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Total solar eclipses Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Totality- Our Perfect Eclipse 14/07/25, 15:05 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 10:05 Total solar eclipses We are all familiar with the characteristic depiction of a solar eclipse, when the Moon passes directly between the Sun and the Earth. However, the significance of solar eclipses extends far beyond their aesthetic appeal. Major scientific discoveries, cultural practices, and even the behaviour of wild animals are derived from total solar eclipses that we have the privilege of experiencing (See image 1). A solar eclipse occurs when the Earth, Moon, and Sun all appear to lie on a straight line. They are collinear. Total solar eclipses occur when the Moon completely obscures the Sun's photosphere, enabling prominences and coronal filaments to be seen along the limb. This phenomenon is unique to the Earth, Sun, and Moon system and to understand why we must explore the mathematics underlying these ‘orbital gymnastics’. We wish to compare the ‘apparent’ size of the Sun and Moon, a quantity proportional to the ratio of their size and distance from Earth. The Moon has a radius of around 3,400 km, and is approximately 384,000 km from Earth. The Sun has a much larger radius of 1.4 million km, and is located at a distance of 150 million km. By dividing the Sun's radius by the Moon's radius and dividing the Earth-Sun distance by the Earth-Moon distance, we can determine that the Sun is 400 times larger than the Moon and 400 times further away. This unique relationship allows for total solar eclipses, where totality indicates **the complete blocking of sunlight from the Sun’s disk by the Moon. In partial eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured. One might wonder why we don’t have total solar eclipses every month, and the reason is that the plane of the Moon’s orbit around Earth is tilted at 5 degrees relative to Earth’s orbital plane. This hugely decreases the likelihood of such perfect alignment. Of the hundreds of moons orbiting planets in our Solar System, only our Moon totally eclipses the Sun. For example, none of Jupiter’s 95 moons have the correct size and orbital separation that completely block out the Sun from any point on Jupiter’s surface! Surely this serendipitous interplay of Earth, Sun, and Moon cannot be a coincidence? (See image 2) It is at this point where divine intervention is typically invoked. There are a few problems with doing this. The Moon's eccentric orbit around Earth means that it will be closer during some total solar eclipses than others, resulting in annular eclipses when the Moon is furthest from Earth. Additionally, the Moon is receding from the Earth at a rate of 4 cm/year, which means that total solar eclipses will only be observable for another 250 million years. (See image 3) For those of you who wish to make the most of this brief window of opportunity, this website shows the dates and locations of upcoming total solar eclipses. Written by Joseph Brennan REFERENCE Guillermo Gonzalez, Wonderful eclipses, Astronomy & Geophysics , Volume 40, Issue 3, June 1999, Pages 3.18–3.20, https://doi.org/10.1093/astrog/40.3.3.18 Project Gallery

The science behind tooth decay Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How to prevent tooth decay 10/04/25, 10:52 Last updated: Published: 03/02/24, 11:24 The science behind tooth decay Dental caries, commonly referred to as tooth decay, manifests as a gradual process and progressive disease affecting the dental hard tissues, resulting in the breakdown of tooth structure and the potential for pain and infection within the oral cavity. Understanding the mechanisms behind tooth decay is crucial for adopting effective preventative measures, to stop or reverse the carious process and prevent cavity formation. Several factors contribute to dental caries, including bacteria, time, fermentable carbohydrates, and a susceptible tooth surface. In the absence of regular toothbrushing, a plaque biofilm is allowed to form on the tooth surface—a sticky, colourless film that serves as a breeding ground for bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus species. Once these bacterial species encounter fermentable carbohydrates and sugars from our diet, they begin to metabolise them, producing acids as a by-product. These acids contribute to an acidic environment in the mouth. When enamel, the outermost layer of tooth structure, is exposed to an acidic pH below 5.5, its mineral structure weakens, initiating the dissociation of hydroxyapatite crystals. Frequent acid attacks from dietary sugars result in a net mineral loss in teeth, leading to cavity formation, dental pain, and potential infections. The initial stage of decay involves the demineralisation of enamel. At this point, the damage can be reversible with good oral hygiene practices and through remineralising agents. Saliva has the capacity to remineralise initial carious lesions, and fluoride application through fluoridated toothpaste can also aid in reversing the initial stages of dental caries. However, if left untreated and allowed to progress, the decay can develop further into the tooth structure reaching the softer dentine beneath enamel. Dentin decay occurs more rapidly than enamel and can contribute to increased sensitivity and discomfort. As the decay advances, it may reach the dental pulp, which is the nerve of the tooth. Infection of the pulp can trigger severe pain and may necessitate root canal treatment in attempt to save the tooth. Persistent infections can lead to abscess formation—a