The effect on sleep on nutrition (nutrition timing) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The interaction between circadian rhythms and nutrition Last updated: 27/04/25, 12:20 Published: 01/05/25, 08:00 The effect on sleep on nutrition (nutrition timing) The circadian system regulates numerous biological processes with roughly a 24-hour cycle, helping the organism adapt to the day-night rhythm. Among others, circadian rhythms regulate metabolism, energy expenditure, and sleep, for which meal timing is an excellent inducer. Evidence has shown that meal timing has a profound impact on health, gene expression, and lifespan. Proper timed feeding in accordance with the natural circadian rhythms of the body might improve metabolic health and reduce chronic disease risk. Circadian rhythms Circadian rhythms are controlled by the central clock of the brain, which coordinates biological functions with the light-dark cycle. Along with meal timing, circadian rhythms influence key elements of metabolism such as insulin sensitivity, fat storage, and glucose metabolism. When meal timing is not synchronised with the body's natural rhythm, it can cause circadian misalignment, disrupting metabolic processes and contributing to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Literature has indicated that one should eat best during the daytime, particularly synchronised with the active phase of the body. Eating late at night or in the evening when the circadian rhythm of the body is directed towards sleep could impair metabolic function and lead to weight gain, insulin resistance, and numerous other diseases. Also, having larger meals in the morning and smaller meals later in the evening has been linked to improved metabolic health, sleep quality, and even lifespan. A time-restricted eating window, in which individuals eat all meals within a approximately 10–12 hour window, holds promise for improving human health outcomes like glucose metabolism, inflammation, harmful gene expression, and weight loss ( Figure 1 ). It is necessary to consider the impact of meal timing on gene expression. Our genes react to a number of stimuli, including environmental cues like food and light exposure. Gene expression of the body's metabolic, immune, and DNA repair processes are regulated by the body's circadian clock. Disturbances in meal timing influence the expression of these genes, which may result in greater susceptibility to diseases and reduced lifespan. Certain nutrients, such as melatonin in cherries and grapes, and magnesium in leafy greens and nuts, can improve sleep quality and circadian entrainment. Omega-3 fatty acids in fatty fish and flax seeds also have been shown to regulate circadian genes and improve metabolic functions. Other species Meal timing is quite varied among species, and animals have adapted such that food-seeking behavior is entrained into circadian rhythm and environmental time cues. There are nocturnal animals which eat at night, when they are active ( Figure 2 ). These nocturnal animals have evolved to align their meal time with their period of activity to maximise metabolic efficiency and lifespan. Meal timing is optimised in these animals for night activity and digestion. Humans, and most other animals, are diurnal and consume food during the day. In these animals, consuming most of their calories during the day is conducive to metabolic processes like glucose homeostasis and fat storage. These species tend to have better metabolic health when they are on a feeding regimen that is synchronized with the natural light-dark cycle. Conclusion Meal timing is important in human health, genetics, and life expectancy. Synchronising meal times with the body's circadian rhythms optimises metabolic function, reduces chronic disease incidence, and potentially increases longevity by reducing inflammatory genes and upregulating protective ones. This altered gene expression affects the way food is metabolised and metabolic signals are acted upon by the body. Humans naturally gravitate towards eating during daytime hours, while other creatures have feeding habits that are adaptively suited to their own distinct environmental needs. It is important to consider this science and incorporate it into our schedules to receive the best outcome from an activity that we do not normally think about. Written by B. Esfandyare Related article: The chronotypes REFERENCES Meléndez-Fernández, O.H., Liu, J.A. and Nelson, R.J. (2023). Circadian Rhythms Disrupted by Light at Night and Mistimed Food Intake Alter Hormonal Rhythms and Metabolism. International Journal of Molecular Sciences , [online] 24(4), p.3392. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043392 . Paoli, A., Tinsley, G., Bianco, A. and Moro, T. (2019). The Influence of Meal Frequency and Timing on Health in Humans: The Role of Fasting. Nutrients , [online] 11(4), p.719. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30925707 . Potter, G.D.M., Cade, J.E., Grant, P.J. and Hardie, L.J. (2016). Nutrition and the circadian system. British Journal of Nutrition , [online] 116(3), pp.434–442. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114516002117 . St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, et al. Meal timing and frequency: implications for obesity prevention. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2017;11(1):7-16. Patterson RE, Sears DD. Metabolic effects of intermittent fasting. Annu Rev Nutr. 2017;37:371-393. Zhdanova IV, Wurtman RJ. Melatonin treatment for age-related insomnia. Endocrine. 2012;42(3):1-12. Prabhat, A., Batra, T. and Kumar, V. (2020). Effects of timed food availability on reproduction and metabolism in zebra finches: Molecular insights into homeostatic adaptation to food-restriction in diurnal vertebrates.Hormones and Behavior, 125, p.104820. Project Gallery

From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The fundamental engineering flaws of the Titan Submersible Last updated: 14/03/26, 20:23 Published: 03/04/25, 08:00 From the hull to the glass viewpoint- shortcuts in design On June 18, 2023, the Titan submersible made headlines when the expedition to visit the wreck of the Titanic ended in tragedy. In the North Atlantic Ocean, 3,346 metres below sea-level, the underwater vessel catastrophically imploded along with its five passengers. Two years on, this article deep dives into the key points of failure in engineering and reflects on what we can learn from the fatal incident. The Titanic and OceanGate’s mission The Titanic wreck lies around 3800 metres below sea level in the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately 370 miles off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. Since the wreckage was finally discovered in September 1985, over seven decades after the boat sank from an iceberg collision on the 15th of April 1912, less than 250 people have personally viewed the wreckage. Despite many discussions to raise the wreckage back to the surface, the complete Titanic structure has become too fragile after over a century underwater and will likely disintegrate completely over the next few decades. Hence, viewing the Titanic in person is only possible with an underwater vessel, a feat which has been achieved successfully since 1998 by a range of companies seating historians, oceanographers, and paying tourists. The Titan submersible is one such vessel developed by OceanGate Expeditions. Titan has been attempting dives to the Titanic wreck since 2017 and was first successful in 2021, when it went on to complete 13 successful dives. According to the passenger liability waiver however, this was only 13 out of 90 attempted dives (a 14% success rate), as a result of communication signal failures, structural concerns, strong currents, poor visibility, or logistical issues. On the many failed attempts, the mission was either cancelled or aborted before the Titan reached the depth of the