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A Scientia News Biology and Genetics collaboration Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Germline gene therapy (GGT): its potential and problems 09/07/25, 14:14 Last updated: Published: 21/01/24, 11:47 A Scientia News Biology and Genetics collaboration Introduction Genetic diseases arise when there are alterations or mutations to genes or genomes. In most acquired cases, mutations occur in somatic cells. However, when these mutations happen in germline cells (i.e. sperm and egg cells), they are incorporated into the genome of every cell. In other words, should this mutation be deleterious, all cells will have this issue. Furthermore, this mutation becomes inheritable. This is partly why most genetic diseases are complicated to treat and cure. Gene therapy is a concept that has been circulating among geneticists for some time. Indeed, addressing a disease directly from the genes that caused or promoted it has been an attractive and appealing avenue of therapies. The first successful attempt at gene therapy dates back to 1990, using retrovirus-derived vectors to transduce the T-lymphocytes of a 4-year-old girl with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID-X1) with enzyme adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. The trial was a great success, eliminating the girl's disease and marking a great milestone in the history of genetics. Furthermore, the success of viral vectors also opened new avenues to gene editing, such as zinc finger nucleases and the very prominent CRISPR-Cas9. For example, in mid-November 2023, the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency or MHRA approved the CRISPR-based gene therapy, Casgevy, for sickle cell disease and β-thalassemia. It is clear that the advent of gene therapies significantly shaped the treatment landscape and our approach to genetic disorders. However, for most of gene therapy history, it is done almost exclusively on somatic cells or some stem cells, not germline cells. How it works As mentioned, inherited genetic disease-associated mutations are also present in germline cells or gametes. The current approach to gene therapy targets genes of some or very specific somatic or multipotent stem cells. For example, in the 1990 trial, the ADA-deficient SCID-X1 T-lymphocytes were targeted, and in recently approved Casgevy, the BCL11A erythroid-specific enhancer in hematopoietic stem cells. The methods involved in gene therapies also vary, each with advantages and limitations and carrying some therapeutic risks. Nevertheless, when aiming to treat genetic diseases, gene therapy should answer two things: how to do it and where. There are a few elucidated strategies of gene therapies. Unlike some popular beliefs, gene therapies do not always directly change or edit mutated genes. Instead, some gene therapies target enhancers or regulatory regions that control the expression of mutated genes. In other cases, such as in Casgevy, enhancers of a different subtype are targeted. By targeting or reducing BCL11A expression, Casgevy aims to induce the production of foetal haemoglobin (HbF), which contains the γ-globin chain as opposed to the defective β-chain in the adult haemoglobin (HbA) of sickle cell disease or β-thalassemia. Some gene therapies can also be done ex vivo or in vivo . Ex vivo strategies involve extracting cells from the body and modifying them in the lab, whilst in vivo strategies directly modify the cell without extraction (e.g. using viral/ non-viral vectors to insert genes). In essence, the list of strategies for gene therapies is growing, each with limitations and a promising prospect of tackling genetic diseases. These methods aim to “cure” genetic diseases in patients. However, the strategies mentioned above have all been researched using and, perhaps, made therapeutically for somatic or multipotent stem cells. Germline gene therapy (GGT), involves directly editing the genetic materials of germline cells or the egg and sperm cells before fertilisation. This means if it is done successfully, fertilisation of these cells will eliminate the disease phenotype from all cells of the offspring instead of only effector cells. Potentially, GGT may eradicate a genetic disease for all future generations. Therefore, it is an appealing alternative to human embryo editing, as it achieves similar or the same result without the need to modify an embryo. However, due to its nature, its advantage may also be its limitation. Ethical issues GGT has the potential to cure genetic disorders within families. However, because it involves editing either the egg or sperm cells before fertilisation, there are prominent ethical issues associated with this method, like the use of embryos for research and many more. Firstly, GGT gives no room for error. Mistakes during the gene modification process could cause systemic side effects or a harsher disease than the one initially targeted, leading to a multigenerational effect. For example, if parents went to a clinic to check if one/both their germ cells have a gene coding for proteins implicated in cystic fibrosis, an off-target mistake during GGT may lead to their child developing Prader-Willi Syndrome or other hereditary disorders caused by editing out significant genes for development. Secondly, an ecological perspective asserts that the current human gene pool, an outcome of many generations of natural selection, could be weakened by germline gene editing. Also, there is the religious perspective, where editing embryos goes against the natural order of how god created living creatures as they should be, where their natural phenotypes are “assigned” for when they are alive. Another reason GGT may be unethical is it leads to eugenics or creating “designer babies”. These are controversial ideas dating back to the late 19th century, where certain traits are “better” than others. This implies they should appear in human populations while individuals without them should be sterilised/killed off. For instance, it is inconceivable to forget the Nazi Aktion T4 program, which sought to murder disabled people because they were seen as “less suitable” for society. Legal and social issues Eugenics is notorious today because of its history. Genetic counselling may be seen like this as one possible outcome may be parents who end pregnancies if their child inherits a genetic disease. Moreover, understanding GGT’s societal influences is crucial, so clinical trial designs must consider privacy, self-ownership, informed consent and social justice. In China, the public’s emotional response to GGT in 2018 was mainly neutral, as shown in Figure 1, but some of the common “hot words” when discussed were ‘mankind’, ‘ethics’, and ‘law’. With this said, regulations are required with other nations for a wider social consensus on GGT research. In other countries, there are stricter rules for GGT. it is harder to conduct experiments using purposely formed/altered human embryos with inheritable mutations in the United States because the legal outcomes can include prison time and $100,000 fines. Furthermore, when donors are required, they must be fairly compensated, and discussing methodologies is crucial because there are issues on how they can impact men and women. South Africa has two opposing thoughts on GGT or gene editing. Bioconservatism has worries about genetic modification and asserts its restrictions, while bioliberalism is receptive to this technology because of the possible benefits. Likewise, revisions to the current regulations are suggested, such as rethinking GGT research or a benefit-risk analysis for the forthcoming human. Conclusion Overall, gene therapies have transformed the therapeutic landscape for genetic diseases. GGT is nevertheless a unique approach that promises to completely cure a genetic disease for families without the need to edit human embryos. However, GGT’s prospects may do more harm than good because its therapeutic effects are translated systemically and multigenerationally. On top of that, controversial ideas such as designer babies can arise if GGT is pushed too far. Additionally, certain countries have varying regulations due to cultural attitudes towards particular scientific innovations and the beginning of life. Reflecting on the ethical, legal and social issues, GGT is still contentious and probably would not be a prominent treatment option anytime soon for genetic diseases. Written by Sam Jarada and Stephanus Steven Introduction, and How it works by Stephanus Ethical issues, and Legal and social issues by Sam Conclusion by Sam and Stephanus Related article: Monkey see, monkey clone References: Cavazzana-Calvo, M. et al. (2000) ‘Gene therapy of human severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)-X1 disease’, Science , 288(5466), pp. 669–672. doi:10.1126/science.288.5466.669. Demarest, T.G. and Biferi, M.G. (2022) ‘Translation of gene therapy strategies for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis’, Trends in Molecular Medicine , 28(9), pp. 795–796. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2022.07.001. Frangoul, H. et al. (2021) ‘CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing for sickle cell disease and β-thalassemia’, New England Journal of Medicine , 384(3), pp. 252–260. doi:10.1056/nejmoa2031054. AGAR, N. (2018). Why We Should Defend Gene Editing as Eugenics. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 28(1), pp.9–19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0963180118000336 . de Miguel Beriain, I., Payán Ellacuria, E. and Sanz, B. (2023). Germline Gene Editing: The Gender Issues. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 32(2), pp.1–7. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0963180122000639 . Genome.gov . (2021). Eugenics: Its Origin and Development (1883 - Present). [online] Available at: https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/educational-resources/timelines/eugenics#:~:text=Discussions%20of%20eugenics%20began%20in . Johnston, J. (2020). Budgets versus Bans: How U.S. Law Restricts Germline Gene Editing. Hastings Center Report, 50(2), pp.4–5. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/hast.1094 . Kozaric, A., Mehinovic, L., Stomornjak-Vukadin, M., Kurtovic-Basic, I., Catibusic, F., Kozaric, M., Mesihovic-Dinarevic, S., Hasanhodzic, M. and Glamuzina, D. (2016). Diagnostics of common microdeletion syndromes using fluorescence in situ hybridization: single center experience in a developing country. Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, [online] 16(2). doi: https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2016.994 . Luque Bernal, R.M. and Buitrago BejaranoR.J. (2018). Assessoria genética: uma prática que estimula a eugenia? Revista Ciencias de la Salud, 16(1), p.10. doi: https://doi.org/10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/revsalud/a.6475 . Nielsen, T.O. (1997). Human Germline Gene Therapy. McGill Journal of Medicine, 3(2). doi: https://doi.org/10.26443/mjm.v3i2.546 . Niemiec, E. and Howard, H.C. (2020). Germline Genome Editing Research: What Are Gamete Donors (Not) Informed About in Consent Forms? The CRISPR Journal, 3(1), pp.52–63. doi: https://doi.org/10.1089/crispr.2019.0043 . Peng, Y., Lv, J., Ding, L., Gong, X. and Zhou, Q. (2022). Responsible governance of human germline genome editing in China. Biology of Reproduction, 107(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioac114 . Shozi, B. (2020). A critical review of the ethical and legal issues in human germline gene editing: Considering human rights and a call for an African perspective. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 13(1), p.62. doi: https://doi.org/10.7196/sajbl.2020.v13i1.00709 . Thaldar, D., Botes, M., Shozi, B., Townsend, B. and Kinderlerer, J. (2020). Human germline editing: Legal-ethical guidelines for South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 116(9/10). doi: https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2020/6760 . Zhang, D. and Lie, R.K. (2018). Ethical issues in human germline gene editing: a perspective from China. Monash Bioethics Review, 36(1-4), pp.23–35. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40592-018-0091-0 . Project Gallery

Peering into the mind Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Neuroimaging and spatial resolution 10/07/25, 10:24 Last updated: Published: 04/11/24, 14:35 Peering into the mind Introduction Neuroimaging has been at the forefront of brain discovery ever since the first ever images of the brain were recorded in 1919 by Walter Dandy, using a technique called pneumoencephalography (PET). Fast-forward over a decade and neuroimaging is more than just blurry singular images. Modern techniques allow us to observe real time changes in brain activity with millisecond resolution, leading to breakthroughs in scientific discovery that would not be possible without it. Memory is a great example - with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques we have been able to demonstrate that more recent long-term memories are stored and retrieved with brain activity in the hippocampus, but as memories become more in the distant past, they are transferred to the medial temporal lobe. While neuroimaging techniques keep the doors open for new and exciting discoveries, spatial limitations leave many questions unanswered, especially at a cellular and circuit level. For example - within the hippocampus, is each memory encoded via complete distinct neural circuits? Or do similar memories share similar neural pathways? Within just a millimetre cubed of brain tissue we could have up to 57,000 cells (most of them neurons), all of which may have different properties, be part of different circuits, and produce different outcomes. This almost makes revolutionary techniques such as fMRI, with almost unparalleled image quality, seem pointless. To truly understand how neural circuits work, we have to dig as deep as possible to record the smallest regions possible. So that begs the question, how small can we actually record in the human brain? EEG 2024 marks a decade since the first recorded electroencephalography (also known as EEG) scan by Hans Berger in Germany. This technique involves placing electrodes all around the scalp to record activity throughout the whole outer surface of the brain ( Figure 1 ). Unlike the methods we see later on, EEG scans provide a direct measure of activity in the brain, by measuring electrical activity when the brain is active. However, because electrodes are only placed across the scalp, EEG scans are only able to pick up activity from the outer cortex, missing important activity in deeper parts of the brain. In our memory example, this means it would completely miss any activity in the hippocampus. EEG resolution is also quite underwhelming, typically being able to resolve activity with a few centimetres’ resolution - not great for mapping behaviours to specific structures in the brain. EEG scans are used in a medical environment to measure overall activity levels, assisting with epilepsy diagnosis. Let's look at what we can use to dig deeper into the brain and locate signals of activity… PET Position emission tomography (PET) scans offer a chance to record activity throughout the whole brain by ingesting a radioactive tracer, typically glucose labelled with a mildly radioactive substance. This tracer is tracked and uptake in specific parts of the brain is a sign for greater metabolic activity, indicating a higher signalling rate. PET scans already offer a resolution far beyond the capacities of EEG scans, distinguishing activity between areas with a resolution of up to 4mm. With the use of different radioactive labels, we can also detect activity of specific populations of neurons such as dopamine neurons to diagnose Parkinson's disease. In fact, many studies have reliably demonstrated the ability of PET scans to detect the root cause of Parkinson's disease, which is a reduced number of dopamine neurons in the basal ganglia, before symptoms become too extreme. As impressive as it sounds, a 4mm resolution can locate activity in large areas of the cortex, but is limited in its resolving power for discrete cortical layers. Take the human motor cortex for example - all 6 layers have an average width of only 2.79mm. A PET scan would not be powerful enough to determine which layer is most active, so we need to dig a little deeper… fMRI Since its inception in the early 90's, fMRI has gained the reputation of becoming the gold standard for human neuroimaging, thanks to its non-invasiveness, lack of artefacts, and reliable signalling. fMRI uses Nuclear Magnetic Resonance to measure changes in oxygenated blood flow, which is correlative of neural activity, known as BOLD signals. In comparison to EEG, measuring blood oxygen levels cannot reach a highly impressive temporal resolution, and is also not a direct measure of neural activity. fMRI makes up for this with its superior spatial resolution, resolving spaces as small as 1mm apart. Using our human motor cortex example, this would allow us to resolve activity between every 2-3 layers - not a bad return considering it doesn’t even leave a scar. PET, and especially EEG, pales in comparison to the capabilities of fMRI that has since been used for a wide range of neuroimaging research. Most notably, structural MRI has been used to support the idea of hippocampal involvement during spatial navigation from memory tasks ( Figure 2 ). Its resolving power and highly precise images also make it suitable to be used for mapping surgical procedures. Conclusion With a resolution of up to 1mm, fMRI takes the crown as the human neuroimaging technique with the best