistan and East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh), with Kashmir being a disputed territory between Pakistan and India. As for the Rohingya population and Bangladesh, civil wars during the 20th century and ensuing persecution by the government of Myanmar have contributed to their crises. Therefore, it is clear that all of these events I summarised showcase how their root causes lead to the substantial effects of the current daily injustices. Moreover, what connects these substantial injustices and many others worldwide traces back to the consequences of European colonialism; these powers dispossessed indigenous peoples of their lands and resources through violence, subsequently broken treaties, or legal frameworks that did not identify Indigenous land tenure systems. While they did disrupt indigenous governments, some recent injustices prevail because post-colonial elites embraced or exacerbated these exploitative systems. This severed deep cultural, spiritual, and economic ties that indigenous communities had with their land. For example, Canada’s colonial legacy, notably its Indian Residential Schools, involved forcibly removing children from their families, leading to negative outcomes for the Indigenous communities. Moreover, it is vital to acknowledge the impact of settler colonialism on Indigenous communities globally across South America, Africa, Asia and the Aboriginal people of Australia and New Zealand. If we do not critically think and learn about these past events, how will we improve our present reality and build a future for everyone? Table 1: Summary of the historical and modern perpetrators of injustices affecting the countries/communities explored in the Global Health Injustices Series Country/ community explored in the Global Health Injustices Series Main perpetrator(s) of their injustices Palestine Israel + foreign military aid from the US, UK + other countries Sudan RSF + other local political factions with foreign military aid from the UAE + other countries Yemen Houthis + other local political factions + foreign Interventionism from Saudi Arabia + US + foreign military aid Lebanon Local political factions + US, UK + other countries Syria Local political factions + US, UK + other countries Kashmir Indian + Pakistani militaries + foreign military aid Rohinyga Government of Myanmar + foreign military aid Bangladesh UK via the partition of Subcontinental India (1947), contributing to later injustices Current major health problems Health is essential in global injustices because it is a mirror and a driver of the disparities among various populations. Accessing quality healthcare is usually affected by factors, such as race and ethnicity, which accentuate deep-rooted inequalities. For example, communities with lower incomes encounter challenges, ranging from a lack of healthcare infrastructure to environmental hazards, leading to worse health outcomes. Therefore, tackling them is essential for achieving justice, as improved health outcomes can empower marginalised groups. Aside from warfare being a major determinant of health and injustice, I want to highlight migration as a significant co-occurring determinant. Although research is expanding, the bidirectional relationship between migration and health remains inadequately incorporated into practice and laws. Migration is a complicated and heterogeneous multiphase process ( Figure 1 ). Meanwhile, collecting migration data remains difficult due to polarised political views, unwillingness to finance research on discriminatory laws, varying migration definitions, and limited comparable global data. Unfortunately, political rhetoric and media depictions form incorrect assumptions, stereotypes, and negative views of migrants and refugees, leading to a weakened understanding of the severity and positive aspects of migration. Also, this manifests into hatred and scapegoating of migrants and refugees through their “perceived” impact on countries like employment and healthcare. In reality, accessing employment and healthcare is very difficult for them, leading to negative health outcomes. Thinking more broadly, health behaviours are not solely individual choices, but are deeply rooted in and affected by social, cultural, and political environments. For example, when looking at politics and health through a framework ( Figure 2 ), it is clear how politics is influential through labour markets and welfare states, leading to socioeconomic, income and wealth inequalities and poor health. One systematic review found that a generous welfare state is typically associated with positive population health outcomes, with the Nordic model as an example. This suggests that political leaders are vital in affecting agendas, encouraging intersectoral partnerships, and showing political will to promote health equity. Another review supported the benefits of a generous welfare state through maternal and child health outcomes. Therefore, health and politics are intertwined, as addressed in previous articles through specific contexts. Now I will discuss it more broadly. Current major geopolitical problems Geopolitical dynamics are crucial to shaping the lives of vulnerable populations by