Titanic wreck. Despite concerns raised by engineers, poor success rates in testing and simulation, as well as previous instances of the Titan spiralling out of control, OceanGate continued with their first planned dive of 2023, leading to its catastrophic implosion that claimed five lives. The Titan is the first fatality of a submersible dive to the Titanic. What went wrong: structural design When designing an underwater vessel to reach a certain depth, the body of the vessel called the hull, would need to be capable of withstanding an immense amount of pressure. For 10 metres of depth, the pressure on the submersible’s hull increases by one atmosphere (1 bar or 101kPa). To reach the wreck of the Titanic 3800 metres underwater, the hull would be required to withstand the pressure of over 38 MPa (see Figure 1 ). For perspective, this is around 380 times the pressure we feel on the surface and about 200 times the pressure of a standard car tyre. Over one square inch, this equates to nearly 2500kg. To withstand such high hydrostatic pressure, a submersible hull is normally constructed with high-strength steel and titanium alloys in a simple spherical, elliptical, or cylindrical shell. At this point we discover some of the key points of failure in the Titan. The Titan’s hull was made from Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), i.e., multiple layers of carbon fibre mixed with polymers. Carbon fibre is a high-tech and extremely desirable material for its tensile strength, strength-to-weight ratio, high chemical resistance, and temperature tolerance. The material has proven itself since the 1960’s in the aerospace, military, and motorsport industries, however the Titan was the first case of using carbon fibre for a crewed submersible. At first glance, the use of a carbon fibre hull suggests the advantage of significantly reducing the vessel's weight (50-75% lighter than titanium) while maintaining tensile strength, which will allow for a greater natural buoyancy. Without the need for added buoyancy systems, the hull would be able to hold space for more passengers at one time. As carbon fibre is cheaper than titanium and passengers pay $250,000 a seat, carbon fibre may appear to be a better business plan. However, although carbon fibre performs extremely well under tension loads, it has no resistance to compression loads (as with any fibre) unless it is infused with a polymer to hold the fibres together (see Figure 2 ). The polymer in the CFRP holding the fibres in alignment is what allows the material to resist compressive loads without bending by distributing the forces to all the fibres in the structure. This means the material is an isotropic: it is much stronger in the direction of the fibres than against (the same way wood is stronger along the grain). Therefore, individual layers of the CFRP must be oriented strategically to ensure the structure can withstand an expected load in all directions. A submersible hull intending to reach the ocean floor must withstand a tremendous compressive load, much higher than carbon fibre is typically optimised for in the aviation and automotive racing industries, and carbon fibre under such high compressive load is currently an under-researched field. Although it is likely possible for carbon fibre to be used in deep-sea vessels in the future, it would require rigorous testing and intensive research which was not done by OceanGate. Despite this, the Titan had apparently attempted 90 dives since 2017 and the repeated cycling of the carbon fibre composite at a high percentage of its yield strength would have made the vessel especially vulnerable to any defects reaching a critical level. Upon simple inspection, the Titan also raises other immediate structural concerns. Submersible hulls are usually spherical or slightly elliptical, which would allow the vessel to receive an equal amount of pressure at every point. The unique tube-shape of the Titan’s hull (see cover image) would not equally distribute pressure, and this issue was ‘addressed’ with the use of separate end-caps. The joints that attach the end-caps to the rest of the hull only introduced further structural weaknesses, which made the vessel especially vulnerable to collapsing from micro-cracks. The Titan’s glass viewpoint was another structurally unsound feature [Figure 3]. David Lochridge, the former director of OceanGate’s marine operations between 2015 and 2018 who was fired for raising concerns about the submersible’s safety features, claimed the company that made the material only certified its use down to 1300m (falling over 2000 metres short of the Titanic’s depth). The immense forces on materials without the properties to withstand the compressive pressure made the Titan’s failure inevitable. Cutting corners in the interest of business The foundation of the implosion’s cause was OceanGate’s insistence on cutting corners in Titan’s design to save time and money. The Titan was not certified for deep-sea diving by any regulatory boards and instead asked passengers to sign a waiver stating the Titan was ‘experimental’. As underwater vessels operate in international waters, there is no single official organisation to ensure ship safety standards, and it is not essential to have a vessel certified. However, many companies choose to have their ships assessed and certified by one of several organisations. According to The Marine Technology Society submarine committee, there are only 10 marine vessels capable of reaching Titanic level depths, all of which are certified except for the Titan. According to a blog post on the company website, OceanGate claimed the way that the Titan had been designed fell outside the accepted system - but it “does not mean that OceanGate does not meet standards where they apply”. The post continued that classification agencies “slowed down innovation… bringing an outside entity up to speed on every innovation before it is put into real-world testing is anathema to rapid innovation”. According to former engineers and consultants at OceanGate, the Titan’s pressure hull also did not undergo extensive full-depth pressure testing, as is standard for an underwater vessel. Carbon fibre - the primary material of the Titan’s hull - is extremely unpredictable under high compressive loads, and currently has no real way to measure fatigue. This makes it an unreliable and dangerous material to be used for deep-sea dives. OceanGate CEO Stockton Rush, who was a passenger on the Titan during its last fatal dive in 2023, described the glue holding the submersible’s structure together as “pretty simple” in a 2018 video, admitting “if we mess it up, there’s not a lot of room for recovery”. Having attempted 90 dives with a 14% success rate since 2017, it was inevitable that micro-cracks in the Titan from repeated dives, if not for the extremely sudden failure modes of carbon fibre composites, would result in the vessel's instantaneous implosion. On the 15th of July 2022 (dive 80), Titan experienced a "loud acoustic event" likely form the hull’s carbon fibre delaminating, which was heard by the passengers onboard and picked up by Titan's real-time monitoring system (RTM). Data from the RTM later revealed that the hull had permanently shifted following this event. Continued use of the Titan beyond this event without further testing of the carbon fibre - because the hull was ‘too thick’ - prevented micro-cracks and air bubbles in the epoxy resin from being discovered until it was too late. Another fundamental flaw lies in the Titan’s sole means of control being a Bluetooth gaming controller. While this is not an uncommon practice, especially in the case of allowing tourists to try controlling the vessel once it has reached its location, it is essential that there are robust secondary and even tertiary controls that are of a much higher standard. The over-reliance on wireless and touch-screen control, particularly