spatial resolution! Table 1 shows a brief summary of each neuroimaging method. Unfortunately though, there is still so much more we need to do to look at individual circuits and connections. As mentioned before, even within a millimetre cubed of brain, we have 5 figures worth of cells, making the number of neurons that make up the whole brain impossible to comprehend. To observe the activity of a single neuron, we would need an imaging technique with the power of viewing cells in the 10’s of micrometre range. So what can we do to get to the resolution we desire while still being suitable for humans? Maybe there isn't a solution. Instead, maybe if we want to record singular neuron activity, we have to take inspiration from invasive animal techniques such as microelectrode recordings. Typically used in rats and mice, these can achieve single-cell resolution to look at neuroscience from the smallest of components. It would be unethical to stick an electrode into a healthy human's brain and record activity, but perhaps in the future a non-invasive form of electrode recording could be developed? The current neuroscience field is foggy and shrouded in mystery. Most of these mysteries simply cannot be solved with the current research techniques we have at our disposal. But this is what makes neuroscience exciting - there is still so much to explore! Who knows when we will be able to map behaviours to neural circuits with single-cell precision, but with how quickly imaging techniques are being enhanced and fine-tuned, I wouldn't be surprised if it's sooner than we think. Written by Ramim Rahman Related articles: Neuromyelitis optica / Traumatic brain injuries REFERENCES Hoeffner, E.G. et al. (2011) ‘Neuroradiology back to the future: Brain Imaging’, American Journal of Neuroradiology, 33(1), pp. 5–11. doi:10.3174/ajnr.a2936. Maguire, E.A. and Frith, C.D. (2003) ‘Lateral asymmetry in the hippocampal response to the remoteness of autobiographical memories’, The Journal of Neuroscience, 23(12), pp. 5302–5307. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-12-05302.2003. Wong, C. (2024) ‘Cubic millimetre of brain mapped in spectacular detail’, Nature, 629(8013), pp. 739–740. doi:10.1038/d41586-024-01387-9. Butman, J. A., & Floeter, M. K. (2007). Decreased thickness of primary motor cortex in primary lateral sclerosis. AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology, 28(1), 87–91. Loane, C., & Politis, M. (2011). Positron emission tomography neuroimaging in Parkinson's disease. American journal of translational research, 3(4), 323–341. Maguire, E.A. et al. (2000) ‘Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8), pp. 4398–4403. doi:10.1073/pnas.070039597. [Figure 1] EEG (electroencephalogram) (2024) Mayo Clinic . Available at: https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/about/pac-20393875 (Accessed: 18 October 2024). [Figure 2] Boccia, M. et al. (2016) ‘Direct and indirect parieto-medial temporal pathways for spatial navigation in humans: Evidence from resting-state functional connectivity’, Brain Structure and Function, 222(4), pp. 1945–1957. doi:10.1007/s00429-016-1318-6. Project Gallery

Exploring the microscopic world of molecules Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Quantum Chemistry Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:29 Published: 06/02/25, 08:00 Exploring the microscopic world of molecules Quantum chemistry provides a glimpse into the strange and fascinating world of molecules and atoms, where the principles of traditional chemistry and physics no longer apply. While classical chemistry can explain molecular interactions and bonding, it cannot fully account for particles' unusual, frequently contradictory behaviour at the atomic and subatomic levels. Quantum mechanics provides scientists with a powerful framework for understanding the complicated behaviour of electrons and nuclei in molecules. The basics of quantum chemistry The notion of wave-particle duality, which states that particles, such as electrons, act not just like objects with mass but also like waves, is central to quantum chemistry. Because the exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be known at the same time (according to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle), probability distributions are used to describe electrons rather than accurate orbits. These distributions are represented by mathematical functions known as wave functions, which describe the probability of finding an electron in a specific location surrounding the nucleus. This fundamentally affects our understanding of chemical bonding. Instead of conceiving a bond as a solid connection between two atoms, quantum chemistry defines it as the overlap of electron wave functions, which can result in a variety of molecular topologies depending on their energy levels. Quantum mechanics and bonding theories Quantum mechanics has fundamentally altered our knowledge of chemical bonding. The classic Lewis structure model, which explains bonding as the sharing or transfer of electrons, is effective for simple molecules but fails to convey the complexities of real-world interactions. In contrast, quantum chemistry introduces the concept of molecular orbitals. In molecular orbital theory, electrons are not limited to individual atoms but can spread across a molecule in molecular orbitals, which are combinations of atomic orbitals from the participating atoms. These molecular orbitals provide a more detailed explanation for bonding, especially in compounds that do not match simple bonding models, such as delocalised systems like benzene or metals. For example, quantum chemistry explains why oxygen is paramagnetic (it possesses unpaired electrons), a characteristic that classical bonding theories cannot explain. Quantum chemistry and quantum computing One of the most interesting frontiers in quantum chemistry is its application to the development of quantum computers. Traditional computers, despite their enormous processing power, struggle to model the complicated behaviour of molecules, particularly large ones. This is because simulating molecules at the quantum level necessitates tracking all conceivable interactions between electrons and nuclei, which can quickly become computationally challenging. Quantum computers use fundamentally different ideas. They employ qubits, which, unlike classical bits, can exist in a state of both 0 and 1. This enables quantum computers to execute several calculations concurrently and manage the complexity of molecular systems considerably more effectively. This could lead to advancements in quantum chemistry, such as drug discovery, where precisely modelling molecular interactions is critical. Instead of depending on trial and error, scientists may utilise quantum computers to model how possible pharmaceuticals interact with biological molecules at the atomic level, thereby speeding up the creation of novel therapies. Similarly, quantum chemistry could help in the development of novel materials with desirable qualities, such as stronger alloys and more efficient energy storage devices. Why quantum chemistry matters The consequences of quantum chemistry go well beyond the lab. Understanding molecular behaviour at its most fundamental level allows us to create new technologies and materials that have an impact on everyday life. Nanotechnology, for example, relies largely on quantum principles to generate innovative materials with applications in medicine, electronics, and clean energy. Catalysis, the technique of speeding up reactions, also benefits from quantum chemistry insights, making industrial operations more efficient, such as cleaner fuel generation and more effective environmental remediation. Furthermore, quantum chemistry provides insights into biological processes. Enzymes, the proteins that catalyse processes in living organisms, work with a precision that frequently defies standard chemistry. Tunnelling, quantum phenomena in which particles slip past energy barriers, helps to explain these extraordinarily efficient biological processes. In brief, quantum chemistry provides the fundamental understanding required to push the limits of chemistry and physics by exposing how molecules interact and react in ways that traditional theories cannot fully explain. Quantum chemistry has the potential to radically alter our understanding of the microscopic world, whether through theoretical models, practical applications, or future technology advancements. Written by Laura K Related articles: Quantum computing / Topology Project Gallery

