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iPSCs are one of the most powerful tools of biosciences Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The endless possibilities of iPSCs and organoids 11/07/25, 10:02 Last updated: Published: 20/01/24, 11:50 iPSCs are one of the most powerful tools of biosciences On the 8th of October 2012, the Nobel Prize in Physiology was given to Shinya Yamanaka and John B. Gurdon for a groundbreaking discovery; induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs). The two scientists discovered that mature, specialised cells can be reprogrammed to their initial state and consequently transformed into any cell type. These cells can be used to study disease, examine genetic variations and test new treatments. The science behind iPSCs The creation of iPSCs is based on the procedure of cell potency during mammalian development. While the organism is still in the embryonic stage, the first cell developed is a totipotent stem cell, which has the unique ability to differentiate into any cell type in the human body. “Totipotent” refers to the cell’s potential to give rise to all cell types and tissues needed to develop an entire organism. As the totipotent cell grows, it develops into the pluripotent cell, which can differentiate into the three types of germ layers; the endoderm line, the mesoderm line and the ectoderm line. The cells of each line then develop into multipotent cells, which are derived into all types of human somatic cells, such as neuronal cells, blood cells, muscle cells, skin cells, etc. Creation of iPSCs and organoids iPSCs are produced through a process called cellular reprogramming, which involves the reprogramming of differentiated cells to revert to a pluripotent state, similar to that of embryonic stem cells. The process begins with selecting any type of somatic cell from the individual (in most cases, the individual is a patient). Four transcription factors, Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc, are introduced into the selected cells. These transcription factors are important for the maintenance of pluripotency. They are able to activate the silenced pluripotency genes of the adult somatic cells and turn off the genes associated with differentiation. The somatic cells are now transformed into iPSCs, which can differentiate into any somatic cell type if provided with the right transcription factor. Although iPSCs themselves have endless applications in biosciences, they can also be transformed into organoids, miniature three-dimensional organ models. To create organoids, iPSCs are exposed to a specific combination of signalling molecules and growth factors that mimic the development of the desired organ. Current applications of iPSCs As mentioned earlier, iPSCs can be used to study disease mechanisms, develop personalised therapies and test the action of drugs in human-derived tissues. iPSCs have already been used to model cardiomyocytes, neuronal cells, keratinocytes, melanocytes and many other types of cells. Moreover, kidney, liver, lung, stomach, intestine, and brain organoids have already been produced. In the meantime, diseases such as cardiomyopathy, Alzheimer’s disease, cystic fibrosis and blood disorders have been successfully modelled and studied with the use of iPSCs. Most importantly, the use of iPSCs in all parts of scientific research reduces or replaces the use of animal models, promising a more ethical future in biosciences. Conclusion iPSCs are one of the most powerful tools of biosciences at the moment. In combination with gene editing techniques, iPSCs give accessibility to a wide range of tissues and human disorders and open the doors for precise, personalised and innovative therapies. iPSCs not only promise accurate scientific research but also ethical studies that minimise the use of animal models and embryonic cells. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Organoids in drug discovery / Introduction to stem cells Project Gallery

How chemistry plays a part Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The role of chemistry in space exploration 14/07/25, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 05/08/23, 09:41 How chemistry plays a part Background Space exploration is without a doubt one of the most intriguing areas of science. As humans, we have a natural tendency to investigate everything around us – with space, the main question we want to answer is if there is life beyond us on Earth. Astronomers use advanced telescopes to help look for celestial objects and therefore study their structures, to get closer in finding a solution to this question. However, astronomers do have to communicate with other scientists in doing so. After all, the field of science is all about collaboration. One example is theoretical physicists studying observed data and, as the name suggests, come up with theories using computational methods for other scientists to examine experimentally. In this article, we will acknowledge the importance of chemistry in space exploration, from not only studying celestial bodies but also to life support technology for astronauts and more. Examples of chemistry applications 1) Portable life support systems To survive in space requires advanced and well-designed life support systems due to being exposed to extreme temperatures and conditions. Portable life support systems (PLSS) are devices connected to an astronaut’s spacesuit that supplies oxygen as well as removal of carbon dioxide (CO2). The famous apollo lunar landing missions had clever PLSS – they utilised lithium hydroxide to remove CO2 and liquid cooling garments, which used any water to remove heat from breathing air. However, these systems are large and quite bulky, so hopefully we can see chemistry help us design even more smart PLSS in the future. 2) Solid rocket propulsion systems Chemical propellants in rockets eject reaction mass at high velocities and pressure using a source of fuel and oxidiser, causing thrust in the engine. Simply put, thrust is a strong force that causes an object to move – in this case, a rocket launching into space. Advancements in propellant chemistry has allowed greater space exploration to take place due to more efficient and reliable systems. 3) Absorption spectroscopy Electromagnetic radiation is energy travelling at the speed of light (approx. 