one operating on Bluetooth which is highly sensitive to interference, was a dangerous and risky design choice. Although it was unlikely to have caused the implosion on its own, cutting corners in the electronics and controls of a vessel that needs to be operated in dangerous locations is irresponsible and unsafe. Submersibles operating at extreme depths require robust fail-safes, including emergency flotation systems and locator beacons. Again, OceanGate cut corners in developing Titan’s emergency recovery systems, using very basic methods and off-the-shelf equipment. In the event of catastrophic failure, the absence of autonomous emergency measures is fatal. With the extent of damage and poor design to the vessel’s carbon fibre hull, it was unlikely that even the most advanced emergency systems could prevent the magnitude of the implosion. Still, the carelessness displayed in almost every aspect of the submersible’s design was ultimately the cause of the fatal Titan tragedy. Conclusion In a 2019 interview, OceanGate’s former CEO Stockton Rush said: There hasn’t been an injury in the commercial sub industry in over 35 years. It’s obscenely safe because they have all these regulations. But it also hasn’t innovated or grown — because they have all these regulations. In the world of engineering, shortcuts can be catastrophic. Whilst risk-taking is undeniably essential to support innovation, Titan’s fatal tragedy was entirely preventable and unnecessary if the proper risk management techniques were employed. OceanGate had the potential to revolutionise the use of carbon fibre in deep-sea industries but consistently cutting corners and not investing in the required real-world testing, as well as the arrogance to ignore expert warnings, is what ultimately led to Titan’s story fatefully echoing the overconfidence of Titanic’s “she is unsinkable!”. Whilst regulations on submersibles tighten and research into carbon fibre is increased, it is important to take the fundamental cause of the tragic implosion as a wake-up call. Assumptions are deadly: trust the science, invest in the proper research, test every bolt, and never underestimate the ocean’s relentless power. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Engineering case study- silicon hydrogel / Superconductors / Building Physics Project Gallery

What they are, which groups are affected, and pandemic and economic impacts Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link What are health inequalities? Last updated: 05/02/26, 10:08 Published: 08/01/26, 08:00 What they are, which groups are affected, and pandemic and economic impacts This is Article 1 in a series on health inequalities. Next article: Socioeconomic health equalities . Welcome to the first article in a series of articles about health inequalities. This first article will look more in detail at exactly what health inequalities are. Introduction Imagine that you lived in Blackpool, and that your friends or family lived in Kensington. Your life expectancy would be 76 years, while theirs would be 86 years, a full decade of difference! Or consider the fact that even though men have shorter life-spans compared to women, women spend longer living with ill health or major illnesses. These are some examples of health inequalities, which are health differences between different groups of people. They aren’t just random variations in health outcomes between different groups or people: instead, they’re systematic and avoidable. What groups are affected by health inequalities? Health inequalities can be seen across various populations. A person’s health can be impacted by socioeconomic factors, like income or wealth, and geographic factors, like where they live. Other characteristics affecting health include ethnicity or gender. These factors don’t act in isolation. For individuals who experience multiple levels of disadvantage, the effects of inequalities are worsened. For example, ethnic minority groups who live in deprived areas, or socioeconomically disadvantaged women, experience even worse health outcomes. This interconnectedness means that understanding health inequalities and addressing them requires a holistic approach. Health status and health inequalities Differences in health outcomes can manifest in different ways. One indicator is health status, which includes overall life expectancy and healthy life expectancy, which is the time people live in good health. In England, there’s an almost 10-year gap in life expectancy between the most and least deprived areas, shown by the example above, where the life expectancy is 76 years in Blackpool and 86 years in Kensington. Differences in healthy life expectancy between the most and least deprived areas are even more pronounced. Healthy life expectancy is more than 18 years lower for the most deprived areas compared to the least deprived areas, as shown in Figure 1 . Males living in the most deprived areas can expect to live 52.3 years in good health, while for males living in the least deprived areas, this number increases to 70.5 years. For females, it’s 51.9 years in the most deprived areas, compared to 70.7 years in the least deprived. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on health inequalities The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated health inequalities, with those living in the most deprived areas and people from ethnic minority backgrounds being the worst impacted. For example, as the pandemic strained healthcare services, more deprived areas had longer waiting lists, highlighting issues of unequal access and quality of care. In addition, death rates in the most deprived areas were higher compared to the least deprived areas: at a deprivation level of 1 (most deprived), deaths from COVID-19 were 566.2 per 100,000, with this number decreasing to 228.7 deaths per 100,000 at a deprivation level of 10 (least deprived), as seen in Figure 2 . The economic impact of health inequalities Health inequalities can have economic impacts as a result of the added costs needed to address them. The persistence of health inequalities, particularly among the working-age population, is a challenge to economic growth, as increasing levels of ill health can lead to economic inactivity. For example, data from before COVID-19 suggests that health inequalities cost the UK £31bn to £33bn per year in lost productivity, £20bn to £32bn per year in lost tax revenue and higher benefits payments and £4.8bn of the NHS budget. This is equivalent to almost a fifth of the NHS budget. As the pandemic exacerbated inequalities, these numbers have only increased: for example, the long-term impacts of COVID-19 have varied between demographics. Given that at least 2.5 million working-age adults are unable to work due to long-term sickness, as per the Office for National Statistics estimates, this is a significant economic challenge for the country, as well as a health issue. Conclusion Health inequalities have been shown to affect different groups disproportionately, with deprivation, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and other social factors having compounding effects, resulting in poorer health and shorter healthy lives. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated these inequalities, with the most marginalised communities being the most affected. Failure to address these differences has resulted in not only human costs but also billions in lost productivity and increased burdens on health services. Socioeconomic status is one specific factor that influences health outcomes: as mentioned above, people in the most deprived areas face a gap of approximately ten years in life expectancy compared to the least deprived, seen when comparing life expectancy in Blackpool and Kensington. The next article in this series will look more in detail at socioeconomic inequalities, so watch out for that! Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: Global Health Injustices (series) Project Gallery

