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Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Which fuel will be used for the colonisation of Mars? 21/02/25, 12:26 Last updated: Published: 30/04/23, 11:06 Speculating the prospect of habitating Mars The creation of a “Planet B” is an idea that has been circulating for decades; however we are yet to find a planet that is similar enough to our Earth that would be viable to live on without major modifications. Mars has been the most widely talked about planet in the media, and is commonly thought to be the planet that we know the most about. So, could it be habitable? If we were to move to Mars, how would society thrive? The dangers of living on Mars As a neighbour to Earth, Mars might be classed as habitable without more knowledge. Unfortunately, it is quite the opposite. On Earth, humans have access to air with an oxygen content of 21% however Mars only has 0.13% oxygen. The difference in the air itself suggests an uninhabitable planet. Another essential factor of human life is food. There have indeed been attempts to grow crops in Martian soil, including tomatoes, with great levels of success. Unfortunately, the soil is toxic therefore ingesting these crops could cause significant side effects in the long term. It could be possible to introduce a laboratory that crops could be grown in, modelling Earth soil and atmospheric conditions however this would be difficult. Air and food are two resources that are essential and could not readily be available in a move to Mars. Food could be grown in laboratory style greenhouses and the air could be processed. It is important to note that these solutions The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) was a component of the NASA Perseverance rover that was sent to Mars during 2020. Solid oxide electrolysis converts carbon dioxide, readily available in the atmosphere of Mars, into carbon monoxide and oxygen. MOXIE contributes to the idea that, in the move to Mars, oxygen would have to be ‘made’ rather than being readily available. The MOXIE experiment utilised nuclear energy to do this, and it was shown that oxygen could be produced at all times of day in multiple different weather conditions. It is possible to gain oxygen on Mars, but a plethora of energy is required to do so. What kind of energy would be better? With accessing oxygen especially, the energy source on Mars would need to be extremely reliable in order to ensure the population is safe. It is true that fossil fuels are reliable however it is increasingly obvious that the reason a move to Mars would be necessary is due to the lack of care of the Earth therefore polluting resources are to be especially avoided. A combination of resources is likely to be used. Wind power during the massive dust storms that find themselves on Mars regularly and solar power in clear weather, when the dust has not yet settled over the surface. One resource that would be essential is nuclear power. The public perception is mixed yet it is certainly reliable and that is the main requirement. After all, a human can only survive for around five minutes without oxygen. Time lost due to energy failures would be deadly. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Exploring Mercury / Artemis: the lunar south pole base / Total eclipses Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Animal ethics: the good, the bad, and the ugly? 04/09/24, 16:12 Last updated: Published: 09/06/24, 11:07 Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide Many research trials involve using animals, specifically those labelled as ‘model organisms’. This refers to species of animals that are desirable for scientific research as they are usually cost-effective, easily manipulated, and well understood in terms of their genetic background. Good knowledge of their genetic background allows for these experiments to be applied with the intention of human benefit. Protective bodies regulate animal use in research worldwide, albeit with various degrees of severity. One of the strictest regions when it comes to animal legislation is the United Kingdom. The Animal Scientific Procedures Act 1986 protects the use of animals in the UK; they, do this by only licensing trusted individuals and experiments that follow the principle of the ‘3Rs’. This principle aims to; r educe the number of animals used r efine procedures to reduce pain r eplace experiments on animals with artificial systems such as cell cultures. Research by Byron Blagburn and coworkers had some controversy as they tested four commercially available heartworm preventatives in dogs, as they first had to infect them. This parasitic worm that was infected in the dogs is extremely severe and life-threatening. The point of the experiment was to see which was the most effective treatment, and they did find that the combination of imidacloprid and moxidectin was 100% effective at eradicating the infection. Despite this research being approved by the Auburn University, Alabama USA Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, many ethical principles were breached. As the dogs had no choice but to participate in the experiment which completely disregards the autonomy of the dogs. However, Byron and his colleagues would counteract that argument by saying they acted with beneficence as the study’s intention was to find out what was the best treatment for the dogs to improve their health. But for this beneficence to be achieved, non-maleficence was broken