influencing their access to security, resources, and fundamental human rights; this is impacted by governments, policies, geographies, and the relationships and interests between countries. In countries or regions plagued by continuous conflict or authoritarian governments, these communities often find themselves at greater risk of challenges like displacement, violence, and systemic discrimination. Moreover, the complicated relationship between global and local power systems results in specific communities being neglected, as more powerful geopolitical interests repeatedly overshadow their needs. To truly support these communities, it is vital to consider how foreign interventionism from countries like the US and the UK impacts the Palestinians, Sudanese, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemeni, Kashmiri, and the Rohingya populations. Foreign interventionism, which typically occurs through militarism, is characterised as the international and social relations of training for and executing organised political violence; this is a pervasive feature of geopolitics, rising into civilian domains by shaping countries and regions. Then, humanitarianism is typically seen as an unbiased moral discourse centred on universal humanity and aid. Yet, it is historically linked to militarism, particularly in Western countries and has deepened in recent decades. Humanitarian standards, like International Humanitarian Law (IHL), are supposed to limit wars’ consequences, but IHL may implicitly tolerate particular levels of ‘collateral damage’ as allowable. IHL is embedded in a hierarchy that determines who can be saved and who cannot, possibly causing inequalities and unstable power relations tied to imperial dynamics. Hence, I see Western humanitarianism as deeply entangled with militarism because of how it can serve to justify and expand political violence across diverse countries and regions, as seen in modern news headlines. More importantly, this dynamic drives a vicious cycle of violence, where armed conflicts cause vulnerability by destroying infrastructure, destabilising nations and other negative consequences, like climate change and rising extremism, leading to civil wars and genocide. Moving forward To truly move forward, adopting a multifaceted approach (e.g. decolonising global health) to addressing all the injustices and health disparities is vital; this can work, but I think that should involve giving all the most vulnerable communities their autonomy, liberation and fundamental human rights. There is the notion of peace plans coming from Western governments like the US, yet that cannot start without putting those directly experiencing war, genocide, displacement, ethnic cleansing and other atrocities as the central voice in those conversations. Moreover, we should highlight those most accountable for making amends. For example, they should allow a right to return and a payment of extensive reparations to the displaced Palestinians, Sudanese, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemeni, Kashmiri, and the Rohingya populations to their homelands, among numerous others. The big question is whether these suggestions will become tangible realities. Although reparations and the right to return may seem distant from contemporary political realities, they are moral imperatives for real justice to occur. Continuously raising awareness and rallying support for affected communities so they can tackle their needs and challenges is important. There is also advocacy, which is vital in showcasing the issues they encounter, which can pave the way for significant policy changes. Moreover, the participation of local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), like Amnesty International, is crucial for enforcing ongoing solutions, as they better grasp the vulnerable communities’ needs. When these efforts are done collaboratively, fostering a more supportive environment for those needing it most is vital. Unfortunately, NGOs cannot replace genuine international political will because their impact will always be limited without structural change. Importantly, recognising how interconnected everyone is as a global community is crucial. Engaging in different cultures and experiences should foster empathy and build a collective strength to face challenges, notably climate change and warfare driven by the weapons industry. Uniting and sharing knowledge can encourage real change and all countries actually following international law, which requires powerful countries to be held responsible in ways that have been avoided so far; this should involve acknowledging that the vulnerable communities have a right to resist and defend themselves against their oppressors. Conclusion The global health injustices seen today have historical roots in European colonialism, which has stripped indigenous global communities of their homelands and disrupted their cultural connections. Furthermore, they are influenced by many factors. Moreover, health behaviours are influenced by the broader social, cultural, and political landscapes. Geopolitical dynamics impact vulnerable populations by undermining their security, access to resources, and fundamental human