Due to systemic barriers like a lack of interpreting services, and discriminatory treatment, among other factors Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Ethnic Health Inequalities Last updated: 02/04/26, 18:24 Published: 05/03/26, 08:00 Due to systemic barriers like a lack of interpreting services, and discriminatory treatment, among other factors This is Article 3 in a series on health inequalities. Next article: Addressing health equalities . Previous article: S ocioeconomic health equalities . Welcome to the third article in a series of articles about health inequalities. This article will look more in detail at what ethnic health inequalities are. Introduction Ethnic health inequalities are persistent disparities in health outcomes, experiences of healthcare, and even employment within the healthcare sector itself, for ethnic minority groups. Individuals from minority ethnicities frequently face an increased risk of poor health compared to their White counterparts. These inequalities are often rooted in structural racism and the racialisation of socioeconomic factors, rather than biological or cultural differences, suggesting that racism itself is a primary determinant of health. They are exacerbated by differences in socioeconomic status and deprivation. These inequalities manifest in different ways for different minority groups, and can be measured by specific health outcomes in different conditions. How ethnic health inequalities manifest A joint report by the Health Foundation and Runnymede Trust explained that Bangladeshi and Pakistani individuals have higher mortality rates for circulatory diseases. They also have significantly higher rates of metabolic conditions compared to their White counterparts. This predominantly includes diabetes, which is three to five times more common in Bangladeshi and Pakistani individuals. This is a result of both genetic factors and lifestyle and diet factors, the latter of which can be influenced by socioeconomic status; the report explains that Bangladeshi and Pakistani individuals are much more likely to be in poverty or deep poverty, impacting their ability to afford health-improving goods, such as nutritious food. As they are also more likely to live in deprived areas compared to their White counterparts, Bangladeshi and Pakistani individuals often face the dual challenge of food deserts and food swamps. This means they lack access to affordably priced, high-quality groceries while being surrounded by an overabundance of cheap junk food. In addition, research collated by the King’s Fund shows that Black Caribbean and Black African individuals experience higher rates of hypertension and stroke, and have higher rates of admission to psychiatric hospitals with psychotic illness diagnoses. This is also driven by an array of factors, including lifestyle and diet, but also socioeconomic status and deprivation. Maternal mortality for Black women is almost three times higher than for White women, partly due to socioeconomic factors, as well as underlying health conditions. Furthermore, Office for National Statistics data from 2022 shows that infant mortality is tragically twice as high for Black infants and nearly twice as high for Asian infants compared with White infants, as seen in Figure 1 . Again, this is partly due to higher socioeconomic deprivation, among other factors. Experiences of ethnic health inequalities and the role of structural and institutional racism Even though the NHS generally provides free universal access to primary care, access to and experience of healthcare services for ethnic minority groups often differ compared to their White counterparts. The NHS Race and Health Observatory has conducted research on racism and has found that there are disparities in areas like hospital and dental services: for example, there aren’t enough interpreting services for those whose first language is not English, which limits effective communication between patients and healthcare professionals. This also makes it harder for patients to stick to their treatments. Repeated negative experiences have led to a lack of trust in the health system among some ethnic minority communities. Patients from these groups consistently report less favourable experiences across various services, as seen in Figure 2 . A review by the UCL Institute of Health Equity reported that some indicators of this are longer waits for GP appointments, needing multiple visits before cancer referral, and overall lower satisfaction with hospital and mental health care. This poor experience is often characterised by stereotyping, disrespect, cultural insensitivity, and discriminatory treatment from healthcare staff, leading to delayed diagnoses, inappropriate interventions, and poorer health outcomes. The review also explained that these systemic issues can manifest in the NHS workforce, where ethnic minority staff face discrimination and harassment, impacting morale, retention, and ultimately the quality of care provided to patients. Conclusion Ethnic health inequalities, like all other types of health inequalities, are avoidable, unfair, and systematic failures. They have persistent impacts across different ethnic groups, leading to poorer health outcomes. Beyond clinical outcomes, ethnic minority patients also encounter systemic barriers such as a lack of interpreting services and discriminatory treatment, including stereotyping and cultural insensitivity, leading to a breakdown of trust in the healthcare system. These issues impact everything from GP wait times to the morale of the NHS workforce, where ethnic minority staff face discrimination that can ultimately impact the quality of care provided. It’s important to note that other factors like lifestyle, diet, genetics, and socioeconomic backgrounds have a part to play; however, the examples in this article are strongly influenced by systemic disadvantage due to bias and racism, as well as the above factors. Therefore, a comprehensive strategy which considers the impacts of all these factors is needed to remove these barriers and provide equitable care for everyone. The next article will be the final article in the series, and will look more in detail at how to address health inequalities, so watch out for that! Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Eelam Tamil health impacts / Rohingya community / Syria and Lebanon health injustices Project Gallery

The neural pathways behind movement Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Mastering motion- reflex, rhythmic and complex movements Last updated: 12/03/25, 11:49 Published: 03/04/25, 08:00 The neural pathways behind movement Introduction Movement is arguably the most fundamental aspect of human behaviour and is one of the most obvious features distinguishing plants and animals. The ability to physically respond to stimuli has enhanced our chances of survival an immeasurable amount. As such, our body’s ability to move has evolved and refined itself over many millennia, even developing new ways to move that protect us in many ways. For example, involuntary reflexes have reduced the computational demand on our brain to move parts of our body away from hot or painful objects, making the process almost instantaneous. Meanwhile, central pattern generators (CPGs) in our spinal cord have also reduced cognitive load by carrying out subconscious movement. This has allowed the motor cortex and cerebellum to focus on planning, coordinating, and refining purposeful movements in response to sensory feedback. While movement can be separated into even more categories, understanding the neural pathways of these three types can be beneficial to uncover core concepts of human neurophysiology, and even pave the way for treating movement disabilities. With that said, let’s take a deep dive into the circuitry and principles of reflex, rhythmic, and