pocket of pus causing swelling, pain, and systemic health issues, should the infection spread throughout the body. Tooth decay can be preventing through regular brushing with a fluoride toothpaste. The consistent disturbance to the plaque biofilm formation through brushing it away will not allow the caries process to continue, and hence prevent cavity formation. The fluoride aspect will help to strengthen the enamel and remineralise any mineral loss found in early lesions; this can stop and even reverse the carious process, thus preventing dental decay A healthy diet with limited consumption of sugary foods and drinks can significantly reduce the risk of tooth decay; with less sugars in the oral environment there is a lower rate of bacterial metabolisation to create the acids which contribute to the decay process. Regular dental check up appointments enable early detection and intervention of any initial lesions, preventing the progression of decay before reaching an irreversible status. Tooth decay is a preventable yet prevalent oral health issue. Instigated by the action of oral bacteria metabolising sugars in the mouth, our natural tooth structure can be destructed and decayed if the plaque biofilm is not controlled. By understanding the causes and progression of tooth decay, individuals can adopt proactive measures to maintain good oral hygiene, preserve enamel, and safeguard their smiles for a lifetime. Regular dental check-ups and a commitment to a healthy lifestyle play pivotal roles in preventing the onset and progression of tooth decay. Written by Isha Parmar Related article: Importance of calcium REFERENCE (Banerjee & Watson, 2015): Banerjee, A. and Watson, T.F. (2015) Pickard’s Guide to Minimally Invasive Operative Dentistry, King’s College London. Project Gallery

Understanding the problem and solutions Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The rising threat of antibiotic resistance 14/07/25, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 07/01/24, 13:47 Understanding the problem and solutions An overview and history of antibiotics Antibiotics are medicines that treat and prevent bacterial infections (such as skin infections, respiratory infections and more). Antibiotic resistance is the process of infection-causing bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. As the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated, antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich discovered the first antibiotic, Salvarsan, used to treat syphilis at the time. His idea was to create anti-infective medication, and Salvarsan was successful. The golden age of antibiotic discovery began with the accidental discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He noticed that mould had contaminated one of the petri dishes of Staphylococcus bacteria. He observed that bacteria around the mould were dying and realised that the mould, Penicillium notatum , was causing the bacteria to die. In 1940, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated penicillin and began clinical trials, showing that it effectively treated infectious animals. Penicillin was then used to treat patients by 1943 in the United States. Overall, the discovery and use of antibiotics in the 21st century was a significant scientific discovery, extending people’s lives by around 20 years. Factors contributing to antibiotic resistance Increasing levels of antibiotic resistance could mean routine surgeries and cancer treatments (which can weaken the body’s ability to respond to infections) might become too risky, and minor illnesses and injuries could become more challenging to treat. There are various factors contributing to this, including overusing and misusing antibiotics and low investment in new antibiotic research. Antibiotics are overused and misused due to misunderstanding when and how to use them. As a result, antibiotics may be used for viral infections, and an entire course may not be completed if patients start to feel better. Some patients may also use antibiotics not prescribed to them, such as those of family and friends. Moreover, there has not been enough investment to fund the research of novel antibiotics. This has resulted in a shortage of antibiotics available to treat infections that have become resistant. Therefore, more investment and research are needed to prevent antibiotic resistance from becoming a public health crisis. Combatting antibiotic resistance One of the most effective ways to combat antibiotic resistance is through raising public awareness. Children and adults can learn about when and how to use antibiotics safely. Several resources are available to help individuals and members of the public to do this. Some resources are linked below: 1. The WHO has provided a factsheet with essential information on antibiotic resistance. 2. The Antibiotic Guardian website is a platform with information and resources to help combat antibiotic resistance. It is a UK-wide campaign to improve and reduce antibiotic prescribing and use. Visit the website to learn more, and commit to a pledge to play your part in helping to solve this problem. 3. Public Health England has created resources to support Antibiotic Guardian. 4. The E-bug peer-education package is a platform that aims to educate individuals and provide them with tools to educate others. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Anti-fungal resistance / Why bacteria are essential to human survival Project Gallery