3.0 x 108 m/s!) that can interact with matter. This radiation consists of different wavelengths and frequencies, with longer wavelengths possessing shorter frequencies and vice versa. Each molecule has unique absorption wavelength(s) – this means that if specific wavelengths of radiation ‘hits’ a substance, electrons in the ground state will become excited and can jump up to higher energy states. A line appears in the absorption spectrum for every excited electron (see Figure 1 ). As a result, spectroscopic analysis of newly discovered planets or moons can give us information on the different elements that are present. It should also be noted that the excited electrons will relax back down to the ground state and emit a photon, allowing us to observe emission spectra as well. In the emission spectra, the lines would be in the exact same place as those in the absorption, but coloured in a black background (see Figure 2 ). Fun fact: There are six essential elements needed for life – carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. In 2023, scientists concluded that Saturn’s moon Enceladus has all these which indicates that life could be present here! 1) Space medicine Whilst many people are fascinated by the idea of going to space, it is definitely not an easy task as the body undergoes more stress and changes than one can imagine. For example, barotrauma is when tissues filled with air space due to differences in pressure between the body and ambient atmosphere becomes injured. Another example is weakening of the immune system, as researchers has been found that pre-existing T cells in the body were not able to fight off infection well. However, the field of space medicine is growing and making sure discomforts like those above are prevented where possible. Space medicine researchers have developed ‘countermeasures’ for astronauts to follow, such as special exercises that maintain bone/muscle mass as well as diets. Being in space is isolating which can cause mental health problems, so early-on counselling and therapy is also being provided to prevent this. To conclude Overall, chemistry plays a vital role in the field of space exploration. It allows us to go beyond just analysis of celestial objects as demonstrated in this article. Typically, when we hear the word ‘chemistry’ we often just think of its applications in the medical field or environment, but its versatility should be celebrated more often. Written by Harsimran Kaur Related articles: AI in space / The role of chemistry in medicine / Astronauts in space Project Gallery

Understanding the cause of bullying can provide effective prevention and intervention Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The brain of a bully Last updated: 13/05/25, 14:22 Published: 29/05/25, 07:00 Understanding the cause of bullying can provide effective prevention and intervention Introduction Bullying is a global social issue affecting any individual regardless of sex, age, or gender, particularly in childhood and adolescence. Approximately one-third of the youth is bullied worldwide; the range could be as low as 7% in Tajikistan to 74% in Samoa. While much neuroscientific research focuses on bullying victimisation and social exclusion, there is a growing field to understand the brain mechanisms behind bullying behaviour. Why does bullying occur? Is there a neurological basis for such behaviour? This article will answer these questions with insights into prevention and intervention strategies. The neural basis of bullying As per Johnna R. Swartz, an assistant professor at the University of California, Davis : Bullying is fairly common during adolescence, with about 25-50% of teenagers in the U.S. reporting that they have bullied or been a victim of bullying. The Swartz team focused on the amygdala, a small almond-shaped structure deep within the brain. The amygdala is critical for processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. Swartz and her colleagues conducted a functional resonance imaging (fMRI) study on 49 adolescents, examining how their amygdala responded to different emotional expressions during a face-matching task. The findings indicated that the adolescents who engaged in bullying behaviour exhibited a heightened amygdala response to angry faces and a diminished amygdala response to fearful faces. This pattern suggests that bullies may struggle to recognise fear in others, potentially making them less likely to empathise with their victims. Moreover, a study revealed that adolescents who reported higher rates of bullying showed increased activation of the ventral striatum (the area that responds to rewarded feelings), amygdala (emotion processing), medial prefrontal cortex (involved with social cognition, decision-making), and insula (salience detection) while observing social exclusion scenarios. The findings suggest that bullying is not just about aggression but also about maintaining social dominance and hierarchy. Another study by the University of Chicago conceded that bullies might enjoy others in pain by observing a robust activation of the amygdala and ventral striatum when watching pain inflicted on others. Why is knowing the neural basis of bullying useful? Understanding the root cause of bullying can provide effective prevention and intervention strategies: Social-emotional training (SET) to improve emotional regulation and empathy, which can help reshape neural pathways. For example, programmes like the ‘Roots of Empathy’ initiative have shown that training children to recognise emotions can reduce bullying behaviours in schools. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) allows bullies to reframe negative thoughts and develop a healthier response to social interactions. For instance, the CBT techniques, like role-playing social situations, have been successfully used in school-based interventions. Mindfulness and cognitive training strengthen the prefrontal cortex by meditation and improve decision-making skills and impulse control. School-based interventions (like anti-bullying programs) create supportive environments that reward prosocial behaviour rather than only punishing aggressive behaviour. Conclusion The neuroscience of bullying helps us understand the root cause of bullying scientifically. Bullying is not simply a matter of choice; there is a deeper scientific basis to consider. This knowledge can help to develop comprehensive solutions to prevent bullying and create a healthier social environment. Future studies should focus on longitudinal studies that track brain development in children and adolescents involved in bullying, thereby informing how early interventions can reshape them for positive change. Written by Prabha Rana Related articles: Aggression / Depression in childhood / Forensic neurology REFERENCES Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs (ASPA). “Facts about Bullying.” StopBullying.Gov , 9 Oct. 2024, www.stopbullying.gov/resources/facts . “Bullies May Enjoy Seeing Others in Pain: Brain Scans Show Disruption in Natural Empathetic Response.” University of Chicago News , news.uchicago.edu/story/bullies-may-enjoy-seeing-others-pain-brain-scans-show-disruption-natural-empathetic-response . Accessed 15 Feb. 2025. Dolan, Eric W. “Neuroscience Study Finds Amygdala Activity Is Related to Bullying Behaviors in Adolescents.” PsyPost , 7 Dec. 2019, www.psypost.org/neuroscience-study-finds-amygdala-activity-is-related-to-bullying-behaviors-in-adolescents/ . Perino, Michael T., et al. “Links between adolescent bullying and neural activation to viewing social exclusion.” Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience , vol. 19, no. 6, 10 July 2019, pp. 1467–1478, https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-019-00739-7 . Project Gallery

Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What you should know about rAAV gene therapy 14/07/25, 15:13 Last updated: Published: 01/10/23, 19:45 Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) Curing a disease with one injection: the dream, the hope, the goal of medicine. Gene therapy brings this vision to reality by harnessing viruses into therapeutic tools. Among them, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are the most used: genetically modified AAVs, named recombinant AAVs (rAAVs), are already used in six gene therapies approved for medical use. Over 200 clinical trials are ongoing. AAV, a virus reprogrammed to cure diseases Gene therapy inserts genetic instructions into a patient to correct a mutation responsible for a genetic disorder. Thanks to genetic engineering, researchers have co-opted AAVs (along with adenoviruses, herpes simplex viruses and lentiviruses) into delivering these instructions. Researchers have swapped the genes that allow AAVs to jump from person to person with genes to treat diseases. In other words, the virus has been genetically reprogrammed into a vector for gene transfer. The gene supplemented is referred to as transgene. Biology of AAVs AAVs were discovered in the 1960s as contaminants in cell cultures infected by adenoviruses, a coexistence to which they owe their name. AAVs consist of a protein shell (capsid) wrapped around the viral genome, a single strand of DNA long approximately 4,700 bases (4.7 kb). The genome is capped at both ends by palindromic repetitive sequences folded into T-shaped structures, the Inverted Tandem Repeats (ITRs). Sandwiched between the ITRs, four genes are found. They determine capsid components ( cap ) and capsid assembly ( aap ), genome replication ( rep ) and viral escape from infected cells ( maap ) ( Figure 1, top panel ). The replacement of these four genes with a transgene of therapeutic use and its expression by infected cells (transduction) lie at the heart of gene therapy mediated by rAAVs. Transgene transfer by rAAVs Researchers favour rAAVs as vectors because AAVs are safe (they are not linked to any disease and do not integrate into the genome), they can maintain the production of a therapeutic gene for over ten years and infect a wide range of tissues. In an rAAV, the ITRs are the only viral element preserved. The four viral genes are replaced by a therapeutic transgene, and regulatory sequences to maximise its expression. Therefore, an rAAV contains the coding sequence of the transgene, an upstream promoter to induce transcription and a downstream regulatory sequence (poly-A tail) to confer stability to the mRNA molecules produced ( Figure 1, bottom panel ). Steps of rAAV production Based on the disease, rAAVs can be administered into the blood, an organ, a muscle or the fluid bathing the central nervous system (cerebrospinal fluid). rAAVs dock on target cells via a specific interaction between the capsid and proteins on the cell surface that serve as viral receptors and co-receptors. The capsid mainly dictates which cell types will be infected (cell tropism). Upon binding, the cell engulfs the virus into membrane vesicles (endosomes) typically used to digest and recycle material. The rAAVs escape the endosomes, avoiding digestion, and enter the nucleus, where the capsid releases the single-strand DNA (ssDNA) genome, a process known as uncoating. The ITRs direct the synthesis of the second strand to reconstitute a double-strand DNA (dsDNA), the replication of the viral genome and the concatenation of individual genomes into larger, circular DNA molecules (episomes) that can persist in the host cell for years. Nuclear proteins transcribe the transgene into mRNAs; mRNAs are exported in the cytoplasm where they are translated into proteins. The rAAV has achieved successful transduction : the transgene can start exerting its therapeutic effects. A simplified overview of rAAV transduction is presented in Figure 2 . The triumphs of rAAV gene therapies rAAV gene therapies are improving lives and saving patients. Unsurprisingly, the most remarkable examples of this come from the drugs already approved. Roctavian is an rAAV gene therapy for haemophilia A, a life-threatening bleeding disorder in which the blood does not clot properly because the body cannot produce the coagulation Factor VIII. In a phase III clinical trial, Roctavian reduced bleeding rates by 85% and most treated patients (128 out of 134) no longer needed regular administration of Factor VIII, the standard therapy for the disease, for up to two years after treatment. Similar impressive results were noted for the rAAV Hemgenix, a gene therapy for haemophilia B (a bleeding disorder caused by the absence of the coagulation Factor IX). Hemgenix reduced bleeding rates by 65% and most treated patients (52 out of 54) no longer needed regular administration of Factor IX, for up to two years. The benefits of Zolgensma are even more awe-inspiring. Zolgensma is an rAAV gene therapy for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a genetic disorder in which neurons in the spinal cord die causing muscles to waste away irreversibly. The life expectancy of SMA patients can be as short as two years, therefore timing is critical. As a consequence, Zolgensma had to be tested in neonates: babies with the most severe form of SMA were dosed with the drug before six weeks of age and symptoms onset (SPRINT study). After 14 months, all 14 treated babies were alive and breathing without a ventilator, whilst only a quarter of untreated babies did. After 18 months, all 14 could sit without help, an impossible feat without Zolgensma. These and other resounding achievements are fuelling research on rAAVs gene therapies. Current limitations Scientists still have some significant hurdles to overcome : ● Packaging capacity: AAVs can fit in their capsids relatively short DNA sequences, which do not allow the replacement of many long genes associated with genetic disorders, ● Immunogenicity: 30-60% of individuals have antibodies against AAVs, which block rAAVs and prevent transduction, ● Tissue specificity: rAAVs often infect tissues which are not the intended target (e.g., inducing the expression for a transgene to treat a neurological disease in the liver rather than in neurons). Gene therapies, not only those delivered by rAAVs, face an additional challenge, this one only partially of a technological nature: their price tags. Their prices – rAAVs range from $850,000 (£690,000) to $3,500,000 (£2,850,000) – make them inaccessible for most patients. A cautionary tale is already out there: Glybera, the first rAAV gene therapy approved for medical use, albeit only in Europe (2012), was discontinued in 2017 because it was too expensive. Research is likely to reduce the exorbitant manufacturing costs , but the time may have come to reconsider our healthcare systems. Notes One non-viral vector exists , but its development lags behind the viral vector . Glybera for treating lipoprotein lipase deficiency, Luxturna for Leber congenital amaurosis, Zolgensma for spinal muscular atrophy, Roctavian for haemophilia A, Hemgenix for haemophilia B, and Elevidys for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Written by Matteo Cortese, PhD Related articles: Germline gene therapy (GGT) / A potential treatment for HIV / Rabies / Antiretroviral therapy Project Gallery

Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does anxiety run in families? Here's what genetics tells us Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:26 Published: 19/06/25, 07:00 Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side Have you ever noticed anxiety can pop up in several members of the same family? Maybe your sister worries constantly, or your brother gets nervous around people. It might feel like anxiety is passed down through generations. But is that really how it works, or is it just a coincidence? Here's what science has to say. Your DNA can affect anxiety Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side. That means you're more likely to have anxiety if someone in your family, like your mum, dad, sibling, or even a grandparent, has it too. But this doesn't mean anxiety is certain. Instead, genes increase your chances, accounting for about 30% to 40% of your risk. Scientists work this out by comparing identical and fraternal twins and by following anxiety diagnoses across generations; those studies repeatedly find that roughly one-third to two-fifths of a person’s risk is genetic. So, if genetics only make up part of the picture, what's the rest? That's where your environment steps in. Your life experiences matter a lot. Things like your relationships, stressful situations, and even your physical health can tip the scales one way or another. Genes set the stage, but they don't control the outcome. Think of your genes as nudging you towards anxiety rather than pushing you into it completely. The rest depends on what happens to you. How genes shape your brain Scientists have pinpointed several genes linked to anxiety. One of these genes affects serotonin, a brain chemical that helps regulate your mood and manage stress. When serotonin works well, you feel calm and can handle stressful events better. But if your genes make serotonin less effective, stress hits you harder. This can make anxiety more likely during tough times, even when others around you seem okay. There's another important point: your brain structure. Genes influence parts of your brain, especially the amygdala. Think of the amygdala as your internal alarm system. It warns you when something feels dangerous. In people with certain genes, the amygdala is extra sensitive. That means their "alarm" goes off more easily, causing anxiety even when there's no real danger present. However, not everyone with these genetic variations experiences anxiety. Your brain adapts throughout life, changing how genes affect you. This ongoing flexibility is called neuroplasticity: experience can strengthen or weaken neural circuits and can even add or remove chemical tags, such as DNA methylation, that switch genes on or off, reshaping how your stress system responds. Anxiety isn't just genetic; here's why It's tempting to blame your genes entirely if anxiety runs in your family. But life is more complicated. Even if you inherit genes that make anxiety more likely, the disorder usually develops when certain environmental conditions come into play. Stressful life events like losing a loved one, ongoing conflict at home, bullying, or trauma can trigger anxiety symptoms. Someone might have anxiety-related genes but never experience anxiety if their life stays relatively stress-free. On the other hand, someone without these genes can still develop anxiety if they experience severe stress or trauma. Lifestyle choices also make a big difference. Regular exercise, healthy eating, good sleep, and support from friends and family can protect against anxiety. Studies show these lifestyle habits are powerful, even if your genes are pushing in the opposite direction. Can you change your genetic destiny? Understanding that anxiety has a genetic basis can help. It means anxiety isn't just a character flaw or personal weakness. It's something partly built into your biology, something real and valid. Realising this can reduce shame and make people more willing to seek help. And here's another benefit: knowing your family history allows you to spot anxiety sooner. If you understand that anxiety might run in your family, you can pay attention to early signs, like trouble sleeping, excessive worry, or panic in social settings. Catching anxiety early means getting support earlier, making treatments like therapy or lifestyle changes more effective. Anxiety might run in your family, but you get to decide how far it goes. Written by Rand Alanazi Related articles: Depression / South Asian mental health / Physical and mental health / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES National Institute of Mental Health. Anxiety disorders [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Mental Health; 2024 [cited 2025 May 29]. Available from: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders Mayo Clinic. Anxiety disorders [Internet]. Rochester (MN): Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2018 [cited 2025 May 29]. Available from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/syc-20350961 Leyfer O, Woodruff-Borden J, Mervis CB. Anxiety disorders in children with Williams syndrome, their mothers, and their siblings: implications for the aetiology of anxiety disorders. J Neurodev Disord . 2009 Feb 13;1(1):4-14. Martin EI, Ressler KJ, Binder EB, Nemeroff CB. The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: brain imaging, genetics, and psychoneuroendocrinology. Psychiatr Clin North Am [Internet]. 2009 Sep;32(3):549-75. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3684250/ McEwen BS, Eiland L, Hunter RG, Miller MM. Stress and anxiety: structural plasticity and epigenetic regulation as a consequence of stress. Neuropharmacology . 2012 Jan;62(1):3-12. Xie S, Zhang X, Cheng W, Yang Z. Adolescent anxiety disorders and the developing brain: comparing neuroimaging findings in adolescents and adults. Gen Psychiatry [Internet]. 2021 Aug 4;34(4):e100542. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8340272/ Zhang K, Ibrahim GM, Venetucci Gouveia F. Molecular pathways, neural circuits and emerging therapies for self-injurious behaviour. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2025 Feb 24;26(5):1938. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/5/1938 Chaves T, Fazekas CL, Horváth K, Correia P, Szabó A, Török B, et al. Stress adaptation and the brainstem with focus on corticotropin-releasing hormone. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1;22(16):9090. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/16/9090 Project Gallery