voluntary movement. Reflex movements Reflex movements are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli that are commonly used to help us avoid danger or harm. An example includes touching a hot object and immediately jerking our hand away from it. The goal of this form of movement is to be as quick as possible in order to avoid injury. As such the neural pathway, known as a reflex arc, is simple and can take as few as three neurons. Firstly, sensory receptors detect a stimulus, such as heat, and send a signal up towards the central nervous system (CNS) through sensory neurons. Instead of going up to the brain for processing and movement planning, the sensory neuron connects with a relay neuron in the spinal cord, and then to motor neurons. This reduces the time taken to respond as it bypasses the brain’s processing circuitry. Motor neurons then carry a signal to relevant muscles to contract and move the body away from danger. Because the signal from the sensory receptors bypasses the brain, this movement is subconscious, meaning it happens without consciously deciding to move. This makes the movement rapid and stereotyped – the motion is predictable as there is minimal planning; just a need to move anywhere away from the stimulus. Central Pattern Generators (CPGs) CPGs are networks of neurons in the spinal cord that, when activated, produce rhythmic pattern-like movement such as walking or running. This type of movement is also subconscious as it does not require active focus to perform. However, unlike reflex movements, CPG output does not require sensory activation or feedback. Instead CPGs are activated by descending pathways from the medulla – a region of the brainstem that is responsible for performing involuntary movement. CPGs typically control movements that are necessary for survival such as breathing and heartbeats. The lack of need to consciously focus on these movements allows us to instead direct our attention to more complex situations, such as responding to stimuli or achieving a specific goal. This is where voluntary movements are required. Voluntary movements Any movement performed via conscious decision-making requires activity from a range of areas in the brain. To respond to our environment, we firstly need information on what is around us. This is largely handled by the frontal lobe which perceives our external environment through sensory input and attention. Human fMRI studies have highlighted increased activity in the frontal lobe as we switch our attention, thus perceiving different parts of our external environment. This information of our environment is sent to the motor cortex which plans our next movement. Complex multi-limb movements may require additional processing from premotor and association areas. Once the movement has been planned, it then has to pass through the cerebellum, which refines specific parts of the movement, such as precise finger motion. After refinement, the movement signal is then sent to relevant muscles via motor neurons to carry out the intended movement. An example of a complex movement is reaching out and grabbing an object. This seemingly simple task requires coordinated movement of the hand, arm, shoulder, and torso to ensure we move our arm the right amount – not too far so that we go past the object, and not too near so that we do not reach it. This also requires great precision to grab the object with appropriate force, to gain a firm grip while ensuring we do not break the object. A lot of planning goes into rudimentary movements, and yet sometimes we can still get things wrong. For instance, suppose we couldn’t see the object too well so we end up going too far and missing it. This will be picked up by our sensory organs, giving our brain feedback on what we ended up doing. By comparing the actual movement with our intended movement, we can create an error signal of how far we missed and in what direction. This drives learning – by using our previous errors, we can refine our future movements to eventually achieve our intended goal. In this example, we may learn that we keep extending our arm too far, and so with repetitive trials we eventually move the right amount in order to grab the object, as we intended. The cerebellum is largely seen as responsible for motor learning, however the deep underlying mechanism is still being researched. When the same complex movement is performed again and again, it can be trained to become subconscious movements activated by spinal CPGs, gradually requiring less coordination from the motor cortex to perform. This is how common movements such as walking, go from being a strenuous task as a toddler to a simple ability requiring minimal focus as an adult. Conclusion Overall, we can see a general trend of movements requiring more parts of the CNS as they become more complex. Precise, unfamiliar movements requiring multiple limbs are the most complex, thus recruiting decision-making and motor coordination areas in order to perform. By repeating an action again and again, we can train ourselves to perform it with less and less input from higher brain regions, until it eventually becomes a subconscious coordinated act that can be performed on demand. Written by Ramim Rahman Related articles: Dopamine in the movement pathway / Mobility disorders REFERENCES Dickinson, P.S. (2006) ‘Neuromodulation of central pattern generators in invertebrates and vertebrates’, Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 16(6), pp. 604–614. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.10.007. Latash, M.L. (2020) Physics of biological action and perception . London, United Kingdom: Academic Press. Brent Cornell (no date) BioNinja . Available at: https://old ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-a-neurobiology-and/a4-innate-and-learned-behav/reflex-arcs.html (Accessed: 11 February 2025). Berni, D.J. (2023) The motor system , Introduction to Biological Psychology . Available at: https://openpress.sussex.ac.uk/introductiontobiologicalpsychology/chapter/the-motor-system/ (Accessed: 11 February 2025). Rossi, A.F. et al. (2008) ‘The prefrontal cortex and the executive control of attention’, Experimental Brain Research , 192(3), pp. 489–497. doi:10.1007/s00221-008-1642 z. Project Gallery

The newest pillar of chemical research Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Not all chemists wear white coats: computational organic chemistry Last updated: 01/02/26, 20:04 Published: 05/02/26, 08:00 The newest pillar of chemical research Introduction 'Not all chemists wear white coats,' aptly describes the newest pillar of chemical research. Coined by the Royal Society of Chemistry, computational modelling has become an essential tool across all areas of traditional chemistry. As artifical intelligence (AI) and machine learning become increasingly prevalent in research, the future of chemistry may unfold computationally before ever touching a test tube. Given the breadth of the field, this article will focus specifically on computational advancements in organic chemistry. Analytical Chemistry Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a quantum computational method that models molecules based upon the distribution of their electron density. It can be utilised by organic chemists to determine the stereochemistry of a product by modelling Vibrational Circular Dichroism spectra (VCD). VCD is a spectroscopic technique which measures the difference in absorption of left versus right-handed circularly polarised light by chiral molecules. By using DFT to compute the VCD spectra of each enantiomer, chemists can compare them to experimental spectra. A match between the compound and the experimental spectrum indicates an accurate assignment of the molecule’s stereochemistry. See Figure 1 . Predicting molecular conformation While the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog naming system allows chemists