A (possibly) new class of semiconductors Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The search for a room-temperature superconductor 14/07/25, 15:02 Last updated: Published: 13/01/24, 15:19 A (possibly) new class of semiconductors In early August, the scientific community was buzzing with excitement over the groundbreaking discovery of the first room-temperature superconductor. As some rushed to prove the existence of superconductivity in the material known as LK-99, others were sceptical of the validity of the claims. After weeks of investigation, experts have concluded that LK-99 was likely not the elusive room-temperature superconductor but rather a different type of magnetic material with interesting properties. But what if we did stumble upon a room-temperature superconductor? What could this mean for the future of technology? Superconductivity is a property of some materials at extremely low temperatures that allows the material to conduct electricity with no resistance. Classical physics cannot explain this phenomenon, and instead, we have to turn to quantum mechanics to provide a description of superconductors. Inside superconductors, electrons are paired up and can move through the structure of the material without experiencing any friction. The pairs of electrons are broken up by the thermal energy from temperature, so they will only exist for low temperatures. Therefore, this theory, known as BCS theory after the physicists who formulated it, does not explain the existence of a high-temperature superconductor. To describe high-temperature superconductors, such as those occurring at room temperature, more complicated theories are needed. The magic of superconductors lies in their property of zero resistance. Resistance is a cause of energy waste in circuits due to heating, which leads to the unwanted loss of power, making for inefficient operation. Physically, resistance is caused by electrons colliding with atoms in the structure of a material, causing energy to be lost in the process. The ability for electrons to move through superconductors without experiencing any collisions results in no resistance. Superconductors are useful as components in circuits as they cause no wasted power due to heating effects and are completely energy-efficient in this aspect. Normally, using superconductors requires complex methods of cooling them down to typical superconducting temperatures. For example, the temperature at which copper becomes superconducting is 35 K, or in other words, around 130 °C colder than the temperature at which water freezes. These methods are expensive to implement, which prevents them from being implemented on a wide scale. However, having a room-temperature superconductor would allow access to the beneficial properties of the material, such as its resistance, without the need for extreme cooling. The current record holders for highest-temperature superconductors are the cuprate superconductors at around −135 °C. These are a family of materials made up of layers of copper oxides alternating with layers of other metal oxides. As the mechanism for superconductivity is yet to be revealed, scientists are still scratching their heads over how this material can exhibit superconducting properties. Once this mechanism is discovered, it may be easier to predict and find high-temperature superconducting materials and may lead to the first room-temperature superconductor. Until then, the search continues to unlock the next frontier in low-temperature physics… For more information on superconductors: [1] Theory behind superconductivity [2] Video demonstration Written by Madeleine Hales Related articles: Semiconductor manufacturing / Semiconductor laser technology / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Titan Submersible Project Gallery

Healthy heart, healthy mind Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How does physical health affect mental health? Last updated: 16/10/25, 10:20 Published: 30/01/25, 08:00 Healthy heart, healthy mind Introduction Over the last decade, maintaining good mental health has become an increasing global priority. More people are committing time to self-care meditation, and other cognitive practices. We have also seen a rise in people taking care of their physical health through exercise and clean eating. This is fantastic – people are making time for one of the most important aspects of life, their health! But with the fast-paced nature of modern lifestyles, it is hard to devote separate time each week to purely mental and physical wellbeing. What if there were ways we could enhance both physical and mental wellbeing at the same time? Are both forms of health completely distinct from one another, or could a change in one have an effect on the other? If you’re looking for ways to improve your self-care efficiency, this may be the article for you! Healthy heart, healthy mind Physical health is a lot easier to define, on account of it being largely visible. Mental health on the other hand lacks much of a concrete definition. What is widely agreed is that emotions and feelings play a large part in making up our mental health. Emotions are largely determined by how we feel about our current internal and external environment, meaning bad bodily signs (as part of our internal environment) will have a negative effect on our overall mood. This is why being ill puts us in such a bad mood – even a blocked nose can annoy us by affecting how we do everyday activities. Poor fitness levels are likely no different – not being the most physically capable and finding everyday physical tasks challenging will likely have an effect on your mood and your confidence. Recent studies have backed up this idea, namely that signs of bodily inflammation are associated with increased risk of depression and