Tiny solutions for big health problems Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Nanomedicine 17/07/25, 10:52 Last updated: Published: 17/01/24, 00:07 Tiny solutions for big health problems As the landscape of the healthcare field expands, new advances are coming forth, and one such area of interest is nanomedicine. Existing on a miniature scale called nanometres, nanomedicine and technology provide a revolutionary solution to many modern-day problems faced by the scientific community. Through this article, we’ll aim to explore what exactly nanomedicine is, its importance, its use in medicine, as well as its limitations and future prospects. The nanoscale When mentioning nanomedicine or nanotechnology, we refer to materials and particles existing on the nanoscale. This lies between 1-100 nanometres. For reference, human hair is 80,000-100,000 nanometres wide, so comparatively, the technology is much smaller. Although the technology may seem small, its impact is far too significant to be discredited. Due to their smaller size, the nanoparticles hold several advantages, making them useful in biomedicine, these include providing greater surface area for molecular interactions in the body, and they are much easier to manipulate, allowing for greater control and precision in terms of diagnostics and medicine delivery (Figure 1). Cancer drug delivery systems Nanotechnology in the field of medicine is being widely used and tested with regards to its application as a drug delivery system. More recently, it’s being investigated for its increased precision in delivering anti-cancer drugs to patients. Nanotechnology enables precise drug delivery through the construction of nanoscale infrastructures called nanoparticles. These can be filled with anti-cancer drug treatments, and their outer structure can be further designed to include elements which target folate receptors, such as folic acid (B9 vitamin), thus increasing their affinity for specific receptors in the body. Folate receptors tend to be overexpressed on the surface of many cancers, including pancreas, breast, and lung. So, by increasing selectivity and targeting only the cells which overexpress these receptors, the nanoparticles can deliver chemotherapy drugs with increased precision. This increased accuracy results in decreased cellular toxicity to surrounding non-cancerous tissues whilst also reducing side effects. In current experiments, lipid nanoparticles loaded with the anti-cancer drug edelfosine were tested on mice with mantle cell cancer. Lipid nanoparticles offer several advantages as a drug delivery system, including biocompatibility, greater physical stability, increased tolerability, and controlled release of the encapsulated drug. Lipid nanoparticles are also advantageous for their ability to be size specific to a tumour. In the study, in vivo experimentation using mice that contained mantle cell lymphoma was used, and they were administered 30mg/kg of the encapsulated drug. After administering the edelfosine loaded nanoparticles every 4 days, it was found that the process of metastasis had been removed; this means that cancer cells could not spread to other parts of the body. Additionally, it was also found that because of the way the nanoparticles were absorbed into the lymphatic system, they could accumulate in the thoracic duct providing precise and slow release of the drug over time, thus preventing metastasis (Figure 2). Imaging and diagnostics Another area of use for nanotechnology includes imaging and diagnostics. This area of expertise is regarded as theranostics, which involves using nanoparticles as detectors to help locate the area of the body affected by a disease, such as the location of a tumour, and aid in diagnosing illnesses. With regards to diagnostics, nanoparticles can also help identify what stage of the disease is being observed as well as enable us to garner more information to form a concrete treatment programme for the patient, thus providing a personalised touch to their care. Nanomaterials can be used to engineer different types of nanoparticles, which can enhance contrast on CT and MRI scans so that diseases can be detected more easily by being more visible when compared to traditional scans. In collaboration with Belcher et al., Bardhan worked to collectively develop different formulations of polymers that would be most effective in imagining and detecting cancers earlier. In the figure below, a nanoparticle made of a core shell was used for imaging. It comprises a yellow polymer with a red fluorescent dye to increase imagining contrast of the area and a blue lanthanide nanoparticle. When the lanthanide particles are excited by a light source, fluorescence in the near infrared range (NIR-II) is emitted, allowing for clear contrast and imaging. This can be seen in the figure below. From the colours involved, the tumour being imaged could be investigated more thoroughly in how it was distributed and learn more about its microenvironment in a mouse affected by ovarian cancer (Figure 3). Nanobots In recent times, new investment in the form of nanorobots has been made apparent. Nanorobots are nanoelectromechanical systems whose size is very similar to human organelles and cells, so there are a variety of ways they could be helpful in healthcare, such as in the field of surgery. Traditionally, surgical tools can be limited to work on a small scale. However, with nanorobots, it can be possible to access areas unreachable to surgical tools and catheters whilst also reducing recovery time and infection risk, as well as granting greater control and accuracy over the surgery. In a study conducted by Chen et al. (2020), the researchers manipulated magnetotactic bacterial microrobots to kill a bacteria known as Staphylococcus aureus enabled by magnetic fields to target them. Using a microfluidic chip, the microrobots were guided to the target site and then were programmed to attach themselves to the bacteria. Once connected, the viability of the bacteria was reduced due to the swinging magnetic fields generated by the device. Although this research is promising, further research must be conducted to understand the compatibility of these nanotechnologies with the human body and any implications they may have in side effects (Figure 4). Challenges and safety concerns From the evidence explored above, it is evident that nanotechnology holds much promise in the field of healthcare. However, they are not without their challenges and resignations when introducing their use to human bodies. The human body is incredibly complex, and therefore the complete biocompatibility of nanoparticles, particularly nanobots, is currently under-researched and under reviewed. To extensively use them, it is vital first to understand how safe they are and their efficacy in treatment and diagnosis. Below is a summary of some of the advantages and disadvantages of these nanotechnologies (Figure 5). The future of nanotechnology in biomedicine In conclusion, nanotechnology indicates an extensive and optimistic field at the forefront of changing medical care from diagnosis to treatment. It has the potential to answer many pressing questions in healthcare including decreasing cytotoxicity via a precise drug delivery system, increased accuracy in diagnosis, and possibly becoming a novel tool in surgery. Although it is imperative for there to be new and evolved techniques to increase the quality of care for patients, it is vital not to rush and to be thorough in our approach. This involves undergoing further research, including conducting clinical trials when investigating the use of nanotechnology inside the human body; this will test for tissue compatibility, side effects, efficacy, and even dosage when using nanoparticles for drug delivery. In summary, the transformative role of nanomedicine is undeniable. It offers a path to a more personalised and precise healthcare system, allowing researchers to reshape treatment, diagnosis, and patient well-being, though its limitations are yet to be overcome. Written by Irha Khalid Related articles: Nanoparticles: the future of diabetes treatment? / Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor / Silicon hydrogel lenses / Nanoparticles and plant disease / Nanogels / Nanocarriers Project Gallery