Neuromyelitis optica is also known as Devic disease Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Neuromyelitis optica – how is it different to multiple sclerosis? 10/07/25, 10:25 Last updated: Published: 13/07/24, 10:56 Neuromyelitis optica is also known as Devic disease This is article no. 6 in a series on Rare Diseases. Next article: Apocrine carcinoma . Previous article: Unfolding prion diseases . If you have never heard of neuromyelitis optica (NMO), you’re not alone! NMO is a rare disease affecting the spinal cord and optic nerve. A disease is determined as rare when it affects less than 1 in 2000 people. NMO, Devic’s disease in layman’s term, is an autoimmune disease, which means the immune system fails and attacks healthy self-cells, and can be one-off or recurrent. When patients experience a NMO attack, symptoms like eye pain and weakness in limbs, caused by inflammation of the spinal cord (transverse myelitis) and optic nerve (optic myelitis), commonly occur. There is a much higher prevalence of females with NMO than males. The exact reasons are still being researched, but some suggest it could be due to hormonal, genetic, and epigenetic factors, including the gut microbiome. Currently, there is no cure to this sudden and perplexing disease, yet medication to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation are prescribed to patients. So the question arises – what causes NMO? In short, we don’t know yet. However, we do understand that 90% of NMO cases are caused by NMO-specific antibodies against Aquaporin4 (AQP4), an intrinsic membranes protein highly concentrated in the spinal cord and the brain, specifically in astrocytes and ependymal cells lining in the ventricles. AQP4 are water-selective channels in many plasma membranes and are responsible for maintaining brain-water homeostasis. Did you know NMO is often mistaken as Multiple Sclerosis (MS)? MS is also an autoimmune system and has similar symptoms as NMO, such as vision and mobility difficulties. However, there are important differences between the two. NMO specifically targets the optic nerves and spinal cord, leading to more severe attacks that can cause blindness and paralysis if not treated promptly. On the other hand, MS affects the brain and spinal cord more diffusely. Diagnosis and treatment for NMO and MS can be quite different, making it crucial to correctly distinguish between the two conditions. Advanced techniques like MRI scans, blood tests for specific antibodies (like AQP4-IgG for NMO), and careful clinical evaluation help doctors make the right diagnosis and provide appropriate treatment. Understanding these distinctions is vital for effective management and improving the quality of life for those affected by these diseases. Written by Chloe Kam Related article: Neuroimaging REFERENCES Hor, J.Y., Asgari, N., Nakashima, I., Broadley, S.A., Leite, M.I., Kissani, N., Jacob, A., Marignier, R., Weinshenker, B.G., Paul, F., Pittock, S.J., Palace, J., Wingerchuk, D.M., Behne, J.M., Yeaman, M.R. and Fujihara, K. (2020). Epidemiology of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder and Its Prevalence and Incidence Worldwide. Frontiers in Neurology , 11. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00501 . Kim, S.-M., Kim, S.-J., Lee, H.J., Kuroda, H., Palace, J. and Fujihara, K. (2017). Differential diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders , 10(7), pp.265–289. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1756285617709723 . Mader, S. and Brimberg, L. (2019). Aquaporin-4 Water Channel in the Brain and Its Implication for Health and Disease. Cells , 8(2), p.90. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8020090 . Project Gallery

The potential of MSCs to treat diseases like rheumatoid arthritis Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The role of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in regenerative medicine 23/10/25, 10:18 Last updated: Published: 28/11/24, 15:16 The potential of MSCs to treat diseases like rheumatoid arthritis This is article no. 2 in a three-part series on stem cells. Next article: Regulation and policy of stem cell research . Previous article: An introduction to stem cells . Welcome to the second article in a series of three articles about stem cells. I will explore mesenchymal stem cells and their role in regenerative medicine in this article. Additionally, I will consider the potential of mesenchymal stem cells in treating three different diseases: multiple sclerosis (MS), rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Consider reading Article 1 for more information on mesenchymal stem cells! Multiple sclerosis (MS) Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease affecting the brain and spinal cord. It can cause symptoms such as muscle stiffness and spasms, problems with balance and coordination, vision problems and more. According to the Multiple Sclerosis Society UK (MS Society UK), it is estimated that there are around 150,000 people with MS in the UK, with nearly 7,100 people being newly diagnosed every year. Scientists have found that MSCs can be used to treat some of the symptoms of MS as MSCs protect the nerves in the CNS by secreting substances called neurotrophic growth factors, which increase nerve growth and the survival of nerve cells. These neurotrophic growth factors can also repair damaged nerves, improving nerve function. However, the exact mechanisms of this are still being studied. Furthermore, MSCs can activate the brain's natural healing mechanisms by stimulating the brain's stem cells to become active and repair the damaged tissue. This results in patients having a reduction in symptoms and the severity of the symptoms, improving the quality of life for those with MS. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease affecting the joints. The charity Versus Arthritis has said there are around 400,000 adults aged 16 and over affected by RA in the UK. Scientists have found that MSCs can reduce inflammation in the joints as they have immunomodulatory properties, so they can regulate the immune system's abnormal responses that cause RA. MSCs suppress immune cell activity, resulting in a decrease in inflammation and joint damage. In addition, MSCs can migrate (travel) to the inflamed joints and release anti-inflammatory molecules, reducing joint swelling and pain. This results in patients having a reduction in pain and joint swelling, improving the quality of life for those with RA. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an umbrella term for chronic inflammatory digestive diseases, including ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease (CD), affecting the gastrointestinal tract. A study by the University of Nottingham estimates that 500,000 people in the UK are living with IBD. Scientists have found that MSCs can reduce inflammation and increase tissue repair in the gastrointestinal tract. This is because MSCs can migrate to sites of inflammation in the gut, where they can replace damaged tissue cells. MSCs release signalling molecules that regulate the immune response and reduce inflammation. They can even directly interact with immune cells in the gut, influencing their behaviour and decreasing the inflammatory response. Also, MSCs can transfer mitochondria to damaged cells through cell fusion, helping the damaged cells function better and reduce inflammation. This results in reduced inflammation in patients, improving the quality of life for those with IBD. Looking to the future MS, RA and IBD are just three of the multiple diseases MSCs can target, and while there are many refinements to be made for MSCs to become more viable as treatment options, current findings show promising results. With further development, including more research to understand the exact biology of MSCs, there is massive potential for this method to revolutionise the treatment of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases and cancer. As stem cell research continues to advance, policies must also adapt to this changing landscape; watch out for the last article in the series, where I will discuss the regulation and policy of stem cell research! Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: The biggest innovations in the biosciences / Neuromyelitis optica and MS / Crohn's disease Project Gallery