rights; foreign interventionism via militarism makes them worse. Humanitarianism with militarism can reinforce cycles of violence by legitimising unequal power dynamics despite its good intentions. To effectively tackle the global health injustices, uplifting vulnerable communities by prioritising their human rights is vital. The perpetrators should pay reparations and grant the right of return to the most impacted. As individuals, we must raise awareness and push for policy changes. Local and international organisations are pivotal in understanding and addressing community needs. With everything said, I enjoyed writing this series because it showed me how connected all these injustices are and how we can act, listen and reflect together. Ultimately, we must focus on all the countries and communities highlighted in this series, as well as others currently facing injustices like the Uyghurs in China and Afghanistan. We must open our eyes, hearts, souls, and minds to nurture global connections and share knowledge for impactful change. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: How does physical health affect mental health? / Beyond medicine: health through different stances / Addressing Health Inequalities REFERENCES Banat BYI, Entrena-Durán F, Dayyeh J. Palestinian Refugee Youth: Reproduction of Collective Memory of the Nakba. Asian Social Science. 2018 Nov 29;14(12):147.2. Amiad Haran Diman, Miodownik D. Bloody Pasts and Current Politics: The Political Legacies of Violent Resettlement. Comparative Political Studies. 2023 Aug 13;57(9). Abubakar M, Yahaya TB. Secession and border disputes in Africa: The case of Sudan and South Sudan border. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 2021 Oct 31;15(4):131–8. Tamer Abd Elkreem, Jaspars S. Sudan’s catastrophe: the role of changing dynamics of food and power in the Gezira agricultural scheme. Disasters [Internet]. 2024 Oct 30 [cited 2025 Sep 18];49(1). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11603519/ eClinicalMedicine. Under the shade of world events: a never-ending crisis in Yemen. EClinicalMedicine [Internet]. 2023 Oct 1 [cited 2025 Sep 18];64:102302–2. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00479-0/fulltext Bordón J, Eyad Alrefai. Saudi Arabia’s Foreign aid: the Singularity of Yemen as a Case Study. Third World Quarterly. 2023 Jul 14;45:1–18. Osman O. Western Domination, Destructive Governance, and the Perpetual Development Crisis in the Arab Region. World review of political economy. 2024 Apr 15;15(1). Huber D, Woertz E. Resilience, conflict and areas of limited statehood in Iraq, Lebanon and Syria. Democratization. 2021 Jun 25;28(7):1–19. Gupta H. 1947 Partition of India and its lessons. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care [Internet]. 2024 Jul 26 [cited 2025 Sep 18];13(8):3471–2. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11368293/ Jong K de, van, Ford N, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley II: psychosocial impact. Conflict and Health [Internet]. 2008 Oct 14 [cited 2025 Sep 18];2(1). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC257762/ Project Gallery

Exploring the microscopic world of molecules Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Quantum Chemistry Last updated: 05/02/26, 10:12 Published: 06/02/25, 08:00 Exploring the microscopic world of molecules Quantum chemistry provides a glimpse into the strange and fascinating world of molecules and atoms, where the principles of traditional chemistry and physics no longer apply. While classical chemistry can explain molecular interactions and bonding, it cannot fully account for particles' unusual, frequently contradictory behaviour at the atomic and subatomic levels. Quantum mechanics provides scientists with a powerful framework for understanding the complicated behaviour of electrons and nuclei in molecules. The basics of quantum chemistry The notion of wave-particle duality, which states that particles, such as electrons, act not just like objects with mass but also like waves, is central to quantum chemistry. Because the exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be known at the same time (according to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle), probability distributions are used to describe electrons rather than accurate orbits. These distributions are represented by mathematical functions known as wave functions, which describe the probability of finding an electron in a specific location surrounding the nucleus. This fundamentally affects our understanding of chemical bonding. Instead of conceiving a bond as a solid connection between two atoms, quantum chemistry defines it as the overlap of electron wave functions, which can result in a variety of molecular topologies depending on their energy levels. Quantum mechanics and bonding theories Quantum mechanics has fundamentally altered our knowledge of chemical bonding. The classic Lewis structure model, which explains bonding as the sharing or transfer of electrons, is effective for simple molecules but fails to convey the complexities of real-world interactions. In contrast, quantum chemistry introduces the concept of molecular orbitals. In molecular orbital