The human race has witnessed ten influenza pandemics over the course of 300 years. COVID-19, the most recent, killed approximately 6.9 million people and infected nearly 757 million. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The world vs the next pandemic Last updated: 18/11/24 Published: 25/03/23 The human race has witnessed ten influenza pandemics over the course of 300 years. COVID-19, the most recent, killed approximately 6.9 million people and infected nearly 757 million. Though seemingly quite large, the number of deaths caused by the coronavirus is still comparatively fewer than the pandemics of the past, which have killed around 50–100 million people globally. These large numbers may seem like statistics from a century ago, but many scientists predict the same-scale destruction with future pandemics, heightening the concern about how prepared we are when the next big outbreak strikes. It is impossible to know when the next pandemic will hit or the number of casualties it will bring. The only certainty is that it cannot be avoided, which raises the question of how to mitigate the impact and reduce the effectiveness of large-scale losses. During the COVID-19 outbreak, we observed that preventive measures such as social distancing and face coverings could intervene in viral transmission to some degree. Additionally, strategies like complete lockdown, isolation and timely treatment can help in the containment and recovery of those already infected. These measures, however, can only be taken once the threat is detected promptly before infecting a larger population. To prevent an infection from becoming an outbreak, strategies that focus on the source of the disease can prove to be highly advantageous. Preventive measures may include: ● monitoring the mobilisation of wildlife that potentially carries harmful pathogens ● studying the interactions between different species in wildlife ● surveillance of the domestic and international markets for wildlife trade and strict imposition of biosecurity laws. Additionally, an effort needs to be made for sharing the generated data with global laboratories to promote scientific collaboration. Once the threat is identified, quick decision-making using the correct precautions needs to take place. Simultaneously, investments in research sectors promoting mRNA vaccine developments, novel drug treatments, and emerging technological advances need to be increased. In conclusion, the strategies for the management of the next pandemic need to operate on a multi-level governance with optimal coordination between different institutions involved in crisis management. There is a constant threat of pandemics looming over the world. The outbreak is inevitable, but its effect solely depends on the preparedness and response of the governmental bodies and global health institutions. Is it going to be a hurricane of destruction, or will it just pass by like a gush of wind? Only time will tell. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Diabetes mellitus as an epidemic / Are pandemics becoming less severe? REFERENCES Coccia, M. (2021). Pandemic Prevention: Lessons from COVID-19. Encyclopedia, 1(2), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020036 Cockerham, W. C., & Cockerham, G. B. (2021). The COVID-19 reader: the science and what it says about the social. Routledge. Frieden, T. R., Buissonnière, M., & McClelland, A. (2021). The world must prepare now for the next pandemic. BMJ Global Health, 6(3), e005184. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-005184 Garrett, L. (2005). The Next Pandemic. Foreign Af airs, 84, 3. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/fora84&div=61&id=&page= WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION. (2022). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Covid19.Who. int. https://covid19.who.int/?mapFilter=deaths World Economic Forum. (2021, November 30). COVID-19: How much will it cost to prepare the world for the next pandemic? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/11/preparing-for-next-pandemic-covid-19

Key facts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Apocrine carcinoma: a rare form of breast cancer 22/04/25, 14:13 Last updated: Published: 05/09/24, 10:20 Key facts This is article no. 7 in a series on Rare Diseases. Next article: Pseudo-Angelman Syndrome . Previous article: Neuromyelitis optica . Apocrine carcinoma (AC) is a rare form of breast cancer, accounting for approximately 1-4% of all breast cancer cases worldwide. It affects a wide range of patients from 19 to 92 years of age, with the reported mean age varying from 53 to 62 years. AC of the skin - primary cutaneous apocrine carcinoma - is the only other known cancer that arises from apocrine cells. This is a very rare cancer with limited research. AC is commonly classified into two subtypes: triple-negative AC (TNAC) and HER2+ AC. Another receptor not included in the ‘triple negative’ name is the androgen receptor (AR). A ‘pure’ apocrine carcinoma is ER-negative, PR-negative, but AR-positive. Among triple negative ACs, ones that are AR-positive have a better prognosis. AC is often associated with triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC), meaning that it does not express oestrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR), and produces very little to no HER2– all of which play key roles in the reproductive system. AC arises from apocrine metaplastic cells that are commonly located in the lobules of the breast. This disease can be aggressive and can metastasise to the lymph nodes and distant organs (eg. lungs, liver, and bone). What makes AC different is the appearance of cells which have abundant granular eosinophilic or cytoplasm with fine empty vacuoles. Despite its rarity, focal apocrine differentiation is relatively common (reported in approximately 60% of not otherwise specified [NOS] invasive ductal carcinoma) and shows clinical presentation and radiographic findings similar to that of invasive ductal carcinoma NOS. TNBCs are generally aggressive and present a poor prognosis. However, studies show apocrine breast cancer to have a better prognosis and low proliferative nature, despite its poor response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Treatment of AC may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or targeted therapy. The problem with TNACs is that therapies targeting the hormone receptors are ineffective. Conversely, targeted therapy is seen to work relatively well with HER2-positive ACs despite them being more aggressive than TNACs. ACs can be diagnosed through a series of tests—usually a mammogram, ultrasound, biopsy, and finally immunohistochemistry. The latter makes it possible to know the status of the ERs and PRs. As with most breast cancers the earlier the detection and treatment implementation, the better the prognosis for the patient. ACs can be hard to diagnose due to its rarity and non-specific presentation. AC has a low proliferative nature, which is shown in its low Ki-67 index. Ki-67 has a higher presentation in cells that have a high division rate. Slower