to describe the 3D arrangement of a molecule, computational analysis can help predict which molecular shape is preferred in practice. Molecular Mechanics (MM) is a computational method that treats molecules using classical physics, modelling atoms and bonds as ‘balls’ connected by ‘strings’. A force field is used to calculate the potential energy of a molecule, accounting for bond stretching, angle bending, bond rotation, van der Waals interactions and electrostatic forces. A simple example of how this method supports organic chemistry is the determination of the most stable conformation of butane. By rotating the central C-C bond through 360°, the energy of each conformation can be plotted against the dihedral angle. This analysis shows that the anti-conformation is the most stable, as the two methyl groups are positioned 180° apart to minimise steric strain. See Figure 2 . Drug discovery Computational chemistry has also transformed drug discovery by enabling chemists to simulating how potential drug compounds will bind to their target active site. In the past, drug development has often relied on synthesising a large number of candidates and testing each experimentally to see which worked. Today, advances in computational chemistry, combined with X-ray crystallographic data, allows both a drug candidate and its protein binding site to be modelled before any lab work begins. This helps researchers save both time and resources. Known as structural based drug design, this approach commonly relies on hybrid computational methods, particularly Quantum Mechanics/ Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM). In this case, the chemically active regions, such as the drug molecule and protein active site are treated using QM while the rest of the proteins is treated using MM. By combining these techniques, a balance is struck between computational accuracy and calculation time, especially important for larger molecules. See Figure 3. Conclusion In conclusion, computational chemistry is an essential tool for interpreting experimental results and generating new scientific insight. While this article has focused on its role in supporting organic chemistry research, the reach of computational chemistry extends far beyond this field. From modelling batteries and solid state materials to organometallic catalysis, computational chemistry is now firmly embedded in modern chemical research. Written by Antony Lee Related articles: Quantum- chemistry , computing REFERENCES The Royal Society of Chemistry - https://edu.rsc.org/resources/not-all-chemists-wear- white-coats/1654.article (Accessed January 2026) Y.L. Zeng, X.Q. Huang, C.R. Huang, H. Zhang, F. Wang, Z.X. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 10730-10735 Chemistry LibreTexts https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_%28Mor sch_et_al.%29/03%3A_Organic_Compounds_Alkanes_and_Their_Stereochemistry/3.07% 3A_Conformations_of_Other_Alkanes (Accessed January 2026) Ecole des Bio-Industries - https://www.ebi-edu.com/en/coup-de-coeur-research-9/ (Accessed January 2026) Project Gallery

Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Basics of transformer physics Last updated: 01/10/25, 11:49 Published: 24/04/25, 08:00 Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law Transformers have been around for decades. No, not the robots from the science fiction film franchise, although that would be amazing. Rather, the huge, technologically complex metal box-like things that play a key role in the electrical grid. You have likely seen transformers hidden behind extensive fencing, cabling, and ‘Danger! High Voltage!’ warning signs. These areas are not exactly accessible to tourists. Transformers play a crucial part in providing power to everything from your electric toothbrush to heating for your house to giant factories and just about anything in between. So it may come as a surprise that since their invention in the late 1800s, very little about them has changed. There are a number of different types of transformers that vary depending on voltage level, end user, location, etc. However, this article will only cover conventional transformers or, more specifically, the basic physics concepts behind how a typical transformer works. For those without a physical or electrical background, transformers can seem impossible to understand, but there are only two physics laws you need to understand: Ampere’s Law and Faraday’s Law. Ampere’s Law When charged particles like electrons flow in a particular direction, such as through a wire, this is an electric current . The moving charged particles affect the energy surrounding the wire, and we call this changing energy a magnetic field . Ampere’s Law mathematically describes the relationship between the flowing electrical current and the resultant magnetic field. The more intense the electrical current is, the stronger the magnetic field. Faraday’s Law Faraday’s Law allows us to predict how the magnetic field and the electrical current will interact. This interaction produces an electromotive force , which essentially means that as a magnetic field changes over time, it produces a force that creates or induces an electrical current. Basic physics of the transformer core Conventional transformers harness both Ampere’s Law and Faraday’s law in its core. The core is made of sheets of silicon steel, also known as electrical steel, that are very carefully stacked together. They are manufactured to form a square-like closed loop. A wire is wound on one side of the square loop, which carries the input current from the power source. On the opposite side of the square loop, a second wire is wound, which carries the output current leading farther downstream into the electrical grid. This may be to a ‘load’ or endpoint for the current, i.e. a house, warehouse, etc. Wire 1, carrying the input current, is not physically connected to Wire 2, the output current. These are two completely different wires. Ampere’s Law + Faraday’s Law is used to create, or induce , the output current in Wire 2. Recall that a moving electrical current creates a magnetic field. This is what occurs on the side of the core with Wire 1. The input current flows along Wire 1 as it coils around that side of the core, and a strong magnetic field is produced. For all intents and purposes, we can say that Wire 2 is ‘empty’, meaning that there is no input current here - it is not connected to a power source. However, as the current in Wire 1 produces a magnetic field, this field affects the energy around Wire 2 and induces a current in Wire 2, which then flows out of the transformer farther into the electrical grid. While there are different types of transformers with varying core configurations as well as additional complex physics to consider during manufacturing, it is too extensive to consider in this article. However, the processes described here form the basis of conventional transformer physics. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: Wireless electricity Project Gallery