theory, electrons are not limited to individual atoms but can spread across a molecule in molecular orbitals, which are combinations of atomic orbitals from the participating atoms. These molecular orbitals provide a more detailed explanation for bonding, especially in compounds that do not match simple bonding models, such as delocalised systems like benzene or metals. For example, quantum chemistry explains why oxygen is paramagnetic (it possesses unpaired electrons), a characteristic that classical bonding theories cannot explain. Quantum chemistry and quantum computing One of the most interesting frontiers in quantum chemistry is its application to the development of quantum computers. Traditional computers, despite their enormous processing power, struggle to model the complicated behaviour of molecules, particularly large ones. This is because simulating molecules at the quantum level necessitates tracking all conceivable interactions between electrons and nuclei, which can quickly become computationally challenging. Quantum computers use fundamentally different ideas. They employ qubits, which, unlike classical bits, can exist in a state of both 0 and 1. This enables quantum computers to execute several calculations concurrently and manage the complexity of molecular systems considerably more effectively. This could lead to advancements in quantum chemistry, such as drug discovery, where precisely modelling molecular interactions is critical. Instead of depending on trial and error, scientists may utilise quantum computers to model how possible pharmaceuticals interact with biological molecules at the atomic level, thereby speeding up the creation of novel therapies. Similarly, quantum chemistry could help in the development of novel materials with desirable qualities, such as stronger alloys and more efficient energy storage devices. Why quantum chemistry matters The consequences of quantum chemistry go well beyond the lab. Understanding molecular behaviour at its most fundamental level allows us to create new technologies and materials that have an impact on everyday life. Nanotechnology, for example, relies largely on quantum principles to generate innovative materials with applications in medicine, electronics, and clean energy. Catalysis, the technique of speeding up reactions, also benefits from quantum chemistry insights, making industrial operations more efficient, such as cleaner fuel generation and more effective environmental remediation. Furthermore, quantum chemistry provides insights into biological processes. Enzymes, the proteins that catalyse processes in living organisms, work with a precision that frequently defies standard chemistry. Tunnelling, quantum phenomena in which particles slip past energy barriers, helps to explain these extraordinarily efficient biological processes. In brief, quantum chemistry provides the fundamental understanding required to push the limits of chemistry and physics by exposing how molecules interact and react in ways that traditional theories cannot fully explain. Quantum chemistry has the potential to radically alter our understanding of the microscopic world, whether through theoretical models, practical applications, or future technology advancements. Written by Laura K Related articles: Quantum computing / Topology / Computational organic chemistry Project Gallery

Broadening access for (black) women in STEM Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Power of sisterhood in STEM Last updated: 28/03/25, 11:10 Published: 28/03/25, 08:00 Broadening access for (black) women in STEM In collaboration with SiSTEM for International Women's Month Entering a fluid dynamics lecture. Looking under a microscope confined to the four walls of a lab. Walking onto a construction site or a board meeting. As a woman in these spaces, particularly as a woman of colour it is easy to believe you are the ONLY one. That’s what we thought, two sisters of black heritage starting out in the biomedical and the engineering field respectively. The higher we went in education the less people that looked like us. Being 1 of 10 women in a cohort of 200 was a familiar sight. Being less than 2% of the engineering workforce as a woman, you can start to feel like science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) is not for you. But the reality is there are women in STEM doing incredible work. STEM is not a man’s industry. As women, we deserve our space on the STEM table. Through our struggles and isolating experiences, we decided to create SiSTEM, a community for all these wonderful women. Real life sisterhood We are often asked how we find working with your sister. Truth is, we wouldn’t be each other’s first choice for a business partner! We never thought we would start an organisation together, growing up as most siblings we have always wanted to do our own thing. Science and engineering was always seen as us doing separate things. Moreover we have completely different personalities. But we are two sisters with one dream; we don’t want another girl to leave the STEM field because she doesn’t believe she belongs there. We don’t want another girl to disqualify herself from her STEM career or degree because