as the dogs were given parasitic infections that inflicted pain. Unfortunately, according to the DxE investigators (Direct Action Everywhere), after 5 months the dogs were euthanised. Although the researchers defended the morality of their study by pointing out that all treatments were already in commerce, some have argued that the infection of a previously healthy dog with a parasite is morally wrong. Many religions and groups oppose the use of animals in research as they value animal life as much as human life. Buddhists, for example, believe that animals have moral significance, as the Buddha condemns occupations that involve harming animals and encourages his followers to help animals where they can. While many groups stand against this research, most of our findings and medicine today would not be available without the contribution of animals. According to the American Medical Association: Virtually every advance in medical science in the 20th century, from antibiotics and vaccines to antidepressant drugs and organ transplants, has been achieved either directly or indirectly through the use of animals in laboratory experiments. Thus, showing how important the use of animals is in terms of medical advancements and improvement of human life. One of the most vocal groups is People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA): PETA is an organisation advocating for animal rights and strongly opposing many of the current research studies. For example, the research of sepsis is undertaken at many universities like Pittsburgh and California involves puncturing of mice intestines while awake and then stitching multiple of these punctured mice together. This then leads to the excruciating death of these animals. Now, this has aided in the knowledge of sepsis and potential treatment. However, the autonomy of the animals is disregarded whilst the researchers act with maleficence. Therefore in 2024 we are at a vital stage with animal experimentation as the intention is for improving health and can be argued to be necessary for the advancing medicine for humans and animals. Nevertheless, religious groups and animal rights groups believe that justice is not being served as the animals are subject to harm without a choice. Despite the advancements of artificial systems such as organ-on-a-chip (OOC) - multi-channel 3-D microfluidic cell culture that simulates the activities, mechanics and physiological response of an entire organ or an organ system, the findings of animal studies are required before trialling within humans. When artificial systems improve and become more available there could be a world where animal studies are limited or non-existent to please animal rights activists and still aid the enhancements of modern-day medicine. Written by Harvey Wilkes REFERENCES Blagburn, B.L., Arther, R.G., Dillon, A.R., Butler, J.M., Bowles, J.V., von Simson, C. and Zolynas, R., 2016. Efficacy of four commercially available heartworm preventive products against the JYD-34 laboratory strain of Dirofilaria immitis. Parasites & vectors, 9, pp.1-10. Mice stitched together, injected with bacteria-take action! (no date) PETA. Available at: https://support.peta.org/page/6980/action/1?locale=en-US (Accessed: 29 May 2024). Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The power of probiotics 17/02/25, 14:45 Last updated: Published: 18/08/23, 19:58 Unlocking the secrets to gut health What are probiotics? Probiotics are dietary supplements that consist of live cultures of bacteria or yeast. In the human body, more precisely in the microbiome, there are about 4 trillion bacteria, which include almost 450 species. These bacteria are necessary for the proper functioning of the entire body, especially the intestines and digestive system. In probiotics, bacteria from the Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium families are most often used, as well as yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. How probiotics work? Probiotics have a wide range of effects on our body. Their main task is to strengthen immunity and improve the condition of the digestive tract. This is because microorganisms produce natural antibodies, and also constitute a kind of protective barrier that does not allow factors conducive to infection to our intestine. Types of probiotics Most often, lactic acid bacteria of the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are used as probiotics, but some species of Escherichia and Bacillus bacteria and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardi also have pro-health properties. Probiotics for your gut health The composition of our bacterial flora in the intestines determines the proper functioning of the digestive and immune systems. Probiotics have a positive effect primarily on the intestinal flora. They speed up metabolism and lower bad cholesterol (LDL). Live cultures of bacteria protect our digestive system. They improve digestion, regulate intestinal peristalsis, and prevent diarrhoea. They also increase the nutritional value of products - they facilitate the absorption of minerals such as magnesium and iron as well as vitamins from group B and K. In addition, probiotics strengthen immunity and protect us from infections caused by pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, it is very important to take as many probiotics as possible during and after antibiotic treatment. They will then regenerate the intestinal flora damaged by antibiotic therapy and reduce inflammation. Main benefits: · facilitate the digestive process · increase the absorption of vitamins and minerals · during antibiotic treatments, they protect our intestinal microflora · affect the immune system by increasing resistance to infections · some strains have anti-allergic and anti-cancer properties · lower cholesterol · relieve the symptoms of lactose intolerance · ability to synthesize some B vitamins, vitamin K, folic acid Written by Aleksandra Zurowska Related articles: The gut microbiome / Vitamins / Interplay of hormones and microbiome Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Can you erase your memory? 