negative mood. The role of neurotransmitters So being physically fit is associated with having better mental health, but does that mean exercise itself is mentally health as well, or is it just the effect of exercise that makes us happy? In other words, we seem to enjoy the result, but do we enjoy the process too? Studies have found that exercise increases dopamine levels in the brain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger in the brain) that signals reward and motivation, similar to when we earn something for the work we put in ( Figure 1 ). Exercise is therefore seen as rewarding to the brain. There is also a lot of evidence suggesting exercise increases serotonin levels in both rats and humans. Serotonin is also a neurotransmitter, associated with directly enhancing mood and even having anti-depressant effects. Experiments in rats even suggest that increases in serotonin can decrease anxiety levels. Now, this does not mean exercise alone can cure anxiety disorder or depression, but could it be a useful variable in a clinical setting? Clinical uses Studies in depressive patients suggest that, yes, exercise does lead to better mental and physical health in patients with depression. This pairs well with another common finding that depressed patients are very rarely willing to complete difficult tasks for reward. So even on an extreme clinical scale, mental ill-health can have very damning consequences on maintaining good physical health. On the other hand, simple activities such as light jogs or walks may be the key to reversing negative spirals and getting on the right track towards recovery ( Figure 2 ). Conclusion and what we can do So far we have pretty solid evidence that mental health can impact physical health and vice versa, both negatively and positively. Going back to the introductory question, yes! We can find activities that improve both our physical and mental health. The trick is to find exercises that we find enjoyable and rewarding. On the clinical side, this could mean that physical exercise may be as effective at remitting depressive symptoms as antidepressants, likely with a lot fewer side effects. With that said, stay active and have fun, it helps more than you think! Written by Ramim Rahman Related articles: Environmental factors in exercise / Stress and neurodegeneration / Personal training / Mental health awareness REFERENCES Nord, C. (2024) The balanced brain . Cambridge: Penguin Random House. Osimo, E.F. et al. (2020) ‘Inflammatory markers in depression: A meta-analysis of mean differences and variability in 5,166 patients and 5,083 controls’, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, pp. 901–909. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.02.010. Basso, J.C. and Suzuki, W.A. (2017) ‘The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: A Review’, Brain Plasticity , 2(2), pp. 127–152. doi:10.3233/bpl-160040. [figure 1] DiCarlo, G.E. and Wallace, M.T. (2022) ‘Modeling dopamine dysfunction in autism spectrum disorder: From invertebrates to vertebrates’, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 133, p. 104494. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.12.017. [figure 2] Donvito, T. (2020) Cognitive behavioral therapy for arthritis: Does it work? what’s it like?, CreakyJoints. Available at: https://creakyjoints.org/living-with-arthritis/mental-health/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-for-arthritis/ (Accessed: 06 December 2024) Project Gallery

VR in pain management, and mental health treatment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The potential of virtual reality (VR) in healthcare Last updated: 27/03/25, 15:44 Published: 06/03/25, 08:00 VR in pain management, and mental health treatment Introduction The term 'extended reality' (XR) consists of three concepts: augmented reality, mixed reality and virtual reality (VR). The Oxford English Dictionary defines VR as a 'computer-generated simulation of a lifelike environment that a person can interact with in a seemingly real or physical way'. When you think of VR, you might think of headsets, goggles and gaming. However, you might not know that VR can have huge potential in healthcare as a non-pharmacological intervention. Research has shown that active VR, where patients interact and engage more with the virtual environment, becoming immersed, works better than passive VR, where patients just view content. In this article, I will look at the use of VR in two cases: for pain management and mental health treatment. VR for pain management VR-based treatments for pain management work by attention modulation, also known as focus-shifting, providing distraction analgesia (pain relief) by shifting a patient’s focus away from the pain to the virtual environment. To access the VR set-up, patients use a head-mounted display (HMD) and hardware. VR uses technology that stimulates the senses, particularly sight, sound, and touch, reducing the amount of pain a patient feels by changing the pain intensity; it is especially useful when a patient experiences sharp and sudden pain, including pain during labour or post-surgery. Additionally, VR changes how the brain processes pain by affecting the pain-control system, which includes regions like the periaqueductal grey (PAG) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Specifically for chronic pain (persistent pain that lasts for more than three months), VR can help patients develop techniques to manage their pain better over time, such as by improving their physical abilities, like moving their arms or legs more easily and improving their muscular endurance. For example, Merlot et al. (2023) found that for women with endometriosis-related pelvic pain who used Endocare (a VR software designed to reduce pain for those with endometriosis), women reported that it reduced pain intensity, with Endocare's maximum pain reduction being 51.58% compared to 27.37% in the sham control group. VR for mental health treatment VR-based treatments have also proven to be effective in treating mental health conditions, helping patients to manage conditions such as anxiety and depression. This is because they can replicate a negative environment within a controlled and safe VR setting, helping patients manage and confront their triggers. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation has stated that as of 2019, 301 million people were living with an anxiety disorder, and 58 million of them (about 20% of those with anxiety) were children and adolescents. Regarding depression, the statistic was 280 million people, including 23 million (nearly 10% of those with anxiety) children and adolescents. For anxiety, VR-based treatments use exposure treatment, where patients are confronted with the stimuli, but the expected outcome does not occur. Repeating the exposure leads to patients’ anxiety decreasing over time since their perception of the stimuli leading to the feared outcome does not come true. For example, someone with a fear of heights would undergo VR-based exposure treatment where they would be exposed to heights. They would be guided through a learning process, and after multiple exposures, they would think of heights as being safe, leading to less fear of heights overall. For depression, VR-based treatments use behavioural activation so that individuals can reconnect with activities they enjoy. This can help patients develop and learn coping strategies, improving their mood and reducing depressive symptoms. VR-based treatments will be particularly helpful for children and adolescents. The statistics by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation clearly show that a high percentage of those with mental health conditions are young people, and general research has shown that they will be less likely to seek professional help and receive appropriate care. VR could help this group by becoming a more appealing therapy method, especially through gamification, making children and adolescents more motivated and more likely to participate in treatment. This method would provide an immersive environment and could be a personalised form of therapy. Implications for the future It is important to note that there are still limitations stopping a wider roll-out of VR within healthcare. For example, VR can cause cybersickness, the virtual equivalent of motion sickness, resulting in nausea, disorientation, and headaches. In addition, within the use of VR for young people, more research needs to be conducted on whether gamified therapies are safe and effective. Nevertheless, these limitations can be mitigated. Technology is advancing rapidly, and newer hardware have a better field of vision and refresh rates of visual content. The VR environment is also being designed better, accounting for individual patient preferences. With further research, scientists can examine in more detail the factors that make VR-based therapies effective and implement them in a way that addresses ethical concerns and increases their effectiveness. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Clinical scientist computing / Smart bandages / Emojis in healthcare Project Gallery

It's in the diet Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How epigenetic modification gives the queen bee her crown 23/01/25, 11:52 Last updated: Published: 26/11/23, 10:46 It's in the diet Honey bee colonies are comprised of three kinds of adult bees: workers, drones and a single queen. While all drones are male, the queen and the worker bees are female. Within the female population, only the queen bee is fertile and is thus responsible for laying eggs which are fertilised by drones. Additionally, a queen bee is larger than worker bees and produces pheromones to allow the colony to function. However, worker and queen bees are genetically identical, so how is it possible that they are so fundamentally different? ( Figure 1 ) The answer lies in epigenetic modification , defined as the alteration in gene function without a change in the DNA sequence. Types of epigenetic regulation include histone modification, DNA methylation and action of noncoding RNA. The honey bee Apis mellifera is amongst the many species that can produce different characteristics of organisms using the same genome. The mechanism by which honey bees do this derives from epigenetic modification resulting from the difference in diet during larval development. All larvae feed on royal jelly during the first three days of their development ( Figure 2 ). However, worker larvae will then feed on a diet of honey and pollen, which constitutes worker jelly. In comparison, the queen larva maintains a diet of royal jelly; this is a complex mixture produced by nurse bees and contains water, crude protein, monosaccharides, and fatty acids. Subsequently, the difference in dietary intake provides information to facilitate the correct epigenome which in turn allows correct transcription. Thus, key studies have taken place to investigate the effect of epigenetic marks on the development of bees. DNA methyltransferase DNMT3 is responsible for the methylation of DNA and is a repressive mark; a study found that the silencing of DNMT3 resulted in worker larvae developing into queens that had developed ovaries. Consequently, this shows that royal