Examining disconnection strategies and Functional Group Interconversion (FGI) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Molecular blueprints: the art of synthetic planning Last updated: 05/03/26, 14:47 Published: 19/02/26, 08:00 Examining disconnection strategies and Functional Group Interconversion (FGI) This is article no. 1 in a two-part series on retrosynthesis. Next article: Synthesis of ibuprofen . Introduction Science is often seen as rigid, driven solely by facts and logic. Yet, in the world of chemical synthesis, molecular design and retrosynthetic analysis can be considered an art form. Synthetic creativity can be measured by the number of steps, environmental considerations, or the clever assembly of chemical building blocks. Widely used in the pharmaceutical industry and responsible for many Nobel Prize‑winning discoveries, retrosynthetic planning is central to modern synthetic chemistry. 1. Disconnection Strategy Retrosynthesis begins with deconstructing a target molecule into simpler starting materials known as synthons. A synthon is hypothetical but represents a fragment that could react to form a target molecule. Chemists then match synthons to real‑life equivalents (R.L.E.) which can be used in the lab. For example, if a target molecule contains an ester group, cleaving the oxygen–carbonyl bond produces four possible synthons ( Figure 1 ). Of these synthons, the positively charged oxygen has no R.L.E., so pairing the negatively charged oxygen with a carbonyl‑containing R.L.E., such as a carboxylic acid or acid chloride, and an alcohol will effectively synthesise the desired ester. 2. Functional Group Interconversion (FGI) FGIs are exploited by chemists when a functional group is difficult to manipulate directly. In these cases, the target functional group is converted to another functional group which is easier to work with. For instance, this strategy is commonly used to synthesise alkene and carboxylic acid fragments. As alkenes mainly participate in addition reactions, forming C–C bonds can prove difficult; therefore, converting the alkene to an alkyne can make this simpler. As an alkyne‑to‑alkene transformation is relatively simple, using either Lindlar’s catalyst (Z‑alkene) or Na/NH₃ (E‑alkene), alkynes can be used to build up the carbon chain before a final reduction. This is done by simple nucleophilic substitutions promoted by base deprotonation (NaNH₂) of the alkyne. The same idea is used for installing carboxylic acids, as a common FGI is to use a nitrile group (CN). These can be easily transformed back to the target carboxylic acid using acid in aqueous conditions. 3. Synthesis of Aspirin Retrosynthetic analysis can be used to design synthetic routes to common pharmaceuticals. For aspirin, a good disconnection strategy would be to break the ester bond and derive R.L.E. as shown above. To install the carboxylic acid, an FGI can be used. In Figure 3, two possible syntheses are highlighted utilising these strategies. While the synthetic methods presented previously will produce aspirin in high yields, they often create large amounts of waste and use harsh acidic conditions. Bhuyan et al. have proposed a more sustainable synthesis using blue LED light to catalyse the reaction under an O₂ atmosphere ( Figure 4) . Conclusion In conclusion, retrosynthesis and synthetic planning are essential tools for designing complex molecules. While the disconnection strategy and FGIs are relatively simple concepts, their application is used routinely in both industry and academia, regardless of the complexity of the target molecule. While one strategy may be used routinely, there are often many more ways to synthesise a particular compound more efficiently or with more flair. Stay tuned for Part 2, where the techniques discussed here are applied to the synthesis of ibuprofen. Written by Antony Lee Project Gallery

The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Looking at the rare earth elements Last updated: 23/02/26, 21:36 Published: 26/02/26, 08:00 The advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs Introduction President Trump said in reference to a proposed minerals deal with Ukraine: We're telling Ukraine they have very valuable rare earths. Over the past few decades, the technological revolution has expanded the applications of the rare earth elements (REEs) from modern electronics to renewable energy sources. Despite the name, the REEs are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, but their perceived scarcity is centred around difficulties in extracting and processing. As REE refining is currently monopolised by China, access to these materials is a constant source of geopolitical tension. The REEs comprise the lanthanide series as well as scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y), and are characterised by the similarity of their chemical properties. Therefore, this article aims to introduce some of the fundamental chemistry of the rare earth elements to contextualise their role in modern technologies. Chemical properties of the REEs Scandium and yttrium are considered “honorary lanthanides,” as they form highly ionic, charge‑dense +3 cations when ionised. However, as they are transition metals, their properties cannot be explained by considering the f‑orbitals. The f‑orbitals are a set of seven orbitals which can hold a maximum of 14 electrons. For the lanthanides, each element has a set of 4f and 6s valence orbitals, with cerium (Ce),lanthanum (La), gadolinium (Gd), and lutetium (Lu) also having an occupied 5d¹ orbital. The 4f orbitals are generally contracted because of the nuclear charge felt by the electrons in these orbitals. As the atomic radius across the period decreases, this contraction is felt more strongly, meaning the resulting ions become more charge‑dense. This phenomenon is known as the lanthanide contraction. The contracted nature of the 4f orbitals explains why the lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 oxidation state (O.S). The 4f electrons are strongly attracted to the nucleus, making them energetically unfavourable to remove. Therefore, once the two 6s electrons and one 4f (or sometimes 5d) electron are removed, further ionisation becomes much more difficult. This is reflected by the ionisation potentials of the lanthanides ( Figure 1 ). However, some lanthanides can form stable +2 O.S (samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), and ytterbium (Yb)), while Ce can form a +4 O.S ( Figure 2 ). This is because of the electronic configurations of these elements. For example, Eu has an electronic configuration of [Xe] 4f⁷ 6s²; therefore, by removing two electrons, the ion becomes exchange‑energy stabilised (Eu²⁺ [Xe] 4f⁷). Another notable property of the lanthanides is their large magnetic moments. This again is a consequence of the 4f orbitals. Magnetism is determined by the number of unpaired electrons an element has and its orbital angular momentum. Orbital angular momentum is an intrinsic property and becomes more prevalent with larger elements. Therefore, as the 4f orbitals can hold up to seven unpaired electrons, coupled with the intrinsic heaviness of the lanthanides, they often exhibit strong magnetic behaviour. Applications Catalytic Converters As previously mentioned, most lanthanides preferentially adopt a +3 O.S, Ce being a key exception due to its ability to cycle between +3 and +4. This property makes Ce particularly valuable in catalytic converters — vehicle exhaust devices which help reduce emissions of toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO). Using CeO₂ as a catalyst, CO₂ and N₂ are generated as less harmful by‑products ( Figure 2 ). Chemical Reagents The redox flexibility of certain lanthanides is also exploited in organic chemistry. Ce(IV) and Sm(II) compounds serve as effective oxidising and reducing agents respectively. Reagents such as ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) and cerium ammonium sulphate (CAS) are frequently used as selective oxidants, while samarium bromide (SmBr₂) is an effective reductant. MRI & Chiral Shift Reagents The magnetic properties of the lanthanides can be exploited in medical imaging, particularly in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Prior to an MRI scan, patients may be injected with a gadolinium (Gd³⁺) complex, such as [Gd(DTPA)]²⁻ ( Figure 4 ), to enhance image contrast. By coordinating water molecules and increasing the proton relaxation rate, these complexes cause certain regions of tissue to appear brighter and more easily distinguishable. Chemically, this principle is utilised when NMR spectroscopy is conducted in the laboratory. Fundamentally, MRI and NMR machines work in the same way, so by adding small quantities of paramagnetic lanthanide reagents to a proton NMR sample, changes in the chemical shift can be induced. These “lanthanide shift reagents” increase the proton relaxation rate, which reduces signal overlap and allows specific proton environments to be more easily identified. Commonly used lanthanide reagents include Eu³⁺ and Pr³⁺ complexes. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of recent technology has driven a surge in the use of the REEs. While chemically similar, each element has a broad range of diverse applications, whether as magnets, reagents, or even phosphors in TV sets. Certain to dominate geopolitics for the foreseeable future, understanding the chemistry and applications of the REEs has never been more important. Written by Antony Lee Project Gallery

Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia Last updated: 06/11/25, 11:54 Published: 29/05/25, 08:00 Rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, like outcrops, cliffs and caves This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series on animal conservation. Previous article: Emperor penguins, kings of ice . First article: 55 years of vicuna conservation . Australia is home to many unique mammals because they have evolved in geographic isolation for millennia. Over 200 years ago, European colonists brought their own mammals to Australia, devastating this unique wildlife in ways that can still be seen today. One example is the rock-wallabies ( Petrogale spp. ), a group of 25 animal species and subspecies related to kangaroos. Australian scientists are monitoring rock-wallaby populations to ensure they remain safe from natural and human-caused threats. This article will describe those threats and how rock wallabies are being conserved. Rock-wallaby habitat As their name suggests, rock-wallabies are adapted to occupy specific rocky habitats, including outcrops, cliffs and caves. Since they are primarily nocturnal, these habitats provide shelter in the daytime. Rock-wallabies have modified foot pads to grip tricky surfaces and access places their predators cannot. Recent research found that for two rock-wallaby species, their abundance is associated with more complex and rocky habitats. Because their habitat type is so niche and they rarely migrate, one small disturbance could wipe out an entire rock-wallaby population. This is reflected by their protections under Australian law: five types of rock-wallaby are classified as ‘vulnerable’, six as ‘endangered’, and one as ‘critically endangered’. Thus, the complex habitat of rock-wallabies is both a blessing and a curse. Threats to rock-wallabies Rock-wallabies are vulnerable or endangered mainly because of invasive predators such as foxes, cats, and goats. After being introduced from Europe during colonisation, these predators have eaten many wallabies and scared the rest into foraging elsewhere. If predators live between two rock-wallaby populations, there will be less migration and interbreeding, reducing overall genetic health ( Figure 1 ). In addition, rock-wallabies will not forage if predators are in an area, so they have limited food sources under high pressure ( Figure 1 ). Combined with these indirect reasons, direct predation by invasive mammals is the biggest threat to rock-wallaby survival. Invasive predators are not the only threats to rock-wallaby populations. Wildfires kill the plants that wallabies rely on for food and shelter, such as rock figs. For example, one wildfire in the 2019/2020 season destroyed about 38% of brush-tailed rock-wallaby habitat. The already dwindling rock-wallaby populations may disappear if the climate crisis makes wildfires less predictable and more severe. Native herbivores like the euro and invasive herbivores like goats may also compete with rock-wallabies for food. There is evidence that euros out-compete rock-wallabies when food supplies are limited, but no evidence for goats yet. Thus, fires and competition combine with invasive predators to endanger rock-wallabies. Translocation and monitoring Monitoring existing rock-wallaby populations and creating new ones by translocation are reducing the threats of predation, fire, and competition. Brush-tailed rock-wallabies were translocated to Grampians National Park in 2008, but most animals died by 2013. Scientists thought manually handling wallabies might make them stressed and more vulnerable to predators. From 2014 onwards, non-invasive monitoring procedures like cameras and faecal DNA monitoring reduced predation and increased the survival rate of young rock-wallabies. Meanwhile, black-flanked rock-wallabies were being translocated from four different source populations to Kalbarri National Park, hoping they would interbreed and create a new genetically diverse population. The project was successful, as microsatellite genotyping found that the translocated population had more heterozygotes and more alleles per locus than the source populations ( Figure 2 ). This population is predicted to grow until at least 2028 because it is diverse enough to avoid the inbreeding mentioned earlier. The Grampians and Kalbarri translocations show the importance of careful monitoring and genetic considerations for conserving rock-wallabies. Conclusion After invasive mammalian predators have decimated rock-wallaby populations throughout Australia for over 200 years, wildfires and herbivore competition make survival even more difficult. Conservation efforts are made harder by the specific and limited habitats that rock-wallabies need. However, translocation efforts which consider genetic diversity and the stress of manual handling keep rock-wallaby populations afloat. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Wildlife corridors REFERENCES Campbell, I. & Woods, S. (2013) Wildlife of Australia . Princeton, UNITED STATES: Princeton University Press. Kleemann, S., Sandow, D., Stevens, M., Schultz, D.J., Taggart, D.A. & Croxford, A. (2022) Non-invasive monitoring and reintroduction biology of the brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) in the Grampians National Park, Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology . 69 (2): 41–54. Available from: https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo/ZO21009 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Lavery, T.H., Eldridge, M., Legge, S., Pearson, D., Southwell, D., Woinarski, J.C.Z., Woolley, L.-A. & Lindenmayer, D. (2021) Threats to Australia’s rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.) with key directions for effective monitoring. Biodiversity and Conservation . 30 (14): 4137–4161. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02315-3 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Morris, S.D., Johnson, C.N. & Brook, B.W. (2020) Roughing it: terrain is crucial in identifying novel translocation sites for the vulnerable brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale pencillata). Royal Society Open Science . 7 (12): 201603. Available from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.201603 (Accessed 10th December 2024). Nilsson, K., Pearson, D., Paxman, M., Desmond, A., Kennington, J., Byrne, M. & Ottewell, K. (2023) Translocations restore a population of a threatened rock-wallaby and bolster its genetic diversity. Conservation Genetics . 24 (5): 547–561. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-023-01520-7 (Accessed 9th December 2024). Silcock, J.L., Gynther, I.C., Horsup, A., Molyneux, J., Wattz, T.L., Fairfax, R.J., Healy, A.J., Murphy, D. & McRae, P.D. (2024) Half a century of survey data reveal population recovery but persistent threats for the Vulnerable yellow-footed rock-wallaby in Queensland, Australia. Oryx . 1–13. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/half-a-century-of-survey-data-reveal-population-recovery-but-persistent-threats-for-the-vulnerable-yellowfooted-rockwallaby-in-queensland-australia/D976E61ABE458B9FADA059372117382E (Accessed 10th December 2024). Project Gallery