17/04/25, 10:22 Last updated: Published: 23/11/23, 11:08 The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex What is memory? Our brain is a wiggly structure in our skull, made up of roughly 100 billion neurones. It is a wondrous organ, capable of processing 34 gigabytes of digital data per day, yet being able to retain information, and form memory – something that many would argue, defines who we are. So.. what is memory? And how does our brain form them? Loosely defined, memory is the capacity to store and retrieve information. There are three types of memory: short-term, working, and long-term memory (LTM). Today, we will be focusing on LTM. In order to form LTM, we need to learn and store memory. This follows the process of encoding, storage, retrieval, and consolidation. In order to understand the biochemical attributes of memory in our brain, a psychologist, Dr Lashley, conducted extensive experiments on rats to investigate if there were specific pathways in our brain that we could damage to prevent memory from being recalled. His results showed that despite large areas of the brain being removed, the rats were still able to perform simple tasks ( Figures 1-2 ). Lashley’s experiment transformed our understanding of memory, leading to the concept of “engrams”. Takamiya et al., 2020 defines “memory engrams” as traces of LTM consolidated in the brain by experience. According to Lashley, the engrams were not localised in specific pathways. Rather, they were distributed across the whole of the brain. Can memory be erased? The concept of memory erasure is huge and complex. In order to simplify this, let’s divide them into two categories: unintentional, and intentional. Let’s take amnesia for example. This is a form of unintentional memory ‘erasure’. There are two types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia, and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory that was formed before acquiring amnesia. On the other hand, anterograde amnesia is the inability to make new memories since acquiring amnesia. Typically, a person with amnesia would exhibit both retrograde, and anterograde amnesia, but at different degrees of severity ( Figure 3 ). Can we ‘erase’ our memory intentionally? And how would this be of use to us? This is where things get really interesting. Currently, the possibility of intentional memory ‘erasure’ is being investigated in patients for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In these clinical trials, patients with PTSD are given drugs that block these traumatic memories. For example, propranolol, an adrenergic beta receptor blocker impairs the acquisition, retrieval, and reconsolidation of this memory. Incredible, isn’t it? Although this is not the current standard treatment for PTSD, we can only imagine how relieving it would be for our fellow friends who suffer from PTSD if their traumatic memories could be ‘erased’. However, with every step ahead, we must always be extremely cautious. What if things go wrong? We are dealing with our brain, arguably one of the most important organs in our body after all. Regardless, the potential for memory ‘erasure’ in treating PTSD seems both promising and intriguing, and the complexities and ethical considerations surrounding such advancements underscore the need for careful and responsible exploration in the realm of neuroscience and medicine. Written by Joecelyn Kiran Tan Related articles: Synaptic plasticity / Boom, and you're back! (intrusive memories) / Sleep and memory loss Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The physics of the world’s largest gravitational-wave observatory: LIGO 03/01/25, 14:02 Last updated: Published: 11/05/24, 11:16 Laser Interferometric Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) Since the confirmation of detection, talk of gravitational waves has drastically increased in the public forum. In February 2016, the Laser Interferometric Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) Collaboration announced that they had sensed gravitational waves, or ripples in spacetime, caused by the collision of two black holes approximately 1.3 billion light years away. Such an amazing feat quickly became globalized news with many asking how it could be physically possible to detect an event occurring at an unimaginable distance? For some, the entire situation feels incomprehensible. Although named an observatory, LIGO looks quite different from observatories such as the late Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, the Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico, or the Lowell Observatory in Arizona. Instead of being related to the traditional telescope concept, LIGO is comprised of two interferometers, one in Hanford, Washington and the other in Livingston, Louisiana, that use lasers to detect vibrations in the fabric of spacetime. An interferometer is an L-shaped apparatus