division rates result in slower growth rates of the tumour, and may imply that there is a better prognosis. This could be one of the reasons why apocrine triple-negative breast cancers have a better prognosis than other types of TNBCs. There is promise in the future for AC, however this is not without its challenges. Due to its rarity there are limited patients to participate in clinical trials which are essential in new treatment development. Written by Henrietta Owen & Sherine A Latheef Related article: Epitheliod hemangioendothelioma REFERENCES Apple, S.K., Bassett, L.W. and Poon, C.M. (2011) ‘Invasive ductal carcinomas’, Breast Imaging, pp. 423–482. doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-5199-2.00022-9. Bcrf (2024) Types of breast cancer: BCRF, Breast Cancer Research Foundation. Available at: https://www.bcrf.org/blog/types-of-breast-cancer/ (Accessed: 05 June 2024). Hu, T. et al. (2022) ‘Triple-negative apocrine breast carcinoma has better prognosis despite poor response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy’, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(6), p. 1607. doi:10.3390/jcm11061607. Suzuki, C., Yamada, A., Kawashima, K., Sasamoto, M., Fujiwara, Y., Adachi, S., Oshi, M., Wada, T., Yamamoto, S., Shimada, K., Ota, I., Narui, K., Sugae, S., Shimizu, D., Tanabe, M., Chishima, T., Ichikawa, Y., Ishikawa, T., & Endo, I. (2023). Clinicopathological Characteristics and Prognosis of Triple-Negative Apocrine Carcinoma: A Case-Control Study. World Journal of Oncology, 14(6), 551-557. Vranic, S., Feldman, R. and Gatalica, Z. (2017) ‘Apocrine carcinoma of the breast: A brief update on the molecular features and targetable biomarkers’, Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 17(1), pp. 9–11. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2016.1811 Xiao, X., Jin, S., Zhangyang, G., Xiao, S., Na, F. and Yue, J. (2022). Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes status, programmed death-ligand 1 expression, and clinicopathological features of 41 cases of pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast: a retrospective study based on clinical pathological analysis and different immune statuses. Gland Surgery, 11(6), pp.1037–1046. doi:https://doi.org/10.21037/gs-22-248. Project Gallery

How they're used in treatments Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A new model: miniature organs in biomedicine 23/10/25, 10:21 Last updated: Published: 16/10/23, 21:39 How they're used in treatments Introduction Within biomedicine, the study of diseases and understanding their mechanisms are crucial to the treatments we can develop for them. Before a treatment option can be rolled out to the general public, it must be tested for safety and efficacy. Usually, this testing takes place in the form of cell cultures or animal models. However, these methods cannot always accurately replicate the human body's complexity and physiological responses and are sometimes quite expensive and difficult to maintain. In the past few years, a new model has come to light known as organoids, allowing for a new realm of understanding into drug development, disease, and human biology. What Are Organoids? Organoids are self-organised, small, three-dimensional organ models which allow scientists and researchers to study different biological organs and tissues in a lab setting, including their physiological functions, development, and structure. These miniature organs are remarkable in their resemblance to actual organs and are obtained from stem cells, and they can undergo division to become any cell type. From their theoretical abilities, organoids may be able to serve utmost value in biomedicine and how we think about testing new treatments. Disease Modelling, Drug Development and Personalised Medicine One of the ways in which organoids can be used is to model diseases and test for potential drug targets and treatment programmes. In this way, researchers can replicate congenital and acquired conditions, such as cystic fibrosis and cancer, to study key target phenotypes and understand disease progression, which can help identify potential drug targets. From here, the efficacy of these therapeutics can be assessed quite quickly under different circumstances. As an example of this being used currently, scientists involved in cancer research have produced organoids from tumour cells stemming from cancer patients. These patient-derived organoids have been made for various cancers, including endometrium. They will allow for the ability to test chemotherapy drugs and determine which are most effective for individual patients whilst factoring in comorbidities and other unique factors to that person. Through this personalised approach, it is hoped that therapeutics will allow for a customised treatment programme which lowers the risk of side effects and improves the quality of care. Understanding Development and Function Another use of organoids is going into more depth and exploring our understanding of how an organ may develop and function. Using organoids can help us observe how different cells may work together and interact to organise themselves, allowing researchers to strengthen their knowledge of organogenesis by mimicking the natural growth conditions of the human environment. By combining tissue engineering with an appreciation of an organ's functional and developmental processes, organoid use can be extended to regenerative medicine to help fill research gaps in the molecular and cellular mechanisms of tissue regeneration. Techniques such as ELISA and immunofluorescent staining can help garner these critical details. By achieving this, organoids may produce entire organs for transplantation, addressing the organ donor shortage and lowering the risk of donor rejection. Recent Breakthroughs Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death around the world. The human heart is limited to regenerating damaged tissue; thus, research must explore using organoids and other cell-based therapies to encourage natural repair processes. By investigating this avenue, cardiomyocytes derived from human pluripotent stem cells are a promising source. These cell types have the potential to restore contractile functions in animal models as well as the ability to regenerate myocardial tissue. Researchers have developed a cardiac organoid with silicon nanowires that have significantly improved the medicinal efficacy of stem cell-derived cardiac organoids. Using these nano-wired organoids, electrical activity was shown to improve, which in turn supported improved contractility in ischemia-injured mice. Challenges and Future Directions While the promising nature of organoids must be acknowledged, they are not without limitations. Research is currently ongoing to improve the reproducibility and scalability of organoids and their cultures to make organoids more accessible and their use more widespread. Below are some summarised advantages and disadvantages of organoids. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of organoids has created a revolutionary era within the scope of biomedicine. These miniature organs have remarkable potential in various research, development, and tissue engineering facets. Organoids provide scientists with precise modelling of diseases across a range of different organs, assuring their versatility. From understanding organ development to combating cardiovascular diseases and introducing personalised treatment for cancer patients, it is unclear why they are being more rapidly explored. While they hold their promise, there are still challenges surrounding their reproducibility, restricting them from being used in organ transplantation. However, with ongoing progress, organoids undoubtedly have the aptitude to tailor treatments and address complexities of tissue regeneration, heralding a groundbreaking era in healthcare. Written by Irha Khalid Related article: iPSCs and organoids / Animal testing ethics Project Gallery