she has been told she doesn’t have the look for STEM or grades to do well. We have one passion and that’s to change the narrative of women in STEM, particularly black women and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is power in numbers Community and having a support system are important. We wouldn’t have completed our STEM degrees or broken into our careers without our personal sisterly support. We were always a phone call away for each other, ready to be a listening ear and a cheerleader. That same sisterly support is what we offer to other women and girls through our initiative. There’s power in sisterhood, standing on the shoulders of great women. Women face unique challenges particularly in the STEM industry, discrimination, feeling less valued, difficulty with pay and promotion but by building a culture of support we empower women to thrive despite the barriers. It’s beautiful to belong to a circle of women as we are stronger together. By belonging to a community it cultivates a feeling of belonging. You also learn from one another, sparking interesting conversations, building important connections. We learn from our community everyday: the conversations we are able to have inspire us and broaden our knowledge. Throwing the rope to the next generation From its inception, SiSTEM’s goal was to support women and girls throughout their STEM journey. The gender gap issue in STEM starts very early on, very often not when we choose our degree courses but as early as primary school. That’s why we empower young girls as young as five years old. Every girl, every woman deserves to be part of a community. Every stage of the journey has its unique challenges which belonging to community can help navigate. I’m sure you’ve heard the saying ‘empowered women empower women’ - now we feel empowered to empower other girls and women. We originally felt like we were not the people to create this community. Imposter syndrome told us we weren’t qualified enough, that we didn’t have a story to tell worth listening to. Reflecting on our own journeys, it’s women like our teachers, our mother, our friends who have been key in our success. Our mum telling us to ‘aim high and be the best’, a female science teacher telling us ‘you can be whatever you want to be’, a friend's comment on our graduation post saying how proud they are. And now a community of women who we can lean on for support, receive advice and inspire us every day. Today, we meet women at schools, events, universities and workplaces. A common theme in some of these women and girls we meet is a lack of confidence. Our biggest joy is when we are able to put a smile on a young girl’s face who feels giving up.Women need reminding how amazing they are so we continue to do amazing things, find a cure for cancer, make an innovative product to solve the world’s biggest problems or to design a beautiful building which would will be seen by generations to come. We shouldn’t be afraid to share our personal stories of how we got to where we are. when others hear they are empowered. This is what we use our platform to do. We are able to pass on the mic to other woman to share their untold stories. By putting a light on various women particularly black women in STEM we are giving others positive roles models to look to where they able to believe they do can do it. An empowered woman is a force of nature. She shines. She encourages. She breaks barriers and has the confidence to speak up in a place where she was told to be silent. By forming our community even though we may still find that we are the only women in the room, we have many women standing behind us and many more coming. Conclusion Retention of women in STEM is as equally as important as getting women into STEM. There is a leaky pipeline particularly between university level and STEM leadership positions and also many young girls already have a negative perception about certain STEM careers. That’s why we created an initiative to encourage more girls to get into STEM through innovative workshops and outreach programs and to create a community for women currently in the field. By doing so we aim to open the bottle top at one end and close any holes at the other end. Women supporting women in a powerful thing and there is space for all women in stem, no matter your background, academic records or skin colour. Together we make STEM colourful…preferably pink! -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks SiSTEM for this important piece on female representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! For more information, check them out on Instagram and LinkedIn . -- Related articles: Representation in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