jelly gives information to larvae destined to be queens that can be interpreted to apply the correct epigenome. Additionally, certain histone deacetylase inhibitors have been observed in royal jelly including the compound 10 HDA and phenylbutyrate. Histone acetylation within regions of the genome results in chromatin opening; acetylation is associated with active regions. HDACi activity will inhibit the removal of such acetylation and maintain open regions of DNA. However, note that worker bees are not just a repressed version of queen bees, as they have overexpressed genes of their own to facilitate their specific behaviours. On examination of the methylome (see Figure 3 ), different genes were identified as being hypo- or hyper- methylated within worker vs queen bees. See the table below for a detailed analysis of worker and queen bees on days 3-5 of development. How exactly the specificity of epigenetic modifications is accomplished is not completely realised. To exemplify this, DNMTs do not have specificity, and thus, there must be an interplay between chromatin modifiers and cellular components to accomplish the correct recruitment of enzymes involved in epigenetic modification. However, it is clear that the epigenomes of workers vs queen bees are decidedly different and thus are the cause of different physiological and behavioural characteristics. Written by Isobel Cunningham Related articles: An introduction to epigenetics / Famine-induced epigenetic changes Project Gallery

Exploring neuroplasticity after brain injury Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can we really ‘rewire’ our brain? Last updated: 06/05/26, 20:11 Published: 07/05/26, 07:00 Exploring neuroplasticity after brain injury Can the brain really rebuild what has been lost after a brain injury? This idea derives from neuroplasticity – the nervous system’s capacity to change and adapt, reorganising its connections and overall structure as a result of an experience. In other words, the brain strengthens, weakens, and forms new neural connections over time. In psychology, neuroplasticity is crucial for understanding learning, as repeated behaviours and thoughts can strengthen neural pathways, resulting in increased automatic responses. Neuroplasticity plays a large role in recovery following a brain injury. Joy & Carmichael (2020) found that after a stroke, the brain becomes temporarily plastic, during which new axons and synapses may form, functions can be reassigned to undamaged brain regions, and the brain becomes flexible to training, allowing for recovery. A key takeaway is that after a stroke, the brain not only repairs itself but also enters a temporary state of reorganisation and recovery. Repeated practice during rehabilitation supports the formation of new pathways, helping lost skills to be regained. This is a core psychological principle: learning requires repetition, and without it, new neural pathways will not be produced or maintained. This reorganisation is driven by cellular processes that modify neural connections. Specialised immune cells, known as microglia, reshape connections between neurons and assist in incorporating new cells into preexisting networks, as demonstrated by Sandvig et al. (2018). This emphasises that recovery is not solely biological but also behavioural, as the way one interacts with their environment influences the way the brain reorganises itself. For example, when an individual performs a behaviour, such as moving their leg in rehab, neural pathways for that certain behaviour are activated frequently. Here, microglia respond to this activity by strengthening frequently used connections and removing unused ones, a process known as “use it or lose it”, in relation to neural pathways. So, can we really ‘rewire’ our brains? Yes, but to an extent! Neuroplasticity illustrates that the brain is capable of change, through reinforced behaviour and experience, though it should be noted that this process rarely results in complete normalcy. From a psychological perspective, neuroplasticity highlights that recovery is about how behaviour, experience, and learning intertwine to allow the brain’s ability to adapt. Written by Shreya Dhaliwal Related articles: Brain injury / Synaptic plasticity REFERENCES Cleveland Clinic. (2023, December 13). Brainwork: The Power of Neuroplasticity . https://health.clevelandclinic.org/neuroplasticity . Joy , M. T., & Carmichael, S. T. (2020). Encouraging an excitable brain state: mechanisms of brain repair in stroke. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 22 (1), 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-020-00396-7 . Kreber, L. (2025). Neuroplasticity . Centre for Neuro Skills. https://www.neuroskills.com/neuroplasticity/ . Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066 . Sandvig, I., Augestad, I. L., Håberg, A. K., & Sandvig, A. (2018). Neuroplasticity in stroke recovery. The role of microglia in engaging and modifying synapses and networks. European Journal of Neuroscience, 47 (12), 1414–1428. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.13959 Project Gallery