with mirrors at the end of each arm specifically positioned to split the incoming light waves, specifically in this case laser waves, into an interference pattern. This pattern is then detected by a device called a photodetector, which converts the pattern into carefully recorded data. When an incredibly violent event occurs, two black holes colliding, for instance, that action results in a massive release of energy that ripples across the fabric of spacetime. The energy from the event vibrates the laser light causing a change in the recorded light pattern. This change is also recorded by the photodetector and stored as data, which scientists can collect to analyze as needed. Because the LIGO detector is so sensitive, there are a number of systems in place to maintain its functionality and reliability. The apparatus is comprised of four main systems: 1) seismic isolation that focuses on removing non-gravitational-wave detections (also called ‘noise’) 2) optics that regulate the laser 3) a vacuum system preserving the continuity of the laser by removing dust from the components 4) computing infrastructure that manages the collected scientific data. The collaboration of these systems helps to minimize the number of false detections. False detections are also kept at a minimum with the effective communication between the Washington and Louisiana LIGO sites. It took months for the official announcement of the 2015 gravitational-wave detection because both locations had to compare data to ensure that the detection of one apparatus was also accurately detected by the other apparatus. Because of human activity on Earth, there can be a number of vibrations similar to gravitational-wave ripples, but ultimately are shown to be terrestrial events rather than celestial ones. So, while LIGO physics itself is fairly straightforward, the interpretation of the gathered data tends to be tricky. Written by Amber Elinsky Related articles: the DESI instrument / the JWST / The physics behind cumulus clouds Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Women Leading the Charge in Biomedical Engineering 03/04/25, 10:36 Last updated: Published: 22/03/24, 18:21 Pioneering progress In collaboration with Kameron's Lab for International Women's Month I was launched into the world of biomedical engineering by following my dreams. I met Dr. Ayanna Howard, an American roboticist and entrepreneur, and after hearing about my aspirations to become a surgeon but also loving robotics, she suggested the subject to me. Biomedical engineering is like a new dawn, seamlessly blending medicine, technology and engineering. It is a dawn that is illuminated by the brilliant dedication of the women who lead and innovate in the field. In a male-dominated industry like engineering, it is refreshing to see that the discipline of biomedical engineering constitutes of 40% women. This article celebrates the women who are redefining the boundaries of this interdisciplinary field. Changing lives with their discoveries, contributions and innovations. By sharing their stories, I aim to not only highlight the importance of diversity and representation in STEM but also to encourage more women to pursue their passions. Women leading biomedical innovation Speaking of women who are pioneering progress in biomedical engineering, this section highlights three of those women. Professor Elizabeth Tanner, Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam and Dr. Carcia Carson. Of course, this list is nowhere near exhaustive of the amazing contributions women have made to this field. I highly encourage you to learn more about the others who are forging a path for us all.... Professor Elizabeth Tanner, OBE, FREng, FRSE, PhD (Hon Caus), MA, DPhil, FIMMM, FIMechE, FIPEM, CEng, CSci Meeting Professor Tanner was like meeting a force to be reckoned with. In fact, I heard her name and about her contributions long before having the chance to meet her as a SEMS student ambassador. Professor Tanner is renowned for her work in biomaterials for bone and joint replacement. She is the Bonfield Professor of Biomedical Materials, Director of the Centre for Sustainable Engineering and the Director of the Institute of Bioengineering at Queen Mary University of London. Her significant contribution to developing HAPEX (hydroxyapatite polyethylene), the first of the bioactive composites used in patients, illustrates her commitment to blending scientific rigor with practical healthcare solutions. She left Queen Mary in 2007 to join the University of Glasgow where she started their Biomedical Engineering degree. This was the first in Scotland and she continued her research on bioactive composite materials there. Returning to Queen Mary in 2018, she has influenced countless students, including myself as my professor. She imparts not only knowledge in her lessons but also her passion. If you ever study biomedical engineering at Queen Mary, you can look forward to her engaging lecture on gait. Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam As a distinguished Professor of Biomedical Engineering and the Director of the Centre for Global Women’s Health Technologies, Dr. Ramanujam’s work represents meaningful innovation. Her work focuses on developing imaging and therapeutic tools for cancer, especially in women’s help. It is truly transforming the approach to cancer care and goes beyond the lab. She has made several global initiatives that aim to make a long lasting impact on health and education. One of the most well known is the Women Inspired Strategies for Health (WISH). Carcia Carson, PhD Dr. Carcia Carson is an inspiration for young black women in engineering. She hold the historic achievement of the first Black woman to earn a Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering at Vanderbilt University. Her success and journey exemplify the steps being made towards diversity and representation in STEM fields. She was introduced to medical physics through her studies at Fisk University. After her Ph.D., her professional research will center around developing translational research in cancer vaccines and personalized immunotherapy. Her research focuses on engineering cancer cell surfaces with surface-conjugated nanomaterial drug carries to enhance immunogenicity of whole cell-based cancer vaccines. To break it down a bit, cell-surface conjugation permits co-localized delivery of both tumor antigens and immune-stimulatory adjuvants. She notes that while studying she ‘didn’t see anybody that looked like’ her. With this being the experience for many woman of colour in STEM, the need for representation and diversity remains imperative. The importance of representation With biomedical engineering progressing every day, the significance of representation cannot be overstated. Diversity in the field is not just about fairness and equity, it is about ensuring that the innovation includes people from a wide range of backgrounds. This way, problems are being solved for a multitude of cultures and needs, not just a cookie cutter solution. The 40% of women in biomedical engineering are more than a statistic, they are a testament to the rich and varied perspectives in this critical field. It is wonderful to see. Representation is profoundly important for several reasons, especially in healthcare. For example, the speculum has remained the same for over 150 years. This cold, uncomfortable device is used for the screening of cervical cancer. Until recently, it has remained untouched and led to women being put off the test entirely. In the UK, nearly 98% of cases are classed as preventable. Women brig valuable insights into women’s health issues through advocatioon and creating inclusive healthcare solutions. A diverse workforce challenges the status quo and leads to novel approaches and thinking. Furthermore, the presence of women in leadership roles within biomedical engineering catalyses change and creates opportunities for the next generation. Young girls are more likely to pursue careers ins STEM if they see other women succeeding in them. This representation builds a pipeline of talent that is crucial for the sustained growth and evolution of biomedical engineering. The power of mentorship Outside of representation, the transformative power of mentorship is so important. Having a mentor is like the difference between navigating in the dark and having someone hold your hand with a comforting light. This mentorship can take a variety of forms: formal mentorship programs (sometimes provided by a university), organic relationships with friends and family and even virtually. A pivotal moment in my career was meeting my mentor, Dr. Carika Weldon. She was the first black Bermudian woman I met who was doing genetic research. But not only doing it, she was coming back home to share her success and giving back to the community. Conclusion Women’s invaluable contributions to biomedical engineering have made it clear that their involvement has been nothing short of transformative. Professor Elizabeth Tanner, Dr. Nimmi Ramanujam and Dr. Carcia Carson have had inspiring journeys of not only professional success but also in moving the field towards more diversity and inclusion. From launching the first biomedical engineering course in Scotland, to being the first black woman to hold a Ph.D in the field. These inspiring women serve as role models to us all. It is inspiring stories like theirs that we need as students with a passion for STEM. But many students find themselves unable to find mentors or someone in the STEM community to speak with. To learn from and to be inspired by. This is the reason that I launched my podcast, Kameron’s Lab| Dive In. I hope that it will be a platform for students to learn from the experts in the fields they aspire to be a part of. I remember only meeting a successful black woman in genetics when I was 16 years old. Students deserve to see people like them who are successful in the fields they love. My podcast aims to introduce them early by creating a library of professionals. Or as I like to call them, the Jedi Masters of STEM. Going back to the amazing women in biomedical engineering, their increasing presence is a sign of progress. But of course, more work needs to be done. We need to make sure that women not only enter this field, and other engineering fields, but also thrive and ascend to leadership positions. Only in these roles can they make the most significant change and shape the future of healthcare and technology. This narrative serves as not only a celebration of achievements, but also a call to action. To all aspiring female engineers, and scientists, it’s a showcase of possibilities and encouragement. To educators and industry leaders, it’s a reminder of the importance and benefits of a diverse workforce. As we continue to celebrate and support the achievements of women in this field, we are also moving closer to a future where the potential of every individual can be nurtured and realized for the benefit of all. Written by Kameron Young -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Kameron Young , Founder of Kameron's Lab, for this interesting article on the pioneering individuals in the field of biomedical engineering. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Follow @Kamerons_Lab on Instagram and @Kameron Young on Linkedin for more information. -- Check out the amazing work Kameron does and follow her social pages for latest content! -- Read more about the inspiring women mentioned in the article: Professor Elizabeth Dr. Nimmi Dr. Carcia -- Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in physics and in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research / The foremothers in gynaecology / Sisterhood in STEM REFERENCES Khan M. The success of women in Biomedical Engineering [Internet]. MedTech Foundation. 2023. Available from: https://www.medtechfoundation.org/post/the- success-of-women-in-biomedical-engineering Prof Elizabeth Tanner [Internet]. QMUL School of Engineering and Materials Science. Available from: https://www.sems.qmul.ac.uk/staff/k.e.tanner Young Lady bags PhD in Biomedical Engineering, sets record as the first-ever black person to achieve it in US university | Scholarship Region [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://www.scholarshipregion.com/young-lady-bags-phd-in-biomedical-engineering-sets-record-as-the-first-ever-black-person-to-achieve-it-in-us-university/ Carcia Carson [Internet]. Fisk-Vanderbilt Master’s-to-PhD Bridge Program. Available from: https://www.fisk-vanderbilt-bridge.org/carcia-carson How enduring use of 150-year-old speculum puts women off smear tests [Internet]. The Independent. 2022. Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/life- style/women/speculum-use-smear-tests-pain-sexism-b2105111.html Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A potential treatment for HIV 30/01/25, 12:39 Last updated: Published: 21/07/23, 09:50 Can CRISPR/Cas9 overcome the challenges posed by current HIV treatments? The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was recorded to affect 38.4 million people globally at the end of 2021. This virus attacks the immune system, incapacitating CD4 cells: white blood cells (WBCs) which play a vital role in activating the innate immune system and fighting infection. The normal range of CD4 cells in our body is from 500 to 1500 cells/mm3 of blood; HIV can rapidly deplete the CD4 count to dangerous levels, damaging the immune system and leaving the body highly susceptible to infections. Whilst antiretroviral therapy (ART) can help manage the virus by interfering with viral replication and helping the body manage the viral load, it fails to eliminate the virus altogether. The reason for this is due to the presence of latent viral reservoirs where HIV can lay dormant and reignite infection if ART is stopped. Whilst a cure has not yet been discovered, a promising avenue being explored in the hopes of eradicating HIV has been CRISPR/Cas9 technology. This highly precise gene-editing tool has been shown to have the ability to induce mutations at specific points in the HIV proviral DNA. Guide RNAs pinpoint the desired genome location and Cas9 nuclease enzymes act as molecular scissors that remove selected segments of DNA.  Therefore, CRISPR/Cas9 technology provides access to the viral genetic material integrated into the genome of infected cells, allowing researchers to cleave HIV genes from infected cells, clearing latent viral reservoirs. Furthermore, the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing tool can also prevent HIV from attacking the CD4 cells in the first place. HIV binds to the chemokine receptor, CCR5, expressed on CD4 cells, in order to enter the WBC. CRISPR/Cas9 can cleave the genes for the CCR5 receptor and therefore preventing the virus from entering and replicating inside CD4 cells. CRISPR/Cas9 technology provides a solution that current antiretroviral therapies cannot solve. Through gene-editing, researchers can dispel the lasting reservoirs unreachable by ART that HIV is able to establish in our bodies. However, further research and clinical trials are still required to fully understand the safety and efficacy of this approach to treating HIV before it can be implemented as a standard treatment. Written by Bisma Butt Related articles: Antiretroviral therapy / mRNA vaccines Project Gallery

The specific research that was recognised for a Nobel Prize in Physics was the discovery of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy, in the form of radiation, a term that Curie herself coined. Marie Curie researched whether uranium, a weakly radioactive element, was found in other materials. She then analysed pitchblende, Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Women who have won the Nobel Prize in Physics Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 01/03/23 March is International Women’s month, so it seems like the perfect time to celebrate the women who have been awarded Nobel Prizes in Physics. There have only been a total of four women to receive this prestigious award, namely Marie Curie, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Donna Strickland, and Andrea Ghez. This article will detail the research each woman did to achieve the Nobel Prize, as well as the context of their discoveries. Marie Curie (1903) Arguably the most famous of these Nobel Prize winners, Marie Curie won her award for research on radioactive phenomena. Curie received half the Nobel Prize for Physics, shared