Stockholm syndrome is a psychological phenomenon where a victim forms a connection with their captor, developing feelings of sympathy Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Stockholm Syndrome - psychology’s ongoing debate Last updated: 07/07/26, 12:23 Published: 09/07/26, 08:00 Stockholm syndrome is a psychological phenomenon where a victim forms a connection with their captor, developing feelings of sympathy From bank robberies to Disney princesses, Stockholm syndrome has captured the public’s eye for decades. But how much of what we see online reflects psychological reality? Stockholm syndrome is a psychological phenomenon where a victim forms a connection with their captor, developing feelings of sympathy. This connection can lead to adopting the same beliefs of the captor or abuser, resulting in positive attitudes toward them. This phenomenon originated in 1973 after a bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden. During a six-day standoff against the police, hostage bank employees became sympathetic towards the bank robbers. Once free, some employees declined to testify against the bank robbers and even raised money for their defence. This psychological response allows captors to manipulate their victims into complying with their demands, while victims use it as a survival mechanism. But why do some victims develop Stockholm syndrome and others don’t? Although there is no definitive answer, De Fabrique et al. (2007) and Namnyak et al. (2007) suggest that prolonged captivity may allow emotional bonds to develop and that the phenomenon is more likely when there is no prior relationship between the captor and victim. The most popular view among psychologists is that social and cognitive factors influence the development of Stockholm syndrome, including the “us vs. them” mentality and in-group and out-group perceptions. These perceptions, combined with a distorted cognitive schema, can lead to Stockholm syndrome. De Fabrique et al. (2007) examined existing case studies to investigate the “us vs. them” dynamic. Findings revealed that hostages and captors were in close physical proximity and maintained a high level of interpersonal contact. The researchers inferred that the concept of “us vs. them” may arise when victims and the captor are physically close during an emotionally salient situation. Considering the in-group and out-group dynamic, both the victim and the captor share a common interest in survival, forming the in-group. The captor perceives the authorities as a threat to their own survival, and because intervention by the authorities also endangers the victim's life, the victim comes to share this perception. As a result, the authorities are viewed as the out-group. Overall, this research suggests that social and cognitive processes, particularly in-group and out-group perceptions, play a significant role in the development of Stockholm syndrome. However, psychologists question whether Stockholm syndrome should be accepted as a legitimate psychological syndrome. Stockholm syndrome is not included in diagnostic manuals such as the DSM-5 or the ICD. A systematic review by Namnyak et al. (2008) discussed that scientific evidence supporting the syndrome is limited, with literature relying heavily on case studies and media reports rather than reputable empirical research. Despite this, Stockholm syndrome is quite influential in today’s world. Movies, television shows, and books portray captives forming romantic or emotional attachments to their captors. Disney’s Beauty and the Beast is a prime example of this debate, as some viewers argue that Belle’s building affection for the Beast reflects Stockholm syndrome. On the other hand, others – including the actress Emma Watson, who plays Belle – express that Belle maintains her autonomy and chooses to stay only after the Beast changes his behaviour. However, the influence of Stockholm syndrome extends beyond fictional narratives. Some psychologists argue that identifying a victim’s behaviour as “Stockholm syndrome” can oversimplify complex trauma responses and shift attention from the perpetrator’s abuse. Alternatively, researchers prefer concepts such as trauma bonding or coercive control, which are supported by psychological research and better capture the dynamics of abusive relationships. All in all, the debate surrounding Stockholm syndrome highlights the importance of distinguishing between psychological concepts supported by scientific evidence and those shaped by popular culture. The debate around Stockholm syndrome illustrates that psychological concepts are not always supported by empirical scientific evidence. Regardless of whether it’s considered a trauma response or an oversimplified media label, Stockholm syndrome demonstrates how human behaviour under severe stress can be complex. Ultimately, the concept highlights the complexity and unpredictability of human behaviour in extreme circumstances. Written by Shreya Dhaliwal REFERENCES Arsiwela, A. (2024). Stockholm syndrome as reflected on Belle in beauty and the beast movie (2017). Dinamika Pembelajaran : Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Bahasa, 1 (3), 329–337. https://doi.org/10.62383/dilan.v1i3.822 . Cleveland Clinic. (2022, February 14). S tockholm syndrome: What it is, symptoms & how to treat . https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22387-stockholm-syndrome . De Fabrique, N., Romano, S. J., Vecchi, G. M., & Van Hasselt, V. B. (2007b, July). Understanding Stockholm Syndrome . U.S. Department of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/understanding-stockholm-syndrome . Disney. (n.d.). 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