The future of precision healthcare: nanocarriers Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nanomedicine and targeted drug delivery Last updated: 17/07/25, 10:53 Published: 17/07/25, 07:00 The future of precision healthcare: nanocarriers In recent years, nanomedicine - the application of nanotechnology in healthcare - has emerged as a powerful and versatile area of research and is rapidly developing with many promising opportunities in the medical sciences. Nanocarriers are being developed for pharmaceuticals for example, with uses in cancer treatment and in particular targeted drug delivery. In nanomedicine, the materials are engineered at the nanoscale, with sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 nm, and can be used to perform specific biomedical tasks. These nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, are often made from crosslinked polymer chains and can encapsulate therapeutic molecules for delivery within the body. Their small sizes give them unique properties, as they can interact with cells at a molecular level, and be designed to respond at specific times and locations, which can be directed to specific tissues or environments. Since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, nanoparticle-based drug delivery platforms have been widely studied - lipid nanoparticles were used in the vaccine to combat the virus. Being highly successful, and looking ahead, research and development in nanomedicine-based drug delivery is expected to keep growing, as the interest in more precise and effective treatments continues to rise. How can nanoparticles be used for drug delivery? A significant challenge in conventional drug therapies lies in their limited solubility, which can reduce the effectiveness of a drug and cause harmful side effects. Nanoparticles offer a solution to this: they can encapsulate poorly soluble drugs, protecting them from degradation in the body, and this allows them to be carried safely to the targeted tissues. This localised delivery improves the drugs’ biodistribution, and reduces systemic toxicity, which is a common concern in treatments such as chemotherapy, where healthy tissues in the body are damaged. Nanoparticles in particular are exciting as they have tuneable surface properties and a high surface to area volume ratio. This means their physical and chemical behaviours can be adjusted - for example through changing their sizes, shapes, or surface chemistries - to match a specific medical application or target. In addition to this, nanoparticles undergo the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect; a phenomenon where they naturally accumulate in tumour tissues due to the leaky nature of tumour blood vessels. This effect improves the targeting precision, and drugs can be delivered more efficiently to cancer cells, while sparing healthy ones one, avoiding unnecessary damage and side effects to the patient. While drug delivery is a major focus, nanomedicine research also plays a role in diagnostics. Nanoparticles can be engineered to function as contrast agents in medical imaging, helping doctors detect diseases earlier and monitor treatments more accurately. There is also a growing interest in using nanomaterials for tissue regeneration, by creating scaffolds that support the repair and regrowth of damaged tissues. As research continues, nanomedicine holds promise for tacking some of the most pressing challenges in modern healthcare - from treating cancer more safely to developing new vaccines and personalised therapies. Though there are some hurdles, particularly around large-scale manufacturing and regularly approval, the path ahead for nanomedicine has huge potential. As the field of nanomedicine continues to grow, it shows great promise in reshaping healthcare with treatments that are smarter, safer, and more effective - ultimately improving patient outcomes and transforming the way we fight disease. Written by Saanchi Agarwal Related articles: Nanomedicine / Nanoparticles and diabetes treatment / Nanoparticles and health / Nanogels Project Gallery

Raymond et. al (1992), Shapiro (1994), and other studies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An exploration of the attentional blink in rapid serial visual presentation studies Last updated: 24/06/25, 14:01 Published: 03/07/25, 07:00 Raymond et. al (1992), Shapiro (1994), and other studies Attention is a cognitive mechanism that helps us select and process vital information while ignoring irrelevant information, enabling us to consolidate our memories. Attentional blink typically refers to the finding of a severe impairment for detection or identification of the second target (T2) of the two masked visual targets that occurs when the targets are presented within less than 500 milliseconds of each other. In this context, T1 refers to the first target, which captures attention and temporarily limits the ability to detect or identify T2 if they are presented too closely in time. Raymond et al. (1992) suggested that the attentional blink phenomenon is observed in rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) conditions in which stimuli such as letters, digits or pictures are presented in a rapid sequence mostly at a single location. Typically, the target from the RSVP stimulus stream is differentiated (e.g. presented in a different colour), and the participant’s task is to identify the target. The RSVP procedure is a widely employed paradigm used to examine the temporal characteristics of perceptual and attentional processes. Shapiro (1994) proposed the interference theory as an explanation for attentional blink. According to the interference theory, there is a temporal buffer if many distractors are present. Due to the limitations of visual short-term memory, multiple items compete to be retrieved from this hypothetical temporal buffer, which can affect recall accuracy. As a result, attentional blink occurs due to competition over which target, T1 or T2, receives attentional processing. Supporting evidence comes from Isaak (1999), who presented combinations of letter and false-font stimuli per trial, and claimed that attentional blink magnitude increases if