And its chemical effects Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exposing medication to extreme heat 09/07/25, 14:09 Last updated: Published: 08/10/23, 16:18 And its chemical effects Introduction The majority of us look forward to when summer is just around the corner. It is a time for parents to start planning days off to be able to go on holiday with their kids to relax from their studies and enjoy sunsets at the beach. But for people who take medication, whether this just be a week-long course of antibiotics or for long-term conditions, summer may also be a chance for some negligence to occur. Specifically, alongside making sure you have applied SPF to protect your skin from the sun’s rays, you should also protect your medicine as well. This applies to both oral and non-oral drugs. Experts at The Montreal Children’s Hospital say that “many prescription drugs are very sensitive to changes in temperature and humidity”; in this article, we will therefore discuss the effect of extreme heat on drugs from a medicinal chemistry perspective. Factors affecting drug activity due to heat Certain drugs may begin to degrade before their expiry date if not stored appropriately. This affects the efficacy, which is the maximum biological response that is achievable with a certain drug. A dose-response curve can be plotted (see Figure 1 ) to show the relationship between the two variables; the label Emax refers to the efficacy. During hot weather, the structure of the drug can change and therefore unable to bind to its target, causing a lowered and shifted Emax to be seen. Simply put, the medication will not relieve your symptoms as effectively. Another physiochemical property of a drug that can be altered in the heat is the potency. Many people confuse this term with efficacy, but potency refers to the concentration of a drug required to achieve 50% of its maximum therapeutic effect i.e., half the Emax. Potency is therefore also known as EC50, which abbreviates for ‘half maximal effective concentration’. The lower the concentration needed, the more potent your drug is. Like reduced efficacy, the drug’s potency will also decrease in the heat due to altered chemical structure. For drugs like antibiotics, it is crucial to note that if potency is reduced significantly, it could risk infection spreading to other parts of the body as the medication will not fight off bacteria as well as it should. Potentially dangerous! Finally, drug absorption is when a drug moves into the bloodstream after being administered. The chemical structure of the drug and the environment in which it is present hugely affects this; for example, if a lipophilic (‘fat loving’) drug is also present in a lipophilic surrounding, fast absorption is seen as they work well with each other. As you have probably guessed, high temperatures outside of the body can reduce drug absorption due to the above factors mentioned, as the drug is not in its optimal structure to be absorbed effectively. Examples of medicine that are heat sensitive Here is a list of some medicines that require extra care to prevent the above: 1) Nitroglycerin – used to treat chest pains for those with cardiovascular disease. It is especially sensitive to heat or light as it degrades very fast. Dr. Sarah Westberg, a professor at The University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy, says you should follow the storage instructions and replace them regularly. 2) Some antibiotics – research has shown that ampicillin, erythromycin, and furosemide show a reduction in activity in the heat, although this was found after storing them for a year in a car with a temperature exceeding 25 degrees Celsius. Other antibiotics such as cefoxitin are shown to have some “stability in warmer climates”. 3) Levothyroxine – used to treat an underactive thyroid, also known as hypothyroidism. This drug should be stored between 15 to 30 degrees Celsius, although even 30 is quite high so the lower the temperature the better. Interestingly, levothyroxine isn’t heat sensitive itself, it is the fact that the body becomes sensitive to the drug and may make a person feel strange in the heat. 4) Metoprolol succinate – used to treat high blood pressure, also known as hypertension, and heart failure in emergencies . The ideal storage conditions for this drug are 15 to 30 degrees Celsius, like Levothyroxine. Key things to look out for with your medicine in the heat Below are the 2 main things you should be checking for before taking your medicine in the summer: 1) Change in colour – Light can initiate all sorts of reactions, such as oxidation. If, for example, your medicine that is normally white has now changed into a different colour, this suggests that a reaction has taken place within your drug and will not be effective when administered. 2) Change in texture – Similar to change in colour, if a normally solid, oral tablet has become soft then this also suggests that the medication will not be as effective when consumed. How you can prevent your medicine from degrading To make sure you do not contribute to wasting medicine, you should do the following: 1) Check storage information – for any medication that you take, this will let you know how to store them correctly. 2) Travel with care – do not pack prescription drugs into your luggage, as it will almost always become very warm due to the surrounding environment. Instead, carry your medicine with you with the labels still on. 3) Do not leave medicine in any vehicle – everyday vehicles such as cars tend to get warm after a period , which can affect the colour and texture of your medicine. 4) Careful deliveries – for those who have their medicine delivered to them, you can request for your local pharmacy to deliver your medicine in temperature-controlled packages. Summary As discussed, chemicals in the majority of over-the-counter prescription drugs are heat sensitive and should therefore be handled with care, to prevent degradation of the drug. Changes in colour and texture are signs of degradation, which result in loss of efficacy, absorption, and potency. However, many other pharmacological factors interfere, so scientists especially involved in drug synthesis should (or continue to) take great precautions with the manufacturing process. Drugs are costly to make and require a lot of time, so the takeaway is to store them correctly! You should contact your pharmacist if you are still unsure about your prescription(s). Written by Harsimran Kaur Sarai Project Gallery