with her husband, but at first, the committee had only intended to award it to him. This was the first Nobel Prize for Physics ever awarded to a woman. The specific research that was recognised for a Nobel Prize in Physics was the discovery of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy, in the form of radiation, a term that Curie herself coined. Marie Curie researched whether uranium, a weakly radioactive element, was found in other materials. She then analysed pitchblende, a mineral made partially of uranium but had a higher amount of radiation. Curie investigated other elements that pitchblende could be made up of and, as a result of this, discovered new elements: polonium and radium. Following this, she had ambitions of obtaining pure radium, and following this achievement, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Maria Goeppert Mayer (1963) 60 years after Marie Curie was awarded her Nobel Prize for Physics, Maria Goeppert Mayer became the second female recipient. She received the Prize for her work in 1963 on the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. Goeppert Mayer shared her award with two other physicists who came to the same conclusion as her. The nuclear shell model describes the exact makeup of the atomic nucleus, through the exact numbers of protons and neutrons. Maria Goeppert Mayer’s mathematical work on this model described why there are certain amounts of neutrons and protons in stable atoms. She beautifully described the model in terms of waltzers dancing and spinning in circles. Donna Strickland (2018) The next female Nobel Prize in Physics award winner wouldn’t be until another half-century later, with Donna Strickland. Strickland was awarded the Prize for her work on chirped pulse amplification and its applications. Although the research itself was published in 1985, she didn’t receive the award until 2018. Chirped pulse amplification (CPA) is a technique that takes a very short laser pulse (a light flash) and makes it brighter. The technique is useful for making extremely precise cuts, so is used for many laser-related applications, such as laser eye surgery. The wide range of uses CPA has in medicine makes this an important discovery for physics which led to Strickland being awarded the Nobel Prize award. Andrea Ghez (2020) The result of the work of Andrea Ghez, the fourth female Nobel Prize in Physics recipient, may be the most exciting conclusion of the research described in this article. Ghez won the award for her role in discovering a black hole in the centre of our galaxy. A black hole is a very dense, compact object with gravity so strong that not even light can escape it. Until recently, physicists have not been able to visually observe black holes but instead can detect them by looking at how other objects, such as stars, behave around one. Andrea Ghez and her team used the movement of Sagittarius A* to prove that there was a black hole in the centre of the Milky Way. Written by Madeleine Hales Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Antisense oligonucleotide gene therapy for treating Huntington's disease 29/01/25, 15:42 Last updated: Published: 25/02/24, 14:38 A potential gene therapy Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease caused by a CAG extension in exon 1 of the huntingtin gene. An extended polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein is developed due to the expanded alleles, resulting in intracellular signalling defects. Antisense Oligonucleotide (ASO) gene therapy is currently being pioneered to treat HD. In this therapy, oligonucleotides are inserted into cells and bind to the target huntingtin mRNA. Thus, inhibiting the formation of the huntingtin protein by either physically blocking the translation of mRNA (figure 1) or by utilising RNase H to degrade the mRNA. Previous ASO gene therapy experiments conducted on R6/2 mice that express the human huntingtin gene have been successful. In HD research, the R6/2 mouse model is commonly used to replicate HD symptoms and is therefore useful for testing potential treatments. The transgenic R6/2 mouse has an N-terminally mutant Huntingtin gene with a CAG repeat expansion within exon 1. In this successful experiment, scientists treated one group of R6/2 mice with the ASO treatment that suppresses the production of human huntingtin mRNA, and saline solution was administered to the control group of mice. This experiment aimed to confirm if ASO therapy improves the survival rate in the R6/2 mice. The results showed that human huntingtin mRNA levels of the mice treated with ASO therapy were lower than the control group. Furthermore, the mice treated with ASO therapy had a higher percentage of survival and lived longer (21 weeks), in comparison to the control group mice that survived until 19 weeks. Thus, it could be concluded that if less human huntingtin mRNA was present in the ASO group, then less human huntingtin mRNA would be translated, and so there would be less synthesis of the huntingtin protein, in contrast to the control group. The results of this study are enormously informative in understanding how gene therapy can be used in the future to treat other neurological diseases. However, before ASO therapy is approved for clinical use, further trials will need to be conducted in humans to verify the same successful outcomes as the R6/2 mice. If approved, then the symptoms of HD, including dystonia could be safely controlled with ASO therapy. Furthermore, scientists need to