Using the new technology AI to develop drugs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Artificial Intelligence in Drug Research and Discovery 09/07/25, 10:56 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 10:20 Using the new technology AI to develop drugs Drug research has been transformed by artificial intelligence (AI), which has become a game-changing technology in several industries. Only a small portion of potential drugs make it to the market after the lengthy and expensive traditional drug discovery process. A drug's discovery and development can take over ten years and cost an average of US$2.8 billion. Even then, nine out of 10 medicinal compounds fall short of passing regulatory approval and Phase II clinical trials. The use of AI in this process, however, has the potential to greatly improve effectiveness, accuracy, and success rates. Given that AI can help with rational drug design, support decision-making, identify the best course of treatment for a patient, including personalised medicines, manage the clinical data generated, and use it for future drug development, it is reasonable to assume that it will play a role in the development of pharmaceutical products from the laboratory bench to bedside table. There are several ways in which AI is currently being used to enhance the drug discovery process. One of the primary applications is virtual screening ( Figure 2 ), which involves using machine learning algorithms to analyse large libraries of chemical compounds and predict which ones are likely to be effective against a specific disease target. This can significantly reduce the time and cost required for drug discovery by narrowing down the number of compounds that need to be tested in the lab. Another way AI is being used in drug discovery is through generative models, which use deep learning algorithms to design molecules that are optimised for specific therapeutic targets. This approach can be used to design molecules that are effective against a specific target while also minimising toxicity or other undesirable properties. Data analysis is another area where AI can be applied in drug discovery. By analysing large datasets of biological and chemical information, AI can help researchers identify patterns and relationships that may be relevant to drug discovery. For example, AI can be used to analyse genomic data to identify potential drug targets or to analyse drug-drug interactions to identify potential safety issues. However, one of the main challenges is the need for high-quality data, as AI models rely on large amounts of data to make accurate predictions. Additionally, there is a risk that AI models may miss important insights or make incorrect predictions if the data used to train them is biased or incomplete. Nevertheless, the continued development of AI and its amazing tools seeks to lessen the difficulties experienced by pharmaceutical firms, impacting both the medication development process and the full lifecycle of the product, which may account for the rise in the number of start-ups in this industry. The importance of automation will increase as a result of using the most up-to-date AI-based technologies, which will not only shorten the time needed for products to reach the market but also enhance product quality, increase overall production process safety, and make better use of available resources while also being cost-effective. In conclusion, the use of AI in drug discovery has the potential to revolutionize the field and significantly improve the success rate of potential drug candidates. Despite the challenges and limitations, the continued research and development of AI in drug discovery will undoubtedly lead to faster, cheaper, and more accurate drug development. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: A breakthrough procedure in efficient drug discovery / AI in medicinal chemistry / AI advancing genetic disease diagnosis Project Gallery

CRISPR, regenerative medicine, vaccine development and recombinant DNA tech Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Medical Biotechnology 10/07/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 03/06/23, 13:57 CRISPR, regenerative medicine, vaccine development and recombinant DNA tech Introduction Throughout the course of human history, the foundation of medicine has predominantly relied upon biochemistry. Whereby, scientists utilise naturally occurring and artificially synthesised chemical compounds to elicit therapeutic responses within the body. However, during the 21st century, the field of medicine witnessed a paradigm shift towards medical biotechnology- driving major breakthroughs in healthcare. What is medical biotechnology? Medical biotechnology can be defined as the use of living organisms or their products to investigate, understand and target biological systems in order to improve healthcare outcomes. By integrating the principles of genetic engineering and biological processes, scientists are able to develop novel pharmaceuticals and create diagnostic tools for disease management. Major advancements in medical biotechnology A groundbreaking technology within this field is the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) — Cas9 system. Which utilises CRISPR-associated protein Cas9 and guide RNA (gRNA) as a molecular tool to precisely modify genetic material. By harnessing this gene editing system, scientists can manipulate specific DNA sequences and modulate gene expression, making it an invaluable tool towards precision medicine. Its ability to correct genetic defects has shown promise in the future development of targeted therapies for genetic diseases. Regenerative medicine, another frontier in medical biotechnology aims to regenerate damaged or diseased tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary field integrates principles from tissue engineering and stem cell biology to enable tissue repair and regeneration. Stem cells possess a remarkable capacity to self-renew and differentiate into various specialised cell types. Through research biotechnologists seek to engineer functional tissues and organs for transplantation or stimulate the body's innate regenerative abilities. The development of vaccines is yet another critical aspect of medical biotechnology. Vaccines are designed to stimulate the immune system and confer immunity against specific pathogens, thereby preventing infectious diseases. Modern biotechnology techniques, such as genetic engineering and cell culture, enable cost-effective vaccine development. Recombinant DNA technology enables antigen production in non-pathogenic host cells, eliminating the need for pathogen harvesting. Ongoing advancements include RNA/DNA vaccines, allowing antigen production within recipients' bodies. Conclusion Medical biotechnology continues to play a pivotal role in advancing scientific knowledge and enhancing disease diagnostics and treatment. It holds immense promise for the future of healthcare, particularly in the field of precision medicine. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that this technology also carries inherent risks. Misuse can lead to negative consequences, such as bioterrorism and other destructive outcomes. Written by Komal Nasir Related article: Biggest innovations in the biosciences currently Project Gallery

The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir Last updated: 18/09/25, 08:41 Published: 17/07/25, 07:00 The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people This is article no. 5 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Syria and Lebanon ’s diverging yet connected struggles . Next article: Health inequalities in Bangladesh . Introduction Welcome to the fifth article of the Global Health Injustices Series. The previous article was a collaborative endeavour focused on the populations in Syria and Lebanon. Now, I will focus on the people living in Kashmir, who are currently experiencing a lot of health and wellbeing challenges, primarily attributed to conflict. For example, on top of the enduring conflict in Kashmir, the COVID-19 pandemic had worsened the mental health of the Kashmiri population, where 1.8 million adults were living with any type of mental distress. Despite these concerns, the Kashmiri people have not had their voices heard as clearly in mainstream discourse compared to other vulnerable populations discussed in previous articles. Kashmir: a rich history to current conflict Kashmir (also known as Jammu & Kashmir) is a region within the Northern Indian subcontinent, bordered mainly by Pakistan and China. Kashmir is a disputed territory between the militaries of India and Pakistan since the Indian subcontinent was divided up by the British Empire in 1947. Even before that, conflicts were driven by issues with local governments and tensions between cultural and ethnic groups within the region. These issues, among others, have contributed to the instability and health challenges encountered by the Kashmiri people. In recent years, tensions and violence have accelerated, particularly in 2024, due to the Indian government wanting to maintain control of the Kashmiri region. This has led to vast protests and friction between civilians and armed forces. In turn, this has weakened ties within the region, particularly between India and neighbouring nations. Another overlooked impact (which I will be discussing further) of this current conflict is on Kashmiri women, who encounter certain challenges, which include loss of family members, displacement and Gender-Based Violence. Considering this background of Kashmir is crucial because it will help with understanding the current geopolitical climate and how