the competitors arise from the same conceptual category, for example, digits. Alternatively, Chun and Potter (1995) introduced their two-stage model to account for attentional blink. The aim of their research was to investigate whether attentional blink occurs in a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) task. Their hypothesis stated that participants’ ability to detect T2 would be reduced if it appeared approximately 300 milliseconds after T1. They also sought to examine whether attentional blink reflects a limited-capacity processing mechanism. The model suggests that stage 1 is where stimuli are processed and features and meanings are registered, but not at a sufficient level for report. In stage 2, the stimulus is consolidated for a response. The researchers reported that attentional blink occurs at stage 2, where identification and consolidation of T1 are slowed when there is a following item, delaying the processing of T2 after the onset of T1. Discussion Many RSVP studies hypothesise that presenting T2 300-700 milliseconds after T1, with multiple distractor items, increases the likelihood of attentional blink and impairs the ability to detect T2. This outcome aligns with Shapiro et al.’s (1999) interference theory, as participants faced significant difficulty retrieving stimuli from the temporal buffer during the dual task. However, participants demonstrated a higher success rate in identifying the target during the single task, even with rapid stimulus presentation. Additional support for the interference theory is provided by Raffone et al. (2014), who argued that T2 must be masked by a distractor, and if T1 appears within 500 milliseconds of T2, T2 often goes undetected, leading to attentional blink. The unified model further suggests that in RSVP tasks, attention allocation to T1 reduces the attention available for T2, leaving T2 susceptible to decay or substitution. This implies that attentional blink may result from T1 monopolising attentional resources and thus limiting the capacity to process T2, which explains the poorer performance observed in the dual task. Conclusions Despite their insights, both theories of attentional blink have notable shortcomings. There is contradicting evidence for the interference theory from Olivers and Meeter (2008), who believe that once attentional blink is induced by a first target, it can be alleviated if T2 is preceded by a non-target that shares a target-defining feature, such as having the same colour. Whereas, Reeves and Sperling (1986) postulate that an attentional gate is opened after T1 is detected and continues to remain open until target identification is complete. This can amplify the processing of the stimuli, enabling the identification of T1 and aiding T2 in receiving attentional processes and being identified accurately. A main limitation of the two-stage model for attentional blink studies is its difficulty in explaining the full spectrum of attentional blink effects, particularly the T1-sparing’ phenomenon and the impact of task demands on T2 processing. For instance, the two-stage model often assumes that T2 processing is solely impaired due to the attentional load of T1, but research suggests that the difficulty of the T2 task itself can influence the attentional blink. For example, if T2 requires a more complex or demanding response, the attentional blink effect may be more pronounced, even if T1 processing is relatively simple. Future research should investigate if attentional blink exists within other modalities, such as cross-modal perception (visual T1, auditory T2). This will enable us to get a deeper insight into how the attention mechanisms operate. Future research should also explore alternative explanations for the attentional blink. Some studies suggest it may not be solely attributable to resource limitations or processing bottlenecks but could instead reflect a more dynamic process involving attentional re-engagement or the interaction between perceptual and attentional systems. Written by Pranavi Rastogi REFERENCES Chun, M. M., & Potter, M. C. (1995). A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21 (1), 109-127. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.109 Isaak, M. I., Shapiro, K. L., & Martin, J. (1999). The attentional blink reflects retrieval competition among multiple rapid serial visual presentation items: Tests of an interference model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25 (6), 1774-1792. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.25.6.1774 Olivers, C. N., & Meeter, M. (2008). A boost and bounce theory of temporal attention. Psychological Review, 115 (4), 836-863. doi:10.1037/a0013395 Raffone, A., Srinivasan, N., & Van Leeuwen, C. (2014). The interplay of attention and consciousness in visual search, attentional blink and working memory consolidation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369 (1641), 20130215. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0215 Reeves, A., & Sperling, G. (1986). Attention gating in short-term visual memory. Psychological Review, 93 (2), 180-206. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.180 Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L., & Arnell, K. M. (1992). Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18 (3), 849-860. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.18.3.849 Shapiro, K. L., Raymond, J. E., & Arnell, K. M. (1994). Attention to visual pattern information produces the attentional blink in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,20 (2), 357-371. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.20.2.357 Project Gallery