consider that an increased survival rate of only an additional two weeks, as shown in the experiment does not always correlate to an increased quality of life for the patient. Therefore, it needs to be established if the benefits of ASO gene therapy will outweigh the risks associated with it. Furthermore, the drug PBT2, which influences copper interactions between abnormal proteins, is currently being studied as a potential treatment option for HD. Some studies have inferred that the aggregation of mutant huntingtin proteins could be due to interactions with metals, including copper. Therefore, this drug is designed to chelate metals and consequently, decrease abnormal protein aggregations in the body. This treatment has been shown to improve motor tasks and increase the lifespan in R6/2 mice. However, as this treatment has a lot of shortcomings, further studies need to be conducted over a large period of time to confirm a successful outcome of this drug on HD patients. Written by Maria Z Kahloon References: Kordasiewicz HB, Stanek LM, Wancewicz EV, Mazur C, McAlonis MM, Pytel KA, et al. Sustained therapeutic reversal of Huntington’s disease by transient repression of huntingtin synthesis. Neuron. 2012;74(6):1031–44. Valcárcel-Ocete L, Alkorta-Aranburu G, Iriondo M, Fullaondo A, García-Barcina M, Fernández-García JM, et al. Exploring genetic factors involved in Huntington disease age of onset: E2F2 as a new potential modifier gene. PLoS One. 2015;10(7):e0131573. Liou S. Antisense gene therapy [Internet]. Stanford.edu . 2010 [cited 2021 Aug 6]. Available from: https://hopes.stanford.edu/antisense-gene-therapy/ Huntington's disease research study in R6/2 MOUSE model: Charles River [Internet]. Charles River Labs. [cited 2021 Aug 26]. Available from: https://www.criver.com/products-services/discovery-services/pharmacology-studies/neuroscience-models-assays/huntingtons-disease-studies/r62-mouse?region=3696 Frank S. Treatment of Huntington's disease. Neurotherapeutics : the journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics. Springer US; 2014;11(1):153-160. Potkin KT, Potkin SG. New directions in therapeutics for HUNTINGTON DISEASE. Future neurology. 2018;13(2):101-121. Project Gallery

In particular the novel zeolitic 2-methylimidazole framework (ZIF-8) MOF has received attention for drug delivery. ZIF-8 is composed of Zn2+ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, making a highly crystalline structure. ZIF-8 MOFs are able to deliver  cancer drugs like doxorubicin to tumorous environments as it possesses a pH-sensitive degradation property. ZIF-8’s framework will only degrade in pH 5.0-5.5 which is a cancerous pH environment, and will not degrade in normal human body pH 7.4 Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How metal organic frameworks are used to deliver cancer drugs in the body Last updated: 14/11/24 Published: 20/04/23 Metal ions and organic ligands are able to connect to form metallic organic frameworks on a nanoscale (Nano-MOFs) for cancer drug delivery. Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are promising nanocarriers for the encapsulation of cancer drugs for drug delivery in the body. Cancer affects people globally with chemotherapy remaining the most frequent treatment approach. However, chemotherapy is non-specific, being cytotoxic to patients’ normal DNA cells causing severe side effects. Nanoscale Metal Organic Frameworks (Nano-MOFs) are highly effective for encapsulating cancer drugs for controlled drug delivery, acting as capsules that deliver cancer drugs to only tumorous environments. MOFs are composed of metal ions linked by organic ligands creating a permanent porous network. MOFs are able to form one-, two-, or three-dimensional structures building a coordination network with cross-links. When synthesized MOFs are crystalline compound and can sometimes be observed as a cubic structure when observed on a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image. In particular the novel zeolitic 2-methylimidazole framework (ZIF-8) MOF has received attention for drug delivery. ZIF-8 is composed of Zn2+ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, making a highly crystalline structure. ZIF-8 MOFs are able to deliver cancer drugs like doxorubicin to tumorous environments as it possesses a pH-sensitive degradation property. ZIF-8’s framework will only degrade in pH 5.0-5.5 which is a cancerous pH environment, and will not degrade in normal human body pH 7.4 conditions. This increases therapeutic efficacy for the patients having less systemic side effects, an aspect that nanomedicine has been extensively researching. As chemotherapy will damage health DNA cells as well as cancer cells, MOFs will only target cancer cells. Additionally the ZIF-8 MOF has a high porosity property due to the MOFs structures that is able to uptake doxorubicin successfully. Zn2+ is used in the medical field having a low toxicity and good biocompatibility. Overall MOFs and metal-organic molecules are important for the advancement of nanotechnology and nanomedicine. MOFs are highly beneficial for cancer research being a less toxic treatment method for patients. ZIF-8 MOFs are a way forward for biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies that research treatments that are more tolerable for patients. Such research shows the diversity of chemistry as the uses of metals and organic molecules are able to expand to medicine. Written by Alice Davey Related article: Anti-cancer metal compounds