it detrimentally affects the health of the Kashmiri people. Geopolitics and health in Kashmir Similar to the populations discussed in previous articles, the Kashmiri people are encountering a lot of mental distress attributed to the ongoing conflict. One study from 2009 found that the prevalence of depression was 55.72%. Meanwhile, another study from 2017 uncovered that approximately 45% of adults experienced mental distress, with specific rates of 41% for depression, 26% for anxiety, and 19% for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This difference presumably came from wider geopolitical factors, as measuring mental health is challenging during conflict. As such, the healthcare system in Kashmir needs urgent improvement to better support mental health. Even though it does better in some areas compared to the national average, the demand for services, especially in conflict-affected areas, is overwhelming. There are not enough mental health professionals, and many healthcare providers lack the training to handle trauma-related issues properly. Investing in training, community mental health initiatives, and integrating mental health services with regular healthcare could help improve the overall mental health of the Kashmiri people. Focusing on mental health just as much as physical health to build resilience in Kashmir is essential. As for the health infrastructure in Kashmir, noted in one review, they have 4433 government health institutions and a doctor-patient ratio of 1:1880, which is lower than the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of 1:1000, yet higher than the national level of 1:2000. Moreover, the state of Kashmir was shown to have better health indices compared to the national average, including life expectancy, infant mortality rate, and crude birth and death rates. Despite these improvements, challenges persist, such as the inadequate health infrastructure and a shortage of financial resources and technical staff, despite relatively stable trends ( Table 1 ). In one study, the authors noted that among the Schedule tribes in Kashmir, they encounter significant health challenges attributed to illiteracy, poverty, and inadequate healthcare facilities and infrastructure, leading to increased non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There is a high prevalence of poor nutrition and undernutrition, which contributes to the susceptibility of these populations to NCDs (7). Moreover, a lack of access to clean water and sanitation worsens health issues, which increases their risk of infectious diseases. Social taboos and beliefs hinder healthcare service utilisation among the population, which impacts health outcomes and even awareness of NCDs ( Figure 1 ). Focusing on violence exposure in Kashmir, another study among households found that respondents documented high levels of violence, which include: exposure to crossfire (85.7%), round-up raids (82.7%), witnessing torture (66.9%), experiences of rape (13.3%) and forced labor (33.7%). What this study also found was that males noted more violent confrontations and had higher odds of experiencing different forms of maltreatment compared to females. Given that this study was conducted in 2008, these figures are likely to be either higher or lower now, depending on the magnitude of violence and warfare. Nonetheless, the high frequency of violence has led to substantial health issues, specifically mental health problems among the affected Kashmiri population. A severely overlooked impact of conflict in Kashmir is on the women, who encounter specific tragedies, including loss of family members and displacement. Moreover, the use of rape as a weapon in conflict stresses the convergence of gender and political power, particularly in Kashmir. Unfortunately, there have been some researchers who usually depict Kashmiri women as solely victims, which can undermine their autonomy and political involvement. Therefore, addressing the plight of Kashmiri women by allowing them to discuss their experiences openly and actively involving them in key decisions regarding Kashmir can be a vital stepping stone towards supporting their health and well-being. To truly understand all of the various health challenges illustrated above impacting the Kashmiri population, it is vital to cite the various geopolitical factors I discussed in previous articles on Yemen, Sudan and Palestine. The most notable factor is the continuous international weapons/ arms trade, which I firmly believe must be thwarted because of how much damage it has caused, particularly through the sale of bombs and other explosives used to target the most vulnerable populations. However, stopping this trade requires actual political will and legislation, which is unlikely to happen anytime soon because our leaders make a lot of profit from selling weapons. NGOs: their role in supporting Kashmir International non-governmental organisations (INGOs), notably Aakar Patel, chair of board at Amnesty International India, shared this statement in 2024 regarding Kashmir: The Indian authorities are using arbitrary restrictions and punitive actions to create a climate of fear in Jammu and Kashmir. Anyone daring to speak out – whether to criticize the government or to stand up for human rights – faces a clampdown on their rights to freedom of expression and association and cannot move freely within and outside the country. Amnesty International also shared testimonies from a few Kashmiri people: I feel a deep responsibility to be the voice of my people, who are currently voiceless. There are no stories coming out of Kashmir anymore. - Masrat Zahra, an award-winning Kashmiri photojournalist. My freedom of movement is a right enshrined in the Indian Constitution, but I had to really struggle to exercise this right. - Iltija Mufti, daughter and media advisor to ex-chief minister of Jammu & Kashmir. To address the complex health and social issues previously discussed, international organisations and local communities need to come together for solutions. Programs focusing on building mental health support, improving healthcare availability, and creating safe spaces for women and young people can make a difference. The Kashmiri people need to have their voices heard in discussions about their health and wellbeing. Otherwise, their challenges will continue to affect their lives. Conclusion Overall, the health and well-being issues in Kashmir are closely linked to the long-standing conflict and warfare. Although this region has a rich cultural history and shows a lot of resilience, the current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people. The rise in mental health issues and the inadequate healthcare infrastructure illustrate that reforms are urgently needed. There is a real shortage of support for mental health, particularly when dealing with the trauma from ongoing violence. Moreover, marginalised groups face tremendous health challenges because of various factors ranging from poverty to a lack of education to limited access to basic needs. Living in violence and conflict not only affects physical health, but also leads to ongoing psychological trauma that is often ignored. Tackling these health inequalities and inequities requires a comprehensive approach incorporating mental health care into the standard healthcare system, improving access to clean water and food, and building communities. Listening to the Kashmiri people and focusing on their health needs is key to achieving peace and better living standards in the region. Therefore, national and international players must recognise these issues and take real action to ensure they receive the support they need and deserve. Only with continued efforts can we expect a healthier future for Kashmir. The following article in the Global Health Injustices series will focus on Bangladesh and the plight of the Rohingya population, which will also be a collaborative endeavour. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Understanding health through different stances / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health REFERENCES Sheikh Shoib, Arafat SMY. Mental health in Kashmir: conflict to COVID-19. Public Health. 2020 Sep 1;187:65–6. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7484691/ Center for Preventive Action. Conflict Between India and Pakistan. Global Conflict Tracker. 2015. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan Zeeshan S, Hanife Aliefendioğlu. Kashmiri women in conflict: a feminist perspective. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 2024 Feb 12;11(1). Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-02742-x Amin S, Khan A. Life in conflict: Characteristics of Depression in Kashmir. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2009 Jul;3(2):213. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3068807/ Housen T, Lenglet A, Ariti C, Shah S, Shah H, Ara S, et al. Prevalence of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in the Kashmir Valley. BMJ Global Health. 2017 Oct;2(4):e000419. Available from: https://gh.bmj.com/content/2/4/e000419 Mir A, Bhat S. Health Status and Access to Health Care Services in Jammu and Kashmir State. Asian Review of Social Sciences [Internet]. 2018;7(3):52–7. Available from: https://www.trp.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ARSS-Vol.7-No.3-October-December-2018-pp.52-57.pdf Habib A, Iqbal A, Rafiq H, Shah A, Amin S, Suheena, et al. Trends in the Magnitude of NCDs among Schedule Tribe Population of Kashmir with Special Reference to Health and Nutritional [Internet]. Journal of Community Medicine & Public Health. Gavin Publishers; 2023 [cited 2025 May 5]. Available from: https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/trends-in-the-magnitude-of-ncds-among-schedule-tribe-population-of-kashmir-with-special-reference-to-health-and-nutritional Jong K de, Ford N, van, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley I: exposure to violence. Conflict and Health [Internet]. 2008 Oct 14 [cited 2025 May 5];2(1). Available from: https://conflictandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1505-2-10 Authorities must end repression of dissent in Jammu and Kashmir [Internet]. Amnesty International. 2024 [cited 2025 Jun 11]. Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/09/india-authorities-must-end-repression-of-dissent-in-jammu-and-kashmir/ Project Gallery

The closest planet to the Sun Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring the solar system: Mercury 09/07/25, 14:08 Last updated: Published: 27/06/23, 15:46 The closest planet to the Sun Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, holds a significant place in our understanding of the solar system and serves as our first stepping stone in the exploration of the cosmos. Its intriguing history dates back to ancient times when it was studied and recorded by the Babylonians in their celestial charts. Around 350 BC the ancient Greeks, recognized that the celestial body known as the evening and morning star was, in fact, a single entity. Impressed by its swift movement, they named it Hermes, after the swift messenger of their mythology. As time passed, the Roman Empire adopted the Greek discovery and bestowed upon it the name of their equivalent messenger god, Mercury, a name by which the planet is known today. This ancient recognition of Mercury's uniqueness paved the way for our continued exploration and study of this fascinating planet. Mercury's evolution As Mercury formed from the primordial cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula, it went through a process called accretion. Small particles collided and gradually merged together, forming larger bodies called planetesimals. Over time, these planetesimals grew in size through further collisions and gravitational attraction, eventually forming the protoplanet that would become Mercury. However, the proximity to the Sun presented unique challenges for Mercury's formation. The Sun emitted intense heat and powerful solar winds that swept away much of the planet's initial atmosphere and surface materials. This process, known as solar stripping or solar ablation, left behind a relatively thin and tenuous atmosphere compared to other planets in the solar system. The intense heat also played a crucial role in shaping Mercury's surface. The planet's surface rocks melted and differentiated, with denser materials sinking towards the core while lighter materials rose to the surface. This process created a large iron-rich core, accounting for about 70% of the planet's radius. Mercury's lack of significant geological activity, such as plate tectonics, has allowed its surface to retain ancient features and provide insights into the early history of our solar system. The planet's surface is dominated by impact craters, much like the Moon. These craters are the result of countless collisions with asteroids and comets over billions of years. The largest and most prominent impact feature on Mercury is the Caloris Basin, a vast impact crater approximately 1,525 kilometres in diameter. The impact of such large celestial bodies created shockwaves and volcanic activity, leaving behind a scarred and rugged terrain. Scientists estimate that the period known as the Late Heavy Bombardment, which occurred around 3.8 to 4.1 billion years ago, was particularly tumultuous for Mercury. During this time, the inner planets of our solar system experienced a high frequency of cosmic collisions. These impacts not only shaped Mercury's surface but also influenced the evolution of other rocky planets like Earth and Mars. Studying Mercury's geology and surface features provides valuable insights into the early stages of planetary formation and the impact history of our solar system. Exploration history Our understanding of Mercury has greatly benefited from a series of pioneering missions that ventured close to the planet and provided valuable insights into its characteristics. Let's delve into the details of these key exploratory endeavours: Mariner 10 (1974-1975): Launched by NASA, Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to conduct a close-up exploration of Mercury. It embarked on a series of three flybys, passing by the planet in 1974 and 1975. Mariner 10 captured images of approximately 45% of Mercury's surface, revealing its heavily cratered terrain. The spacecraft's observations provided crucial information about the planet's rotation period, which was found to be approximately 59 Earth days. Mariner 10 also discovered that Mercury possessed a magnetic field, albeit weaker than Earth's. MESSENGER (2004-2015): The MESSENGER mission, short for Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging, was launched by NASA in 2004. It became the first spacecraft to enter into orbit around Mercury in 2011, marking a significant milestone in the exploration of the planet. Over the course of more than four years, MESSENGER conducted an extensive study of Mercury's surface and environment. It captured detailed images of previously unseen regions, revealing the planet's diverse geological features, including vast volcanic plains and cliffs. MESSENGER's data also indicated the presence of water ice in permanently shadowed craters near Mercury's poles, surprising scientists. Furthermore, the mission discovered that Mercury possessed a global magnetic field, challenging previous assumptions about the planet's magnetism. MESSENGER's observations greatly expanded our knowledge of Mercury's geology, composition, and magnetic properties. BepiColombo (2018-Present): The BepiColombo mission, a joint endeavour between the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), aims to further enhance our understanding of Mercury. The mission consists of two separate orbiters: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) developed by ESA and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO) developed by JAXA. Launched in 2018, BepiColombo is currently on its journey to Mercury, with an expected arrival in 2025. Once there, the mission will study various aspects of the planet, including its magnetic field, interior structure, and surface composition. The comprehensive data collected by BepiColombo's orbiters will contribute significantly to our knowledge of Mercury and help answer remaining questions about its formation and evolution. These missions have played pivotal roles in advancing our understanding of Mercury. They have provided unprecedented insights into the planet's surface features, composition, magnetic field, and geological history. As exploration efforts continue, we can anticipate further revelations and a deeper understanding of this intriguing world. Future exploration While significant advancements have been made in understanding Mercury, there is still much more to learn. Scientists hope to explore areas of the planet that have not yet been observed up close, such as the north pole and regions where water ice may be present. They also aim to study Mercury's thin atmosphere, which consists of atoms blasted off the surface by the solar wind. Moreover, the advancement of technology may lead to the development of innovative missions to Mercury. Concepts such as landing missions and even manned exploration have been proposed, although the challenges associated with the planet's extreme environment and proximity to the Sun make such endeavours highly demanding. Nevertheless, the quest to unravel Mercury's mysteries continues, driven by the desire to deepen our knowledge of planetary formation, evolution, and the unique conditions that shaped this enigmatic world. Exploring the uncharted areas of Mercury, particularly the north pole, holds great scientific potential. The presence of water ice in permanently shadowed regions has been suggested by previous observations, and investigating these areas up close could provide valuable insights into the planet's volatile history and the potential for water resources. Additionally, studying Mercury's thin atmosphere is of significant interest. Comprised mostly of atoms blasted off the surface by the intense solar wind, understanding the composition and dynamics of this atmosphere could shed light on the processes that shape Mercury's exosphere. In conclusion, while significant progress has been made in unravelling the mysteries of Mercury, there is still much to explore and discover. Scientists aspire to investigate untouched regions, study the planet's thin atmosphere, and employ innovative mission concepts. The future may hold ambitious missions, including landing missions and potentially even manned exploration. As our knowledge and capabilities expand, Mercury continues to beckon us with its fascinating secrets, urging us to push the boundaries of exploration and expand our understanding of the wonders of the solar system. And with that we finish our journey into the history and exploration of Mercury and will move to Venus in the next article. Written by Zari Syed Related articles: Fuel for the colonisation of Mars / Nuclear fusion Project Gallery

Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101 29/04/25, 16:10 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 11:32 Understanding what goes wrong in the brain Epilepsy is a condition that affects millions of people worldwide, often causing unprovoked seizures due to irregular brain activity. But what exactly happens in the brain when someone has epilepsy? It is important to establish that not everyone with seizures has epilepsy. While epilepsy can start at any age, it often begins in childhood, or in people over the age of 60. Epilepsy can be due to genetic factors - 1 in 3 people with epilepsy have family history- or brain damage from causes like stroke, infection, severe head injury or a brain tumour. However, around half of epilepsy cases have an unknown cause. Now, imagine your brain as a big city with lots of lights. Each light represents a part of your brain that controls things like movement, feelings, and thoughts. Epilepsy is like when the lights in the city start flickering or shut completely. There are three main types of epilepsy, and each affects the lights in different ways: 1) Generalized epilepsy: when all the lights in the city flicker or go out at once, affecting the whole brain. There are two main kinds: Generalized Motor (Grand Mal) Seizures: Imagine the lights in the city going wild, making everything shake. This is like the shaking or jerking movements during myoclonic or tonic-clonic seizures. Generalized Non-Motor (Absence) Seizures: Picture the lights suddenly pausing, making everything freeze. During these seizures, a person might stare into space or make small, repeated movements, like lip-smacking. 2) Focal epilepsy: when only the lights in one part of the city flicker or go out. This means only one part of the brain is affected: Focal Aware Seizures: The lights flicker, but people in that part of the city know what’s happening. The person stays aware during the seizure. Focal Impaired Awareness Seizures: The lights flicker, and people lose track of what’s going on. The person might not remember the seizure. Focal Motor Seizures: Some lights flicker, causing strange movements, like twitching, rubbing hands, or walking around. Focal Non-Motor Seizures: The lights stay on, but everything feels strange, like sudden change in mood or temperature. The person might feel odd sensations without moving in unusual ways. 3) ‘Unknown’ epilepsy: ‘Unknown’ epilepsy is like a power outage where no one knows where it happened because the person was alone or asleep during the seizure. Doctors might later figure out if it's more like generalized or focal epilepsy. Some people can even have both types. But how do doctors find out if someone has epilepsy? A range of tests could be used to look at the brain’s activity and structure, including: Electroencephalogram (EEG): detects abnormal electrical activities in the brain using electrodes. This procedure can be utilised in Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG), a more invasive method where the electrodes are placed directly on or within the brain to locate the abnormal electrical activities more precisely. Computerized Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): form images of the brain to detect abnormal brain structures such as brain scarring, tumours or damage that may cause seizures. Blood tests: test for genetic or metabolic disorders, or health conditions such as anaemia, infections or diabetes that can trigger seizures. Magnetoencephalogram (MEG): measures magnetic signals generated by nerve cells to identify the specific area where seizures are starting, to diagnose focal epilepsy. Positron emission tomography (PET): detects biochemical changes in the brain, detecting regions of the brain with lower-than-normal metabolism linked to seizures. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): identifies seizure focus by measuring changes in blood flow in the brain during or between seizures, using a tracer injected into the patient. The seizure focus in this scan is seen by an increase in blood flow to that region. So, how does epilepsy affect the brain? For most people, especially those with infrequent or primarily generalised seizures, cognitive issues are less likely compared to those with focal seizures, particularly in the temporal lobe. The following cognitive functions can be affected: Memory : seizures can disrupt the hippocampus in the temporal lobe, responsible for storing and receiving new information. This can lead to difficulties in remembering words, concepts, names and other information. Language : seizures can affect areas of the brain responsible for speaking, understanding and storing words, which can lead to difficulties in finding familiar words. Executive function: seizures can impact the frontal lobe of the brain which is responsible for planning, decision making and social behaviour, leading to challenges in interacting, organising thoughts and controlling unwanted behaviour. While epilepsy itself cannot be cured, treatments exist to control seizures including: Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDs): suppress the brain’s ability of sending abnormal electrical signals - effective in 70% of patients. Diet: ketogenic diets can reduce seizures in some medication- resistant epilepsies and in children as they alter the chemical activity in the brain. Surgery: 1) Resective Surgery: removal of the part of the brain causing the seizures, such as temporal lobe resection, mainly for focal epilepsy. 2) Disconnective Surgery: cutting the connections between the nerves through which the seizure signals travel in the brain, such as in corpus callosotomy, mainly for generalised epilepsy. 3) Neurostimulation device implantation (NDI): insertion of devices in the body to control seizures by stimulating brain regions to control the electrical impulses causing the seizures. This includes vagus nerve stimulation and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS). Even though epilepsy can be challenging, many people manage it successfully with the right treatment. Continued research offers hope for even better, long lasting treatments in the future. Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Different types of epilepsy seizures / Alzheimer's disease / Parkinson's disease / Autism REFERENCES D’Arrigo, T. (n.d.). What Are the Types of Epilepsy? [online] WebMD. Available at: https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/types-epilepsy [Accessed 5 Aug. 2024]. Epilepsy Foundation. (n.d.). Thinking and Memory. [online] Available at: https://www.epilepsy.com/complications-risks/thinking-and-memory [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. GOSH Hospital site. (n.d.). Invasive EEG monitoring. [online] Available at: https://www.gosh.nhs.uk/conditions-and-treatments/procedures-and- treatments/invasive-monitoring/ [Accessed 9 Aug. 2024]. My Epilepsy Team.com. (2016). Epilepsy: What People Don’t See (Infographic) | MyEpilepsyTeam. [online] Available at: https://www.myepilepsyteam.com/resources/epilepsy-what-people-dont-see- infographic [Accessed 29 Aug. 2024]. National institute of Neurological Disorders and stroke (2023). Epilepsy and Seizures | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. [online] www.ninds.nih.gov . Available at: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health- information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. NHS (2020). Epilepsy. [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/ [Accessed 10 Aug. 2024]. Project Gallery